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and Furnham 2008), the socio-cultural environment can also influence perceptions of attractiveness (Cafri et al. 2005). The Tripartite Influence Model (Thompson et al. 1999) argues that beauty ideals are reinforced and transmitted by three primary sociocultural influences: peers, parents, and the media. These influences are mediated by two factors, namely internalisation of appearance ideals and appearance comparison. Internalisation occurs when a person has accepted societies’ beauty ideals and engages in behaviours to achieve that ideal. Appearance comparison relates to people evaluating and directly comparing themselves to others based on how they look. It is proposed that if a person internalizes beauty ideals about appearances (i.e. those depicted by the media or reinforced by parents) that s/he cannot live up to and/or habitually engages in appearance comparison (e.g. with peers), this can create problems with body image such as body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al. 1999). The media exerts a strong influence on societies’ ideas about body image i.e. what body-type one should have, what one should wear, primarily through the conveyance of messages focused on the ‘ideal body’ in magazines, newspapers and TV. Whilst the effects of media messages on women’s body image have been examined using various forms of traditional media, including television and magazines (Groesz et al. 2002), less is known about how newer forms, such as social media, influence their perceptions. The Influence of Social Media on Body Image In today’s society the importance of physical appearance as dictated by the media is arguably more persuasive than ever, especially among younger people and through newer forms of media such as Social Networking Sites (SNS) (Fardouly and * Eva G. Krumhuber e.krumhuber@ucl.ac.uk 1 Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK 2 University of Illinois, Champaign, IL, USA 3 University College London, London, UK Current Psychology https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00282-1 Vartanian 2016). Instagram is a free social networking platform, allowing users to edit and share photos and videos through a mobile app. In comparison to other SNS, such as Facebook and Twitter, Instagram revolves around images and less so on the written text. The visual, picture-orientated nature of SNS, especially Instagram, encourages users to view and comment on the pictures that other users display on their profiles (Pempek et al. 2009). One’s physical appearance can play an important role in whether other users look at and comment on these pictures. For example, Ringrose (2011) found that British teenage girls reported that they frequently received comments about their physical attractiveness through their social media profile. Hence, how we are perceived on SNS can influence the perception of our appearance and, in some instances, may encourage people to want to do something about it (De Vries et al. 2014). For example, people may engage in low-level appearance change, such as dying their hair, altering the clothes they wear or changing how they apply their make-up. In other instances, the changes may be more long-lasting and dramatic, such as those brought about by cosmetic enhancements. In such cases, these changes can have severe consequences for their psycho-physical functioning as the physical changes may influence their well-being for better or worse (Castle et al. 2002). Social media use is widespread across Britain and is a pervasive aspect of young adults’ daily lives. The Office for National Statistics (2017) found that the most popular use of the internet for adults aged 16–24 years (96%) and 25– 34 years (88%) is social networking. However, the ubiquitous influence of social media is not always positive. Increased social media use has been related to more body image concerns and eating disorders (Holland and Tiggemann 2016). Other research has suggested that Instagram is one of the most detrimental social media platforms for young people’s mental health and wellbeing (The Royal Society for Public Health 2017). Similarly, a study by Brown and Tiggemann (2016) found that viewing pictures of attractive celebrities and peers on Instagram has a negative effect on women’s mood and body image. Together, these findings would suggest that high usage of SNS, especially picture-based ones, can be harmful for certain individuals in regard to their body image and psychosocial functioning, such as lowered self-esteem and increased risk of depression and anxiety (Brown and Tiggemann 2016; Holland and Tiggemann 2016; The Royal Society for Public Health 2017). In line with the increasing trend in social media use, there is also an increasing number of young people having cosmetic procedures, reportedly rising from 17.2% in 2014 to 18.2% in 2017 (American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery 2017). Cosmetic surgery involves the Bmaintenance, restoration or enhancement of one’s physical appearance through surgical and medical techniques^ (Swami et al. 2009, p. 1). Cosmetic surgery differs from reconstructive surgery in that the latter is a surgical procedure done to restore function or normal appearance. It is often performed on abnormal structures of the body such as those caused by trauma or infection. In contrast, cosmetic
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