Southern Med

Southern Mediterranean

The Mediterranean Sea divides the continents of Europe and Africa.  When this sea is not present North Africa is a land connect part of Europe, and the divide is the Sahara Desert, and other natural boundaries that separates Europe from sub Saharan Africa.  For this reason in part I call this land Southern Med rather than North Africa.  North Africa also has a distinguishing east west genetical cline at the Nile Valley.

Native Europeans have lived on the Northwest African continent for Millenias claiming that land as their southern Ice Age Refuge, and their ancient ancestral possession as part of the ancient European homeland as an extension of Europe. 

North Africa was for the most part inhabited by native Europeans, and the native Eurasians who migrated in prior to the Arab/Jew invasions, and prior to the sub Saharan African peoples that were brought there as slaves by the Arab/Jew slave traders.  The first modern man in North Africa were the Eurasians 45kya to 60kya.  This was U6 mtDNA females.  Its debateable how much European to North African contact during Paleolithic.  LGM and more recent contacts between the two becomes more apparent.

I try to divide articles based on topic rather than region.  So other Southern Med related subjects will be under the Religions, Religions 2, Miscellaneous, and other sections on the left margin.

This topic can be misleading, and very debatable as the original inhabitants are extinct, and/or are diluted in dna admixtures by the flood of peoples from migrations, invasions, and slavery.

Thus, I view the information lightly as a viewpoint, and possible theory rather than fact, and incorporate lightly into the big picture.

Colossal Flood Created the Mediterranean Sea

https://www.livescience.com/10607-colossal-flood-created-mediterranean-sea.html

    The Mediterranean Sea as we know it today formed about 5.3 million years ago when Atlantic Ocean waters breached the strait of Gibraltar, sending a massive flood into the basin.

Geologists have long known that the Mediterranean became isolated from the world's oceans around 5.6 million years ago, evaporating almost completely in the hundreds of thousands of years that followed.

Scientists also largely agree that the Mediterranean basin was refilled when the movements of Earth's crustal plates caused the ground around the Gibraltar Strait to subside, allowing the ocean waters of the Atlantic to cut through the rock separating the two basins and refill the sea.

Mediterranean Sea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea

    The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in the middle of land" ... The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example, the Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea" and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, "Our Sea"), and occasionally Mare Internum (Sallust, The Jugurthine War 17).  In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea" ...

    Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean. ...Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea....

    it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.

    Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River...

    The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. ...

    Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic...

    The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased....

    "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement....

    By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in)...

Gibraltar Breach.mov

https://youtu.be/0xQeEgPhSfI

The evaporating Mediterranean Sea - BBC

https://youtu.be/BemsLUldVAo

That Time the Mediterranean Sea Disappeared

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HooZ84rpovQ

First human culture lasted 20,000 years longer than thought

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210111084230.htm

Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300 thousand years ago, where their fossils are found with the earliest cultural and technological expressions of our species. This repertoire, commonly referred to as the 'Middle Stone Age', remained widely in use across much of Africa until around 60-30 thousand years ago. New research in Senegal shows this 'first human culture' persisted until 11 thousand years ago - 20 thousand years longer than previously thought....

the Senegal and the Gambia, where they found multiple Middle Stone Age sites, all with surprisingly young dates....Accompanying this striking finding is the fact that in West Africa, the major cultural shift to more miniaturized toolkits also occurs extremely late compared to the rest of the continent. For a relatively short time, Middle Stone Age using populations lived alongside others using the more recently developed miniaturized tool kits, referred to as the 'Later Stone Age'. "This matches genetic studies suggesting that African people living in the last ten thousand years lived in very subdivided populations,"...

Around 15 thousand years ago, there was a major increase in humidity and forest growth in central and western Africa, that perhaps linked different areas and provided corridors for dispersal. This may have spelled the final end for humanity's first and earliest cultural repertoire and initiated a new period of genetic and cultural mixing....

Past river activity in northern Africa reveals multiple Sahara greenings

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210129110934.htm

Large parts of today's Sahara Desert were green thousands of years ago....

Recently, more detailed insights have been gained from sediment cores extracted from the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Libya. An international research team examined these cores and discovered that the layers of the seafloor tell the story of major environmental changes in North Africa over the past 160,000 years....It offers a comprehensive picture of when and why there was sufficient rainfall in the Central Sahara to reactivate these rivers. "We found that it is the slight changes in the Earth's orbit and the waxing and waning of polar ice sheets that paced the alternation of humid phases with high precipitation and long periods of almost complete aridity,"...

The fertile periods generally lasted five thousand years and humidity spread over North Africa up to the Mediterranean coast. For the people of that time, this resulted in drastic changes in living conditions, which probably led to large migratory movements in North Africa....

Journey of the Serpent People Gary A David Episode 04 / of 1

https://youtu.be/SNkD_pZFgFs

U5 are Saami, and U6 are Imazighen.  U5 also majority among the first people of Europe Basques of the early Paleolithic.  U8 paleolithic in Basque Country.  And if U-mtdna hg was the female companion of the R-Ydna hg then it stands to reason that the R1b were the decendants, and were in Britain at least 10,000 to 15,000 years ago just based on the Goughs cave, and Cheddar man finds. Villabruna was R1b dated 14,000 ybp found in Italy with ancestry linked to 19,000 ybp Iberians.   Malta boy found in Siberia was R Ydna dated to 24,000 ybp along with Venus figurines similar to ones found in Europe.  U, U2, and U6 mtdna in Europe 43,000 ybp, and her ancestor mother N mtdna in Europe 47,000 ybp.  U5 in Europe at least 31,000 ybp.  U8 in Europe 50,000 ybp.  Summing just this little bit of evidence tells that west Europe and Siberia were connected throughout the last 47,000 years at least.

( NOTE:  In my opinion thus far, U6 is the first female modern man in North Africa in the Aterian at least 45,000 ybp.  I think she was apart of the paleolithic first people into west Europe and nw Africa.  In west Europe U females were companions to R and/or R1 males.  It is unclear if R or R1 male accompanied her into aterian nw Africa, or if she was accompanied with an earlier human of the existing Aterian people of north Africa.)

 Amazigh

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscellaneous/Amazigh.rtf  

Similarites to the first peoples in Irland / Brit Isles who lived right after, or during the last Ice Age.  Same religious ancestor beliefs, red hair, light skin, use of ochre on their dead, cave paintings, presence at least 10,000BC time of ice age melt, etc..  Maternally at least the U5 and U6 mt-hg were the western hunter gatherer, like the Saami, to first expand into Europe northward as the ice age retreated but, many remain in their ice age refuge of Iberia and Maghreb areas.  The extreme southern divide was the Saharan desert which divided the Amazigh from the subsaharan peoples until the subsaharan slave traders brought them up into north africa for the first time.  Prior to this north africa was actually south Europe...

Prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb shows that the bodies of the dead were painted with ochre....

Cult of the dead was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Berbers in antiquity...  considered the spirits of their ancestors to be gods. They swore by them and consulted them. After making requests, they slept in their tombs to await responses in dreams....religion heavily emphasized ancestor veneration, polytheism and animism. ...

They sacrifice to the Sun and Moon, but not to any other god. This worship is common to all the Libyans....

Msoura is the best-known megalithic monument in northwest Africa...

Berbers call themselves some variant of the word i-Mazigh-en (singular: a-Mazigh), possibly meaning "free people" or "noble men"....  The name Berber derives from Greek bárbaros, βάρβαρος, "non-Greek-speaking, foreign, barbaric"...derived from a Greek word: barbaría, βαρβαρία, for "land of barbarians"...

The Maghreb region in northwestern Africa is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers from at least 10,000 BC.  Local cave paintings, which have been dated to twelve millennia before present...

Berber people of North Africa are genetically similar to the Sami people of Northern Scandinavian. Despite the fact both are considered indigenous to each respective area. The gentic link dates back 9,000 years....

