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of being labeled gay or effeminate. Moreover, supporting Giddens’ (1991) perception of the reflexive self, among all respondents it was apparent that their body was a central component of their selfidentification. Cosmetic Surgery Regarding attitudes toward cosmetic surgery, two main themes emerged in the interviews. The first theme, evident among men that had undergone or were seriously contemplating cosmetic surgery, demonstrated a paradox where men were comfortable with their own use of cosmetic surgery but paradoxically were not supportive of other men having cosmetic surgery. This negativity toward others having cosmetic surgery was rooted in three different explanations: (a) cosmetic surgery being associated with femininity or homosexuality, (b) cosmetic procedures being too extreme or excessive, and (c) the need for people to accept their natural body. The second theme revolved around positive associations with cosmetic surgery. Positive associations were explained 962 The Qualitative Report July 2011 by the potential for cosmetic surgery to increase self-confidence, decrease body dissatisfaction, and help with dating. Good for me; but not for you. Approximately two-thirds of the respondents did not approve of other men having cosmetic surgery for aesthetic reasons – even if they had undergone or were planning surgery themselves. For example: John: “Cosmetic surgery? Umm, I’m, for me I am particularly against it.” Interviewer: “So you have never had it?” John: “That’s the interesting part. I have had it (cosmetic surgery)…” Interviewer: “If you could go back, would you do it again?” John: “Definitely, it was good for me.” Negative opinions about cosmetic surgery were explained variously. First, nine of the respondents thought that cosmetic surgery was feminizing. Mark – who had already stated that he had undergone a non-invasive dermatological procedure – said that “just thinking about that [men having cosmetic surgery] makes me think ‘what a feminine man.’” Second, three heterosexual men felt cosmetic surgery was primarily for homosexuals. One heterosexual respondent, Liam, who intended to have elective surgery on his nose in the future, stated that: “I think it’s OK if anyone wants to do [cosmetic surgery]. They can go ahead – just if you tell me that you got cosmetic surgery and you’re a man I am going to think you’re kinda well [gay].” Third, seven respondents were concerned that the surgical procedures other men would choose would be too extreme, obvious or overdone. Patrick expressed his concerns as follows: “If you were going to the extent of Michael Jackson, then no [cosmetic surgery] … he just got to a point that was getting a little excessive.” John, who had personally undergone elective invasive cosmetic surgery, said, “[cosmetic surgery] makes most guys look fake, and they probably don’t even realize they look plastic.” In this regard, eight of the nine respondents contemplating cosmetic surgery explained they did not want any “extreme” work done. For example, Jack explained that: “I don’t want to have my face stretched to look like something foreign … Just to be refreshed.” Lastly, there was also the feeling among three respondents that men should be happy with their natural bodies. John, when talking about having another invasive surgery, stated that “personally I would feel negative about another surgery. I see it as everyone is born with who they are and whatever happens, it kind of stays with them for a reason, like everything happens for a reason.” Rationalizations for cosmetic surgery frequently cited medical rather than aesthetic concerns. They framed surgery as a need as opposed to a want. Thus, cosmetic surgery was distanced from vanity. John, who had undergone rhinoplasty, explained that “I couldn’t properly breathe out of one of my nostrils anyways, so I wanted to go and get it cleared up so I could breathe properly… [the doctors said] it looks like there’s a lot of calcium build up as well, so umm, because there is so much calcium we might as well just remove everything… I opted for it. I figured I am getting it cleared up so why not just have it cleared up properly.” The appearance of Josh’s nose, however, did make him uncomfortable in social interactions. For example, he stated: “when I’d meet a girl or anyone really, I would always feel like they were staring at my nose.” The latter reason Rosemary Ricciardelli and Philip White 963 was not, however, the reason he foregrounded when explaining his decision for surgery. Instead, he embedded the decision in medical discourse, providing a health-based rationalization to mask his concern with his appearance. In doing this, it appeared that, for him, cosmetic surgery was acceptable as long as it improved his overall health as well as had appearance benefits. This rationalization technique was also employed by other respondents. These conversations generated a clear sense that respondents valued gaining control over their bodies, and, by association, their identities. Not being in control was problematic and cosmetic surgery was an attractive option. Technologies associated with cosmetic surgeries are, however, constantly changing and developing (Haiken, 1997). Giddens (1990) argued that one of the ironies of risk society is that developments in scientific knowledge create more uncertainty, rather than reducing
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