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with and cooperate with attractive people (Mulford et al.). Physical attractiveness has also been found to be important in dating relationships. Regarding bodily appearance, studies have shown that being overweight is stigmatizing (Frost, 2003) and that people associate traits such as laziness, sloppiness and stupidity with being overweight (Ross, 1994; Wang, Brownell, & Wadden, 2004). Cosmetic Surgery Throughout Western history, reconstructive surgery, referring specifically to surgeries performed to correct physical deformities or defects on the human body, has been used to camouflage scars, hide physical deterioration caused by diseases such as advanced syphilis or HIV/AIDS and correct birth defects such as cleft palates (Gillman, 1999). After World War I plastic surgery was used on disfiguring scar tissue resulting from burns (Gillman). The social acceptance of reconstructive surgery among medical professionals was based in the wartime emphasis on self-sufficiency – “the need for economic independence [the ability to earn a living] was one of the factors that made a patient’s condition [their non-presentable appearance] worthy of medical attention” (Haiken, 1997, p. 38). Surgeons were then faced with the challenge of defining limits; if improving someone’s appearance could improve his/her life or economic dependence, would he/she, too, not be suitable candidates for surgery? Such challenges and the increased value in American culture placed on beauty – especially for women – made the quest for beauty necessary rather than simply desirable. Such trends motivated the evolution of cosmetic, rather than reconstructive, surgery (Haiken). Aesthetic or cosmetic surgery refers to medical and/or surgical techniques performed to enhance physical appearance (Gillman, 1999; Haiken, 1997; Wilson, 1992). Unlike reconstructive surgery, there is no medical justification for cosmetic surgery (Wilson). Such surgeries can be invasive, performed by a doctor and involving a surgical operation, or non-invasive, procedures such as laser hair removal or microdermabrasion Rosemary Ricciardelli and Philip White 953 that are performed in beauty salons. Early in the 1900s, many surgeons believed that cosmetic surgery itself contradicted the fundamental principle of the medical system by putting healthy patients at risk (Haiken). Over time, as more surgeons began to incorporate cosmetic procedures into their practice – as a method to improve the overall mental, physical and social health of their patients – a new range of optional medical treatments were created and available for purchase (Haiken). Now in the 21st century, cosmetic surgery is viewed as another way of seeking self-improvement (Haiken). Despite the paucity of systematically collected data, cosmetic surgery has been growing in popularity in North America (American Society of Plastic Surgeons [ASPS], 2007; Medicard, 2003). Canadian surgeons noted in 1996 an increase of roughly 35 percent in the number of surgeries performed on Canadian men since the late 1980s (Medicard). Relative to females, male clients have more than doubled in recent decades to comprise between a quarter and a third of people electing to have surgery (Medicard). Beyond descriptive data on male cosmetic surgery, however, research has not explored the lived experiences of men who want to have, or have had, cosmetic surgery. Extant research on elective surgical procedures has focused primarily on the experiences of women (Balsamo, 1996; Davis, 2003; Morgan, 1991; Wolf, 1991). Statistics on non-surgical and surgical cosmetic enhancements performed in Canada are somewhat limited. The 2003 Medicard survey, the most comprehensive source for such data in Canada, found that, without including cosmetic procedures that were not surgical (e.g., chemical peels and laser procedures) “there were over 302,000 surgical and non-surgical cosmetic enhancements performed in Canada, an increase of nearly 60,000 procedures or 24.6% from 2002” (Medicard). In 2003, predominantly women underwent cosmetic enhancement procedures (85.5%), while men only underwent 14.5% of all cosmetic treatments. The motivations behind the growth of cosmetic surgery among men remain open to debate. The stresses of living in risk society and regaining a sense of personal control through bodywork is congruent with Featherstone’s (1991) argument that men’s participation in cosmetic surgery is rooted in the seductions of consumer culture. Men have become more subject to the same appearance-based cultural imperatives that have surrounded women for decades. This is a result of the movement toward sexual equality via a convergence of gender differences in the cultural discourses and bodily experiences surrounding beauty and body modification practices (Gullette, 1994). Consumer culture, where material goods signify status, taste, and lifestyle, is influenced by marketing techniques and advertising. New styles, fashions, and experiences are created and promoted for individuals to consume (Featherstone). In this sense, physical selfenhancement procedures – via surgical intervention – are services men can consume. The five most common invasive cosmetic procedures performed on North American men differ somewhat from those selected by women (ASPS, 2007; Medicard,
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