The White Race?  It was the Berbers of North Africa.  Pharaoh Ramses of Egypt was a redhead of Berber ancestry.... North Africa was an extension of Southern Europe, all throughout Antiquity...  This changed only after the Arabs came in. ... North Africans were originally extremely fair....

Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum but also reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers....

U5, its sequence divergence was 8.1 ± 1.8 substitutions, corresponding to 41.4 ± 9.2 ky, a time estimate in full agreement with its proposed proto-European origin. ... It is striking that the sequence divergence of U5b1b, the subclade encompassing mtDNAs from the Saami, Yakut, Berbers, and Fulbe, was 1.7 ± 0.5 substitutions, thus corresponding to only 8.6 ± 2.4 ky....

Anatomically modern humans are known to have been present in North Africa during the Upper Paleolithic, 45,000 years ago, as attested by the Aterian culture.... Anatomically modern humans are known to have been present in North Africa during the Upper Paleolithic...

The Berber mitochondrial pool is characterized by an overall high frequency of Western Eurasian haplogroups, a somehow lower frequency of sub-Saharan L lineages, and a significant (but differential) presence of North African haplogroups U6 and M1....

North Africa today are not descendants of either the earliest occupants of this region fifty thousand years ago, or of the most recent Neolithic populations.  The data shows that the ancestors of today's North Africans were a group of populations that already lived in the region around thirteen thousand years ago....

Iberian populations also show that North African mitochondrial DNA sequences (haplogroup U6) and sub-Saharan sequences (Haplogroup L)...most of the L mtDNA that has been found in minor amounts in Iberia, is actually pre-neolithic in origin, and U6 too, which also have a very old presence in Iberia, since Iberia has a great diversity in lineages from this haplogroup, it was already found in some local hunter-gatherer remains and its local geographic distribution is not compatible, in many cases, with Moor occupation area.  Haplogroup U6...a characteristic genetic marker of the Saami populations of Northern Scandinavia.

    It is difficult to ascertain that U6's presence is the consequence of Islam's expansion into Europe during the Middle Ages, particularly because it is more frequent in the west of the Iberian Peninsula rather than in the east. In smaller numbers it is also attested in the British Isles, again in its northern and western borders. It may be a trace of a prehistoric Neolithic/Megalithic/Mesolithic or even Upper Paleolithic expansion along the Atlantic coasts from North Africa or Iberian Peninsula, perhaps in conjunction with seaborne trade.... One subclade of U6 is particularly common among Canarian Spaniards as a result of native Guanche (proto-Berber) ancestry....

In Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where "moor" implies 'alien' and 'non-Christian'. These beings were siren-like fairies with golden or reddish hair and a fair face. They were believed to have magical properties. ...

Researchers Get Closer to Finding the Origins of the Enigmatic Guanches…and No, They are Not Atlanteans

http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/researchers-get-closer-finding-origins-enigmatic-guanches-and-no-they-021687

    But a new study has provided clear evidence for a hypothesis supported by anthropologists for years – the Guanches are genetically linked to the Berbers of North Africa. ... The current study sequenced autosomal DNA from five archaeological Guanche individuals from Gran Canaria and Tenerife instead.

    The remains were radiocarbon dated to the 7th-11th centuries AD and found mitochondrial lineages that are common in West Eurasia and/or North Africa. This is no surprise, as previous genetic studies have had similar findings. The more intriguing results come from three males corresponding to a haplogroup abundant in modern North African populations and especially common in Berber-speaking populations of North Africa. ...

    With their data in hand, the researchers conclude ,

    “Our results show that the Guanches were genetically similar over time and that they display the greatest genetic affinity to extant Northwest Africans, strongly supporting the hypothesis of a Berber-like origin. We also estimate that the Guanches have contributed 16%–31% autosomal ancestry to modern Canary Islanders, here represented by two individuals from Gran Canaria.”

    Yet it seems not all the Guanches shared the same genetic situation. One interesting individual was found to have a higher proportion of hunter-gatherer-like ancestry. This has led to the proposal of “low-level gene flow from a European source that predates the European conquest.”...

    “Our analyses show that a small portion of the genetic ancestry of the Guanches was derived from populations most closely related to European Stone Age farmers. Interestingly, this type of genetic ancestry was introduced to Europe from Anatolia with migrating farmers during the Neolithic expansion around 7,000 years ago. Other North African populations have varying proportions of this ancestry but it is not yet fully understood how and when it spread across North Africa.”

Genomic Analyses of Pre-European Conquest Human Remains from the Canary Islands Reveal Close Affinity to Modern North Africans

http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(17)31257-5

Aboriginals of the Canary Islands originated from North Africa, shows DNA-study

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/10/171026135349.htm

Summary:      The aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands, commonly known as the Guanches, originated from North Africa. Scientists have now confirmed this long-held hypothesis. The result has been achieved by sequencing ancient DNA extracted from a collection of skulls from Guanches who lived on Gran Canaria and Tenerife prior to the European conquest in the 15th century AD. ... "By generating the first autosomal genetic data from these populations we can conclusively demonstrate that the Guanches were most closely related to modern North Africans of Berber ancestry than to any other population we included for comparisons, supporting previous studies but adding more detail and nuance." ...

    Importantly, the new study reveals that the Guanches carried a mixture of genetic ancestry.... "Our analyses show that a small portion of the genetic ancestry of the Guanches was derived from populations most closely related to European Stone Age farmers. Interestingly, this type of genetic ancestry was introduced to Europe from Anatolia with migrating farmers during the Neolithic expansion around 7,000 years ago. Other North African populations have varying proportions of this ancestry but it is not yet fully understood how and when it spread across North Africa."

NWO Documentary CHANNEL

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC47iudmMX8nM_ixY6Bcuz7Q

History Channel of various civilizations, and events in past times.

When sahara was green

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JcVMkyJoZY

THE LEGEND OF ATLANTIS : BEHIND THE TRUE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Y1KNalZ0j8

Not sure how much of this I believe.  Alot of assumptions but, some interesting stuff in between.

Journey of the Serpent People Gary A David Episode 04 / of 1

https://youtu.be/SNkD_pZFgFs

Archaeologists Unearth the Oldest Neolithic Settlement in Egypt

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/neolithic-egyptian-site-0010649

    Researchers had strongly believed that Neolithic communities settled in the wetlands of the Nile Delta as early as the end of the fifth millennium BC...While this discovery will help complete the picture of life and times in Egypt between the Neolithic and the present, much remains unanswered about what happened in Egypt pre-5000 BC....

    What is known is the Khormusan industry in Egypt began between 42,000 and 32,000 BP and they developed tools in stone, bones and hematite. The end of the Khormusan industry came around 16,000 BC with the appearance of other cultures in the region. Anthropologists and archaeologists regard the Late Paleolithic as beginning in Egypt around 30,000 BC... This specimen is the only complete modern human skeleton from the earliest Late Stone Age in Africa.

The Emerald Tablets of Thoth the Atlantean

http://sitsshow.blogspot.com/2015/12/the-emerald-tablets-of-thoth-atlantean.html

The Mysteries of the Egyptian Sun

https://news.softpedia.com/news/The-Mysteries-of-the-Egyptian-Sun-81846.shtml

    First, it was represented as the golden scarab, Hepri, symbolizing the becoming. Then, the hieroglyph of Sun, the proper god Ra (Re), appeared, as a circle with a point in the middle....A first rank god, Ra personified the Sun as source of vital force, but also as a star implying light as reality and symbol. He was the supreme judge of the Universe. Worshiped in Egypt as the creator and supreme god,...

    Ra was believed to have appeared by detaching himself from the primordial chaos or that, closed between the petals of a lotus flower, raised by the waters of the beginning. He went out as the Benu (Phoenix) bird, launched in flight from the pyramidal top of a stone obelisk....  child at dawn (Heprer), adult at middle day (Ra) and elder at evening (Atum).... 

    Ra was identified with Amon...He was represented as a human with an iron crown and ram head, and his assigned animals were the ram and the goose. The soul of Amon was represented as a ram headed Sphinx either, in the snake shaped Egyptian scepter, Kematef....  After chasing off the Hyksos (Semite invaders) in the 16th century BC, Amon turned into the supreme god of the freed kingdom....Amon-Ra was called "king of gods, the creator of the Universe, the author of all the things, time conductor and direct master of the Sun, sky and underworld"....

    around 1,450 BC, the autonomous cult of Aton, the solar disk, worshiped as the concrete shape of Ra, emerged. It was represented as a red disk with palmed rays....

NORTH WEST AFRICA:  THE H mtHG's ARE EURASIANS FROM THE NEOLITHIC.  L mtHG's FROM SUBSAHARA AFRICA BROUGHT IN BY THE SLAVE TRADERS.  U6 mtHG ARE PRE-NEOLITHIC, PALEOLITHIC EURASIANS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH AFRICA.  THE CURRENT E1b YDNA IS POST NEOLITHIC MOST RECENT MIGRANTS FROM EAST CENTRAL AFRICA WHICH BECAME DOMINANT IN NORTH AFRICA BY ADMIXTURE REPLACEMENT WIPING OUT THE INDIGENOUS PRE-NEOLITHIC MALES, AND STEALING THEIR LANDS AND THEIR FEMALES.

NORTH EAST AFRICA:  THE NILE IN PRE-HISTORY WAS A GENETIC DIVIDE KEEPING EAST AFRICA AND NEAR EAST PEOPLE TO THE EAST OF THE NILE WHILE KEEPING THE WEST EUROPEAN PEOPLES WEST OF THE NILE.  OVER THE AGES THE DIVIDE ERODED WITH EASTERN PEOPLES MOVING WESTWARD AND NORTHWARD, AND THE WESTERN PEOPLES MOVING EASTWARD AND SOUTHWARDS....

Mitochondrial DNA Structure in North Africa Reveals a Genetic Discontinuity in the Nile Valley   

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/Mitochondrial_DNA_structure_in_North_Afr.pdf

    Our results show a clinal distribution of certain haplogroups, some of them more frequent in Western (H, HV0, L1b, L3b, U6) or Eastern populations (L0a, R0a, N1b, I, J) that might be the result of human migrations from the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, and Europe.  Despite this clinal pattern, a genetic discontinuity is found in the Libyan/Egyptian border, suggesting a differential gene flow in the Nile River Valley.  Finally, frequency of the post-LGM subclades H1 and H3 is predominant in Libya within the H sequences, highlighting

the magnitude of the LGM expansion in North Africa....

    According to archaeological records, the first modern humans established in North Africa around 160,000 years ago.  Human settlements dated to be between 80,000 and 40,000 ya are associated with the Aterian industry, and those between 22,000 and 9,000 ya with the Iberomaurusian culture...  The persistence of a pre-Neolithic culture in Neolithic times might indicate cultural replacement with admixture, rather than a population replacement of the autochthonous pre-Neolithic people by Neolithic farmers originated in the Middle East...

The first Arab invasion, initially confined to Egypt, started in A.D. 643...the second and more numerous Arab wave in which the Bedouin reached the Maghreb (northwest Africa) in the 11th century....  showing various degrees of admixture between sub-Saharans, Middle Easterners, and Europeans...showing various degrees of admixture between

sub-Saharans, Middle Easterners, and Europeans. The analysis of Y chromosome lineages (E1b1b1a and E1b1b1b)...a Neolithic origin...

    The analysis of mitochondrial (mtDNA) lineages has shown that, in spite of an important sub-Saharan contribution, most haplogroups in North Africa are of Eurasian origin...Some can be traced to ancient Paleolithic times (such as haplogroups U6, M1b, which are almost specific of northern African populations)...some maternal lineages have been recently acquired from Europe or the Middle East (such as haplogroups U5, V, R0a, J1b, U3)... 

Lineages of west Eurasian origin are the most frequent in Libyans (65%), followed by sub-Saharan L lineages (28%), and back to Africa haplogroups U6 and M1, which have an overall frequency of 7%...  The back to Africa U6 lineage is mainly present in North Africa and shows an opposite frequency gradient respect to M1, being U6 significantly more frequent in the West, whereas M1 is more frequent in the East....

    The coalescence time estimate for the U6 network (except for the U6c branch) is 44.0 +/- 21.6 kya. Our coalescence age estimation based on the HVSI region for the haplogroup U6a1 is 13.0 +/- 5.7 kya, whereas for U6a* is 13.5 +/- 3.7 kya.... 

Unlike U6, this [M1] clade is mostly represented in Egypt, Sudan, and Saudi Arabia...Coalescence age estimation for M1a1 is 13.1 +/- 7.0 kya. When the entire M1 clade is considered, the time estimate increases to 23.1 +/- 9.2 ...The distribution of subsets of haplogroups U6 and M1 also suggests the presence of a discontinuity between Libya and Egypt, separating western North Africa from eastern North Africa....

    A similar East-West structure has been found with haplogroups related to the post-LGM expansion in the European Franco-Cantabrian area. A declining gradient of frequencies from west to east is detected for haplogroups H1 and H3. Moreover, the estimate age of haplogroup H1 agrees with previous estimates in North Africa, being 14.7 +/- 4.4, 11.7 +/- 3.6, and 11.3 +/- 2.3 Kya for Libya, Tunisia, and North Africa, respectively....Tuareg Libyan sample from Fezzan estimates the age of H1 between 4.4 and 11.5 kya....These dates set an upper limit for the presence of H1 in North Africa, which in any case is unlikely to have entered the region before the LGM....

    a post-LGM expansion in the Near Eastern refuge, considering that Libya has an increased frequency of typically Near Eastern haplogroups as H5, H7, and H13 compared to western North Africa.  The most plausible explanation for the differences found between NW and NE Africa is the presence of a demographic corridor along the Nile Valley. This corridor might have allowed the contact between Egypt, East Africa, and the Near East; influencing only slightly the rest of NW Africa.  Later, the Arab movements tied to the expansion of Islam did not apparently bridge the gap, at least for the female-transmitted mtDNA. In a similar way, the post-LGM expansion originated in the Iberian Peninsula has contributed to genetically differentiate North African populations, displaying a gradient of frequencies of the LGM-associated haplotypes, though its influence in Egypt remains unknown. The arid conditions west of the Nile may have conditioned population movement throughout much of human (pre)history, to the point of differentiating the genetic pool of Egypt from those of countries to its west, including Libya.

U mt-HG BRANCHED OFF OF EURASIAN N mt HG.  THESE U HG FEMALES MIGRATE MOST PROBABLY WITH THE MALE Y DNA R HG FROM SIBERIA, AND/OR NORTH CENTRAL ASIA.  U DEVELOPS INTO U2 IN INDIA. U DEVELOPS INTO U8 AND U5 IN EUROPE, AND U DEVELOPS INTO U6 IN THE MAGHREB  PART OF THE U6 MIGRATE WEST AND SOME EAST AND SOME SOUTH BUT, MOST REMAIN IN THE MAGREB.  AS THE ICE AGE RETREATS SOME U5 AND U6 MIGRATE NORTH INTO EUROPE FROM THEIR IBERIAN AND/OR MAGREBIAN HOMELANDS (THEIR ICE AGE REFUGE).  U-mt's MALE COMPANION R BECOMES R1 IN WEST EUROPE THEN EVENTUALLY BECOMES R1b IN WEST EUROPE AND BECOMES R1a IN EAST EUROPE.  THE U, U8, U5, AND U6 FEMALES, ALONG WITH HER MALE COMPANION R1 WERE THE FIRST PEOPLE OF WEST EUROPE, AND NW AFRICA AFTER NEANDERTHAL, AT LEAST 35,000 TO 45,000 YBP...  

The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/The_history_of_the_North_African_U6mtdna.pdf

The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents

https://rdcu.be/bNc09

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109#Fig1

    As secondary branch of the Eurasian macro-haplogroup N, phylogenetically, U6 is a non-African lineage...  According to haplogroup U geographic radiation, it was suggested that the most probable origin of the U6 ancestor was in western Asia with a subsequent movement into Africa. ...   Our own estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for U6, using the current enlarged set of complete sequences, is 35.3 (24.6 - 46.4) ky. This period coincides with the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, but cold and dry enough to force a North African coastal route....  the place of origin of macrohaplogroup U within Eurasia....    U6 is predominant in the Maghreb and scarce in Egypt, while M1 shows the opposite trend... 

    Several possible Y-chromosome counterparts of this backflow have been also described. Thus, in a phylogeographic analysis of Y-chromosome binary haplotypes, it was proposed that the Eurasian haplogroup R characterized by M173/M207 SNPs expanded from its origin, reaching Europe, the Middle East and India. Later it was found that a branch of this haplogroup also penetrated into Africa, strongly resembling the mtDNA U2, U5 and U6 trifurcation....

    The U branch of macro-haplogroup N spread radially from somewhere in western Asia around 39–52 kya. This reached Europe, signaled by haplogroup U5, North Africa by haplogroup U6, and India by haplogroup U2. Coalescence age for U5 correlates closely with the spread of Aurignac culture in Europe and, from an archaeological perspective, it has been argued that Central Asia, not the Levant, was the most probable origin of this migration. In absolute agreement with this vision, we propose that, in parallel, U6 reached the Levant with the intrusive Levantine Aurignacian around 35 kya, coinciding with the coalescence age for this haplogroup.

U6 spreads into Africa:  This first African expansion of U6a in the Maghreb was suggested in a previous analysis. This radiation inside Africa occurred in Morocco around 26 kya (Table 2) and, ruling out the earlier Aterian, we suggested the Iberomaurusian as the most probable archaeological and anthropological correlate of this spread in the Maghreb....the Maghreb as the place with the oldest implantation of the Iberomaurusian culture, which is coincidental with the U6 radiation from this region proposed in this and previous studies....

FIGURE 1:  https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109/figures/1

Haplogroup N (mtDNA)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)

    All mtDNA haplogroups found outside of Africa are descendants of either haplogroup N or its sibling haplogroup M....  both N and M later evolving outside the continent....   haplogroup N is by far the predominant haplogroup in Western Eurasia, and haplogroup M is absent in Western Eurasia, but is predominant in India and is common in regions East of India. ...

    The hypothesis of Asia as the place of origin of haplogroup N is supported by the following:

    Haplogroup N is found in all parts of the world but has low frequencies in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to a number of studies, the presence of Haplogroup N in Africa is most likely the result of back migration from Eurasia.    The oldest clades of macrohaplogroup N are found in Asia and Australia....  N1 is the only sub-clade of haplogroup N that has been observed in Africa. However N1a is the only one in East Africa: this haplogroup is even younger and is not restricted to Africa, N1a has also been detected in Southern Siberia and was found in a 2,500-year-old Scytho-Siberian burial in the Altai region....  The distribution of the earliest branches within haplogroups M, N, and R across Eurasia and Oceania provides additional evidence for a three-founder-mtDNA scenario ...

    Haplogroup N is the ancestral haplogroup to almost all clades today distributed in Europe and Oceania, as well as many found in Asia and the Americas. It is believed to have arisen at a similar time to haplogroup M. Haplogroup N subclades like haplogroup U6 are also found at high to low frequencies in northwest and northeast Africa due to a back migration from Europe or Asia during the Paleolithic ca. 46,000 ybp, the estimated age of the basal U6* clade.  The haplogroup N descendant lineage U6 has been found among Iberomaurusian specimens at the Taforalt site, which date from the Epipaleolithic.... 

    Haplogroup N's derived clades include the macro-haplogroup R and its descendants, and haplogroups A, I, S, W, X, and Y. ...

IMAZIGHEN BEGIN THE CANARIAN ARCHIPELAGO COLONIZING ABOUT 1000BC.  AMAZIGH HAVE RELATIONS WITH PHOENICIANS.  A 2ND WAVE OF AMAZIGH MIGRATE TO THE ISLANDS WHICH WERE INFLUENCED BY ROMAN RULE.  LATER NORTH AFRICA IS TAKEN OVER BY THE TIFINAGH SCRIPT WITH EXCEPTION OF CANARY ARCHIPELAGO, AND VERY LITTLE CHANGE IN MOROCCO. 

VERY LIKELY THE AMAZIGH WERE APART OF PHOENICIAN NETWORK IN SOME FASHION, AND THIS NETWORK EXTENDED UP TO THE NORTH OF IRLAND / BRITAIN, AND PERHAPS BEYOND.  IN THE 14TH CENTURY THE EUROPEAN CONQUESTS TAKE OVER, AND DESTROY THE CIVILIZATION.  PRIOR TO THE 14TH CENTURY THE CANARIES WERE A PURELY AMAZIGH PEOPLE.  INTERESTING NOTE ARE SIMILARITIES OF AMAZIGH CULTURE WITH  SOME ANCIENT ARCHAELOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN IRLAND / BRITAIN DATING TO 10,000BC...

Written in stones: The Amazigh colonization of the Canary Islands

https://journals.openedition.org/corpus/2641

    In the case of the Canary Islands, the Imazighen from North Africa settled in the Canarian Archipelago since the beginnings of the 1st millennium BC ... The indigenous Canarian culture can only be explained by a continental-Africana ethnogenesis which is inseparable from the culture of certain ethnic Amazigh groups that lived approximately 3.000 years ago. The culture developed in the Canarian Archipelago by Imazighen societies was clearly influenced by insular isolation...

    some cultural features in certain islands are not found in others. Although they share the same base, the indigenous island cultures developed in isolation, with very little contact with the exterior.... later inter-island and even cross cultural ex-changes were rare, indicating cultural isolation until the time when the islands were conquered by the Europeans in the 14th century. ... This has made the indigenous archaeology of the Canary Islands an extraordinary, marginal and almost unclassifiable historical example of Amazigh or (North) African culture. In other words, the indigenous Canarian universe was unarguably Amazigh... The archaeological evidence (ceramics, rock inscriptions, etc.) and anthropological/genetical type (DNA) evidence are indisputable... We still do not know how or why the North African Amazigh landed in the Canary Islands in the first millennium BC, although the early colonisation of the islands has recently been related to Phoenician-Punic influence in the Atlantic: the islands could have been colonized by Phoenician traders who brought over North Africans....

    The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves (and to a lesser extent in man-made caves cut into rocks), usually near the coast, 300-500 m above sea level....animal husbandry was the main means of support for the indigenous societies in the different islands, with the exception of Gran Canaria where agriculture was more developed... social and political organisation, there was a system of matrilineal descent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary... With regard to faith, the indigenous Canarians, like the North African Imazighen groups, worshipped two celestial divinities, the sun and the moon, and sacred natural places such as particular mountains, rocks and caves. Their religion revolved around the need for rainwater...

Some indigenous sites have been associated with this cult, such as the cave paintings in Gran Canaria whose interiors display painted geometric motifs, the cup and groove sites, consisting of small spherical depressions carved into the rock and linked by man-made channels which are related to the spilling of libations, and the sacrificial altars, built in stone and varying in shape although mainly circular, used to burn animals sacrificed as offerings to the gods... The indigenous Canarians beloved that life continued in another form after death and therefore supplied the corpse with provisions (ceramics, food, awls, beads, rush bags, etc.). They laid the bodies to rest by placing them on beds of stone, vegetation, animal skins etc. to avoid physical contact with the earth. The most common method of laying out corpses was to place them supine inside natural caves or shelters....Indigenous funeral rituals also included mummification, which was reserved for members of the “nobility” ...

    from a genetic point of view, the closest counterparts to 55% of the descendants of the indigenous populations are found in the Maghreb.... With the passing of time, the legacy of the individual communities that inhabited the different islands in the Archipelago up to the time of the European colonisation began to disappear irreversibly as a direct result of the gradual disappearance of the indigenous Canarian societies.... the conquest and subsequent colonisation of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castile led to the gradual physical destruction of almost the entire indigenous society. This is why in the Canary Islands there is no indigenous archaeology... In the case of the Canary Islands therefore, the concept of “indigenous” implies clear temporal connotations: it refers to the populations present on the islands since the time of the first settlements in the Archipelago (in the middle of the first millennium BC) until its rediscovery in the 16th century by Europeans. The rediscovery of the Canary Islands by the Europeans therefore led to the gradual disappearance of the indigenous settlements... Over time, the arrival in the Archipelago of an imperialist archaeology, developed during the 19th century and a good part of the 20th century, would help perpetuate a Western, European interpretation of the indigenous Canarian past...

    The archaic script:  the so-called “Thamudic” scripts the Old Phoenician script...a contact with the seafaring Phoenician people which colonized a great part of the Mediterranean coast... Phoenicians have brought the script to the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the 9th century BC. ... The above mentioned original type of alphabet, which can be called the archaic one, spread to the East until the Kabylia and to the West till the Canary Islands. The most plausible time of this taking over to the islands deduced from the epigraphic development is the 6th century BC. We can find these archaic inscriptions especially on El Hierro and Gran Canaria and single ones on La Gomera and La Palma.... It is evident that this context shows striking similarities to the so-called “megalithic” repertoire of signs....

    The classic script:  Since the 3rd century BC two Numidian kingdoms developed: the one of the Masaesyli and the one of the Massyli. The Libyco-Berber script of this time, which can be called the classic one, was adopted as an “official script” of these kingdoms,...  Exactly in this era there happened a second wave of immigration to the Canary Islands. Berber people which were accustomed to the Roman culture and script brought a second type of inscriptions which differ from the archaic ones...

    some examples of bi-scripts (Libyco-Berber and Latino-Canary) on Fuerteventura ...comes from a territory inside the borders of the Roman Empire, growing up with the Berbers own script and learning a second one by getting in contact with the Romans...

    The transitional and the Tifinagh scripts:  evolution from the archaic to the classic alphabet consists only in minimal changes...But sometimes later –we do not know when it happened up till now– the appearance of the Libyco-Berber script changed totally. All phonemes except six were represented by totally new signs from that time on. We call this new type of alphabet Tifinagh. This change didn’t happen in a sudden act of innovation but in a continuous process of transition. We can find examples of this transitional alphabet all over Northern Africa:...The final stage of the historical evolution of the Libyco-Berber script is called Tifinagh. Its evidence is thousands of rock inscriptions all over the whole territory of North Africa – but only very few in Morocco. This last restriction may be the reason for the fact that we can find no Tifinagh inscription on the Canary Archipelago....

    we can affirm that the ancient colonization of the Canary Islands (Archaic Berber culture) was initiated by the 6th century BC in El Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife and Gran Canaria. Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, according to other archaeological data, were colonised since the 10th century BC. In a second stage it was introduced a Romanized Berber culture since the time of Augustus and Juba II, including Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, El Hierro and Tenerife.

The letter yaz (or aza)

https://menasymbolism.com/2018/12/22/the-letter-yaz/

    The letter yaz (pronounced z) is one of the letters of the modern Neo-Tifinagh alphabet, an abjad script used to write the Berber languages.  The letter yaz in particular became a widely used icon to represent the Amazigh people...The Neo-Tifinagh script was based on the traditional Tifinagh writing system, which was mainly used to write down the Tuareg languages of the Sahara region.  The flag consists of a blue, green and yellow band, respectively representing the sea, the nature and the desert. In it’s center, a red letter yaz is featured, representing “freedom” or “free man”, which is in fact the meaning of Amazigh. ...

The Indigenous land of Imazighen is a region called Tamazgha, encompassing Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Western Sahara, Mauritania, the Canary Islands, and parts of Egypt, Mali, and Niger.

ALTHOUGH M81 IS MOST SIGNIFICANT IN THE MAGHREB, IT IS A RECENT HG FROM 2,000 TO 3,000 YBP.  M81 WAS AMONG THE OLDEST GUANCH REMAINS.  BUT, SINCE M81 IS A RECENT NW AFRICAN HG IT IS NOT THE ORIGINAL FIRST PEOPLE OF THE AMAZIGH SINCE AMAZIGH ARE INDIGENOUS FROM 45,000 YBP.  SO THE Y-DNA OF AMAZIGH IS NOT M81 ALTHOUGH IT IS IN PART FOR THE GUANCH...

Whole Y-chromosome sequences reveal an extremely recent origin of the most common North African paternal lineage E-M183 (M81)

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-16271-y

    E-M183 (E-M81) is the most frequent paternal lineage in North Africa and thus it must be considered to explore past historical and demographical processes. Here, by using whole Y chromosome sequences from 32 North African individuals, we have identified five new branches within E-M183. ...  that pointed to a rapid expansion of this haplogroup....  updated estimates of the times-to-the-most-recent-common-ancestor (TMRCA) for E-M183, which evidenced an extremely recent origin of this haplogroup (2,000–3,000 ya). Our results also showed a lack of population structure within the E-M183 branch, which could be explained by the recent and rapid expansion of this haplogroup. In spite of a reduction in STR heterozygosity towards the West, which would point to an origin in the Near East, ancient DNA evidence together with our TMRCA estimates point to a local origin of E-M183 in NW Africa.... 

    Early modern humans arrived in North Africa 190–140 kya (thousand years ago), and several cultures settled in the area before the Holocene. In fact, a previous study by Henn et al. identified a gradient of likely autochthonous North African ancestry, probably derived from an ancient “back-to-Africa” gene flow prior to the Holocene (12 kya). ... The Berber people, characterized for speaking Berber languages, are considered the direct descendants of the ancestral pre-Arabic peoples of North Africa.  ...autosomal haplotype-based methods have demonstrated the absence of strong genetic differences between Berbers and Arabs....  E-M81 has been found at high frequencies (71%) in Northwestern Africa and its frequency decreases towards the East; it is found sporadically in S Europe and E Africa, and it is practically absent elsewhere....  M183 was first described by Karafet et al.5, and appears to be an extremely dominant subclade within E-M81, to the point that E-M81*(xM183) individuals are very rare. Since we found no samples derived for E-M81 and ancestral for E-M183, we selected our individuals on the basis of E-M183....

    Results:

    In the present study, we analysed whole Y chromosome sequences from 32 North African males who belong to the most frequent haplogroup in North Africa: E-M81 (E-M183)....  surprisingly, Iberian samples showed the highest proportion of E-M183*, with a frequency over E-M183 chromosomes of 20%, whereas in North Africa the frequencies of M183* range from 0 to 7%. However, note that if these frequencies were given over all individuals (and not only over those carrying E-M183), then E-M183* would represent just 0.5% of all Iberian Y chromosomes, but it reaches 7.7% in Libyans....

    We have estimated the divergence of the E-M183 branch from its sister, E-M78, around 9,700 ya when using a fast mutation rate and ~12,700 ya when a slow mutation rate is considered....when using SNP data suggest that E-M183 originated around 2,000 years ago (ya)....we see a slight reduction and a rapid increase of population effective size around 2,000 ya....  Regarding the geographical origin of E-M183, a previous study suggested that an expansion from the Near East could explain the observed east-west cline of genetic variation that extends into the Near East. Indeed, our results also showed a reduction in STR heterozygosity towards the West which may be taken to support the hypothesis of an expansion from the Near East....However, our correlations should be taken carefully because our analysis includes only six locations on the longitudinal axis, none from the Near East. As a result, we do not have sufficient statistical power to confirm a Near Eastern origin....

    Alternatively, given the high frequency of E-M183 in the Maghreb, a local origin of E-M183 in NW Africa could be envisaged, which would fit the clear pattern of longitudinal isolation by distance reported in genome-wide studieS. Moreover, the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages in the indigenous population of the Canary Islands, strongly points to North Africa as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors. This, together with the fact that the oldest indigenous inviduals have been dated 2210 ± 60 ya, supports a local origin of E-M183 in NW Africa. Within this scenario, it is also worth to mention that the paternal lineage of an early Neolithic Moroccan individual appeared to be distantly related to the typically North African E-M81 haplogroup, suggesting again a NW African origin of E-M183. A local origin of E-M183 in NW Africa > 2200 ya is supported by our TMRCA estimates, which can be taken as 2,000–3,000, depending on the data, methods, and mutation rates used....

    Regarding E-M183, as mentioned above, we cannot discard an expansion from the Near East and, if so, according to our time estimates, it could have been brought by the Islamic expansion on the 7th century, but definitely not with the Neolithic expansion, which appeared in NW Africa ~7400 BP and may have featured a strong Epipaleolithic persistence....

THESE ARTICLES PROPOSE THAT THE MALE INDIGENOUS CANARIAN WAS A NORTH AFRICAN WHO WAS REPLACED BY R1b FROM SPAIN.  BUT R1B HAD PRESENCE IN THE CANARIES BEFORE THE SPAINISH CONQUEST.   E-M81 YDNA AND U6 mtDNA ARE THE LIKELY INDIGENOUS CANARIANS, AND AMAZIGH.  SO I THEORIZE THAT U6 ORIGINALLY BELONGED TO R1B BEFORE SHE WENT TO AFRICA BECAUSE U6 IS A DAUGHTER OF U WHICH IS EUROPEAN AND EURASIAN HAPLOGROUP, AND U6 IS ORIGINALLY NON-AFRICAN PRIOR TO HER ARRIVAL IN AFRICA 45,000 OR MORE YEARS AGO.  SO R1b IS MERELY RECLAIMING WHAT IS HIS.  JUST SPECULATION ON MY PART INCORPORATING A LITTLE REAL WORLD SCENARIO...

Guanches

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanches

    The Guanches were the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands. In 2017, the first genome-wide data from the Guanches confirmed a North African origin and that they were genetically most similar to modern North African Berber peoples of the nearby North African mainland....   After the Spanish conquest of the Canaries they were ethnically and culturally absorbed by Spanish settlers,... 

    Etymology:  The native term guanchinet literally translated means "person of Tenerife" (from Guan = person and Chinet = Tenerife). It was modified, according to Juan Núñez de la Peña, by the Castilians into "Guanchos". Though etymologically being an ancient, Tenerife-specific, term, the word Guanche is now mostly used to refer to the pre-Hispanic aboriginal inhabitants of the entire archipelago.

    What remains of their language, Guanche – a few expressions, vocabulary words and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families – exhibits positive similarities with the Berber languages.... 

    An account of the Guanche population may have been made around AD 1150..."a village whose inhabitants were often fair haired with long and flaxen hair and the women of a rare beauty".... Apart from the marvelous and fanciful content of this history, this account would suggest that Guanches had sporadic contacts with populations from the mainland. Al-Idrisi also described the Guanche men as tall and of a reddish-brown complexion....

    Genetic evidence shows that northern African peoples made a significant contribution to the aboriginal population of the Canaries following desertification of the Sahara at some point after 6000 BC....they share an ancestry with Berber peoples....

    The islands were visited by a number of peoples within recorded history. The Numidians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians knew of the islands and made frequent visits...The Romans occupied northern Africa and visited the Canaries between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, judging from Roman artifacts found on and near the island of Lanzarote. These show that Romans did trade with the Canaries...

    mtDNA haplogroup U subclade U6b1 is Canarian-specific and is the most common mtDNA haplogroup found in aboriginal Guanche archaeological burial sites....The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war, large numbers of Spaniard men stayed in the islands and married the local women, the Canarians adopted Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Canarians were Hispanicized....

    According to a recent study by Fregel et al. 2009, in spite of the geographic nearness between the Canary Islands and Morocco, the genetic heritage of the Canary islands male lineages, is mainly from European origin. Indeed, nearly 67% of the haplogroups resulting from are Euro–Eurasian (R1a (2.76%), R1b (50.62%), I (9.66%) and G (3.99%)). Unsurprisingly the Spanish conquest brought the genetic base of the current male population of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, the second most important haplogroup family is from Northern Africa, Near and Middle East. E1b1b (14% including 8.30% of the typical Berber haplogroup E-M81), E1b1a and E1a (1.50%), J (14%) and T (3%) Haplogroups are present at a rate of 33%. ...

        Autochthonous (E-M81) and prominent (E-M78 and J-M267) Berber Y-chromosome lineages were detected in the indigenous remains, confirming a North West African origin for their ancestors which confirms previous mitochondrial DNA results. - Fregel et al 2009...

    a small part of the Guanches aborigines had as relatives the first European farmers from Anatolia (present-day Turkey)... the vast majority of Canarian aborigines come from North Africa but were also related to the first European farmers, whose genetics were introduced into Europe from Anatolia through the migrations of farmers during the Neolithic expansion, around 7,000 years ago. Another study in 2018 confirmed that, like the Guanches, both ancient and modern North Africans are also partly related to Anatolia/Europe....

    Autosomal DNA:   400 adult men and women of all the islands, except La Graciosa,... Canarian population is, at an autosomal level, 75% European, 22% North African and 3% Sub-saharan....

    According to tradition, the male and female gods lived in mountains, from which they descended to hear the prayers of the people. On other islands, the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and stars....Idols have been found in the islands, including the Idol of Tara... 

Most researchers agree that the Guanches performed their worship in the open, under sacred trees such as pine or drago, or near sacred mountains...sometimes the Guanches also performed worship in caves,...As in other countries close to the islands (e.g. marabouts from the Maghreb), the Animeros were considered "persons blessed by God".... [The Animeros are said to contact the dead and cast out demons.] ...   The Guanches had priests or shamans who were connected with the gods...

    [The Beñesmen or Beñesmer was the most important festival of the ancient aborigines of the Canary Islands, mainly between the Guanches of the island of Tenerife. It was the feast of the harvest, it ordered Aboriginal affairs materials, and celebrated, venerated cultural and spiritual traditions. He was considered the "New Year", which coincided with the collection of the harvest. They were held during the first moon of August. Beñesmen was also the name with which the Guanches knew the month of August.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%C3%B1esmen  ]

    Mummification was practiced throughout the islands and was highly developed on Tenerife in particular. ...The Guanches embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation,... Embalming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves or buried....

    In Tenerife during the summer solstice, the Guanches were accustomed to kill livestock and throw them into a fire as an offering to the gods....As for human sacrifices, in Tenerife it was the custom to throw the Punta de Rasca a living child at sunrise at the summer solstice....

    Guanches wore garments made from goat skins or woven from plant fibers called Tamarcos,...

Demographic history of Canary Islands male gene-pool: replacement of native lineages by European

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2728732/

    Autochthonous (E-M81) and prominent (E-M78 and J-M267) Berber Y-chromosome lineages were detected in the indigenous remains, confirming a North West African origin for their ancestors which confirms previous mitochondrial DNA results.  However, in contrast with their female lineages, which have survived in the present-day population since the conquest with only a moderate decline, the male indigenous lineages have dropped constantly being substituted by European lineages. Male and female sub-Saharan African genetic inputs were also detected in the Canary population, but their frequencies were higher during the 17th–18th centuries than today.

    The European colonization of the Canary Islands introduced a strong sex-biased change in the indigenous population in such a way that indigenous female lineages survived in the extant population in a significantly higher proportion than their male counterparts....

    Europeans conquered the Canary Islands during the 15th century, beginning with Lanzarote in 1402 and finishing with Tenerife in 1496. The conquest was rather violent because the Guanches often fought fiercely against the invaders....violent revolts because the natives were enslaved in large numbers to defray the cost of the military expeditions. In retaliation, the rebels, mainly men, were killed and massively deported by the conquerors....

     Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages, belonging to the U6 haplogroup, and Y-chromosome haplotypes of the E1b1b1b haplogroup, characterized by the M81 marker, both with a clear Berber origin, were detected in the Canary islanders at a significantly higher presence than in Iberians, their main colonizers. In addition, admixture analysis taking the Iberians, Northwest and sub-Saharan West African populations as parental sources of the present-day Canary population, showed that the indigenous contribution was estimated to be 33% of maternal lineages and only 7% for paternal lineages. This strong sexual asymmetry was explained by a sociological bias favoring matings between Iberian males and indigenous females, and the greater indigenous male mortality during the Conquest....

    at least two independent waves of colonists from NW Africa, still detectable today....

To extrapolate the unknown indigenous population from a NW African sample pool seems unsuitable, because although the mtDNA haplogrup U6 present in the Canary Islanders and in North Africa originates in the latter, the most abundant Canary sublineage, U6b1, is absent in NW Africa, and the most abundant U6a sublineages on that continent are very scarce in the archipelago pointing to different N African sources. Moreover, the unquestionably N African lineages present in the present-day Canary population may not be wholly due to the indigenous heritage but to Iberian colonizers, since these lineages, albeit in low frequencies, are also present in Spain and Portugal....The presence of U6b1 lineages and other presumed founder lineages were detected in both samples, confirming their prehispanic origin....

    Y-SNP haplogroups in indigenous and historical Canary Island populations are shown in Table ​1 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2728732/table/T1/   

The autochthonous N African E-M81 haplogroup was the most abundant type in the indigenous sample (26.7%). It is also the most common in NW Africa (64%) with its highest frequency in the Western Sahara (76%). The E-M81 marker is rare outside N Africa and its presence in the Iberian Peninsula has mainly been considered a result of Moorish influence....

    Congruently, the European R-M269 haplogroup was already the most frequent in the historical sample (42.9%). R-M269 reaches 60% in the Iberian peninsula  but is found at a low frequency in NW Africa (4–6%), and seems to have been introduced there from Europe in historical times. Its frequency in the extant Canary population (53.2%) is similar to that found in the Iberian Peninsula, pointing to a mainly European origin for the present-day male pool in the Canaries. The fact that a similar frequency has been found in the historical sample, again points to a strong European replacement of the male indigenous pool since the early conquest period. Surprisingly, R-M269 was also found in the indigenous sample in a moderate frequency (10%). Its presence in the indigenous people could be explained in two ways: (a) R-M269 was introduced into NW Africa in prehistoric not historical times, or (b) the presence of this marker in the aborigines was due to a prehispanic European gene flow into the indigenous population. As NW African R-M269 chromosomes showed close STR-similarity to the Iberian ones , pointing to recent contacts between both regions, the second option appears more plausible....

    These results indicate, once more, that the indigenous sample is comparatively more similar to the N African than to the present-day Canary population, while the C 17th–18th historical sample shows more affinities with the modern Canary Island population.  To explain the current demographic composition of the Canaries, in previous genetic approaches their present-day inhabitants were considered as a hybrid population with a NW African substrate, contributed most probably by Berber indigenous founders, a substantial European input and, to a lesser degree, a sub-Saharan African component, introduced after the conquest as slaves. ...

    Conclusion

The presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous population, strongly points to that area as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors....

In addition to this mainly NW African colonization, the detection in the indigenous sample of markers like I-M170 and R-M269 of clear European ascription might suggest that other secondary waves also reached the Archipelago, most likely from the Mediterranean basin. This would again be in agreement with the multiple settlement theory proposed to explain the physical and cultural diversity found between and within the different islands. However, as these markers are also present in N Africa, albeit in low frequencies, it could be that they arrived in the islands during the same African wave(s) that brought E-M81 and reached relatively high frequencies there due to founder and genetic-drift effects. If so, the presence of these markers in N Africa may be older than previously proposed....

    autochthonous male M81 and female U6 lineages from the Canaries have also been detected in Iberoamerica, demonstrating that Canary Islanders with indigenous ancestors actively participated in the American colonization....

THIS ARTICLE CLAIMS R1b IBERIANS AND ATLANTEANS ALONG WITH NORTH AFRICANS WERE AMONG THE FIRST GUANCHES.  R1b IBERIANS HAD GENE FLOW ACROSS GIBRALTAR SINCE BEFORE THE NEOLITHIC.  WHICH MAKES SENSE BECAUSE U6 mtDNA IS NONAFRICAN AND ITS ORIGINS ARE WITH THE NONAFRICAN R YDNA SUBCLADES, WHILE THE E YDNA IS AFRICAN ORIGIN.  IT IS EVIDENT THAT R1b MALE WAS REPLACED BY THE E YDNA MALE IN NORTH AFRICA.  U6 mtDNA REMAINED IN NW AFRICA.  AND IF U6 WAS PRESENT IN NW AFRICA AT LEAST 45,000 YBP THEN IT IS REASONABLE TO ASSUME SO WAS R1b AT THAT TIME AND COULD HAVE ALSO HAD A PRESENCE ON THE CANARIES PERHAPS FOR FISHING  PROPOSED BY THIS ARTICLE.  THE CONFUSION IS LATER R1b FROM MID AGE SPAINISH CONQUEST INTRODUCED MORE R1b.  SO IT SOUNDS THAT ORIGINALLY THE E MALES REPLACE THE R1b MALES PRIOR TO 3,000 YBP, THEN R1b REPLACE THE E MALES IN THE CANARIES ABOUT THE 15TH CENTURY.  BUT, U6 REMAINED THRU THE AGES....

Origin of Ancient Canary Islanders (Guanches): presence of Atlantic/Iberian HLA and Y chromosome genes and Ancient Iberian language

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/viewFile/127010/118642

    First Canary Islands (Spain) Inhabitants (“Guanches”) origin  has  been much  debated.  Lately,  it  has  come  popular  the  simplistic  theory  that  they  came  from North  Africa.  In  the  present  paper,  we  conclude  that  not  only  North  Africans  but  also Iberian/Atlantic Europeans (and possibly others) must have been first Canarians. Debate whether North Africans or Iberians were the first “Guanches” is artificial since Iberian Peninsula-North African genes flow in ancient times was abundant and Iberians share a great part of genetic profile with North Africans. New genetic (HLA) and linguistic data shown  in  the  present  paper  is  conjointly  analyzed  with  early  anthropological  data;  at least two “Guanches” anthropological types existed. In addition, a correct interpretation of R1b Y chromosome  high  frequency  in  Atlantic Europe (Ireland, British Isles, North Spain  and  Portugal),  which  is  also  found  in  Canary  Islands  (13.3%)  supports  that Atlantic/Europeans  are  among  Canary  Islands  First  Inhabitants.  Present  paper  HLA genes partial data and presence of abundant old Iberian language scripts (which show an easy translation proposal  by  using  Basque  language) suggest that a present day dogma of    a    hypothetically    North    African    single    origin    should    be    changed.    Both Atlantic/Europeans and North Africans  must have been  in the origin of  Canary Islands First Inhabitants....

    some inhabitants were described as tall, blue-eyed... In the present paper, new (HLA) and already published genetic, linguistic, cultural and  anthropological  data  about Canary  Islands  are  put  together.  It  is  shown  that  the single North African hypothesis for “Guanche” First Canary Islands Inhabitants origin does not stand anymore...

    Berber characteristics  drives  the   conclusion  that  the  main  ancestors  that  they  are   main “Guanches” ancestors. However, autosomal HLA characters common to Iberian and Berbers are formed (Arnaiz-Villenaet al., 1997) and conjoint autosomal, mtDNA and Y chromosome  markers  study  revealed  a  gene  flow  across  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar;  it  was ongoing  in  high  rates  since  pre-Neolithic  times  (Currat et  al.,2010).  This  makes difficult  a  distinction  between  Iberian  and  North  West  Africans  on  the  bases  of  both autosomal  and  sex  chromosomes  markers.  Thus,  genetic  discussion  about  whether Iberians or North African Berbers where the First Canary Inhabitants is artificial, when only  genetic  markers  are  considered.  In  fact,  the  bias  towards  high  frequencies  of European Y chromosomes and mtDNA African markers in present day Canary Islanders have been interpreted a “Guanche” male substitution by Normand and Spanish XIV-XV century conquerors (Maca-Meyer et al.,2004,Maca-Meyer et al.,2003b). In the context

83of  abundant  gene  flow  between  Europeans  (Iberians)  and  North  Africa  (Berbers)  this interpretation is simplistic and artificial (Arnaiz-Villena et al., 1995; Currat et al., 2010, Maca-Meyer et  al., 2003b);  difficult  genetic  distinction  between  Iberian  and  North African Berbers  is the  most straight forward and  feasible. Genetics  must be  interpreted together  with  cultural,  linguistic  and  anthropological  traits  in  order  to  reach  accurate composition between populations....

    Authors conclude that there was a higher frequency of male genetic “North African” markers and a lower frequency  of  male  genetic  “European  markers”.  Authors  again  conclude  that  this (R1b1b2, M269) marker and frequency in ancient “Guanches” shows that a “Guanche” (mostly  North  African)  male  substitution  was  achieved  because  of  Spanish  conquest. However,  they  do  not  take  with  account  that  this  marker  is  high  in  western  Atlantic Europeans particularly in the British Isles, Portugal, French Britain and Northern Spain (for a review see [Oppenheimer, 2007]). Thus, the “North African” origin of this Y chromosome marker should be considered Atlantic (Europe and British Isles) including “North Africa” and Canary Islands....  Genes   by   themselves   cannot   usually   solve   most   of   different population relationships....

U6 BERBER THE FIRST PEOPLE OF THE CANARIES.  THE OLDEST FEMALE CANARIAN IS U6b1a BERBER WITH COALESCENCE AGE OF 3600YA PREDATES THE PROPOSED ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST INHABITANTS.  U6b1a IS AUTOCHTHONOUS TO THE CANARIES AND IS NOT PRESENT TODAY IN NORTH AFRICA.  THIS SUGGESTS THAT IF SHE CAME FROM NORTH AFRICA PRIOR TO CANARIES THEN SHE HAS BECOME GENOCIDED IN NORTH AFRICA AFTER HER ESCAPE TO THE CANARIES.  OR U6b1a CAME FROM ATLANTIS TO THE CANARIES RATHER THAN FROM NORTH AFRICA.  OR SHE MAY HAVE BEEN CAPTURED AS SLAVES AND PUT ON THE ISLANDS BY SLAVE TRADERS OR PIRATES.  TODAY U6b REPRESENTS 52% OF CANARIES WITH 38% FROM LA GOMERA.  SHE MAINTAINED HER PRESCENCE BY GENETIC ISOLATION IN LA GOMERA RESISTING FOREIGN INVADERS MORE THAN THE OTHER ISLANDS.  ALTHOUGH NORTH AFRICA WAS INVADED BY NEAR EAST, AND EUROPEAN PEOPLES SINCE BEFORE NEOLITHIC.  HOW THE FIRST U6 GOT TO THE CANARIES IS UP FOR DEBATE.  SOME SAY THE PHOENICIANS BUT UPON LACK OF OVERLAPING mtDNA BETWEEN PHOENICIAN AND CANARY INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RULES OUT THE PHOENICIANS.  WHICH BRINGS US BACK TO ATLANTIS OR ATLANTEANS AS THE SOURCE FOR TRANSPORTING THE BERBERS TO THE CANARIES IF ASSUMING THE FIRST BERBERS DID NOT HAVE NAVIGATIONAL SKILLS.  THE ATLANTEAN SEA PEOPLE HAD TRADE FROM ATLANTIS AND THE ENTIRE ATLANTIC THRU MEDITERANEAN TO THE BLACK SEA AND ALL THE WAY TO INDIA.

THE SEMITES BEGAN TO SEIZE CONTROL OF THE ATLANTEAN SEA TRADE WHERE MID EAST AND ARAB POWERS TAKE OVER.  ITS POSSIBLE THE U6 BERBERS WERE LOSING THEIR LANDS TO THE SEMITE INVADERS, AND THE ATLANTEANS MAY HAVE OFFERED ESCAPE TO THE CANARIES FOR THE BERBERS WHO WERE BEING INVADED FROM THE EAST.  

THE PALEOLITHIC U6 BERBERS HAD BEEN INVADED SINCE NEOLITHIC WHICH GAVE NORTH AFRICANS BASTARD BLOOD WHICH SHOW UP IN THE GENETIC STUDIES AS ANCIENT MIX AND SOME AS RECENT MIX ON THE CANARY PEOPLE.

EACH ISLAND EVOLVING INDEPENDANTLY REVEALS ITSELF WITH DIFFERENT ADMIXTURES.

SOME NIGGERS FROM THE SUBSAHARA HAD MIGRATED TO NORTH AFRICA IN THE EARLY HOLOCENE BUT STONE AGE AND NEOLITHIC SAMPLES FROM NORTH AFRICA HAVE NO NIGGER SUBSAHARAN LINEAGE.  BUT BY THE TIME OF CANARY COLONIZATION NIGGERS APPEAR IN NORTH AFRICA.

BY ABOUT 5,000YBP THE NORTH AFRICAN BERBERS WERE ALREADY INVADED BY EURASIAN H,J2,T2,AND X; AND BY SUBSAHARAN L1 AND L3.  THESE WERE AMONG EITHER THE FIRST PEOPLE OR LATER EXPEDITIONS TO THE CANARIES.

CENTURIES LATER THE INDIGENOUS CANARIANS HAVE BEEN EXPLOITED BY ROMANS, PIRATES, JEW/ARAB SLAVE TRADERS, SPANISH CONQUESTS, AND MODERN EXPLOITS WHICH HAS DECIMATED THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN SOME CASES TO TOTAL GENOCIDE....  

Mitogenomes illuminate the origin and migration patterns of the indigenous people of the Canary Islands

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209125

    The Canary Islands’ indigenous people have been the subject of substantial archaeological, anthropological, linguistic and genetic research pointing to a most probable North African Berber source....  To shed light on these questions, we analyzed 48 ancient mitogenomes from 25 archaeological sites from the seven main islands. Most lineages observed in the ancient samples have a Mediterranean distribution, and belong to lineages associated with the Neolithic expansion in the Near East and Europe (T2c, J2a, X3a. . .). This phylogeographic analysis of Canarian ancient mitogenomes, the first of its kind, shows that some lineages are restricted to Central North Africa (H1cf, J2a2d and T2c1d3), while others have a wider distribution, including both West and Central North Africa, and, in some cases, Europe and the Near East (U6a1a1, U6a7a1, U6b, X3a, U6c1). In addition, we identify four new Canarian-specific lineages (H1e1a9, H4a1e, J2a2d1a and L3b1a12) whose coalescence dates correlate with the estimated times for the colonization of the islands (1 millennia CE).... This reinforces results based on modern mtDNA and Y-chromosome data, and archaeological evidence suggesting the existence of two distinct migrations....

    Mediterranean sailors discovered several groups of islands in the Atlantic Ocean in the 13th century, but only the Canary Islands were found to be inhabited by an indigenous population. European chroniclers recorded that different islands were inhabited by populations exhibiting different ways of life and speaking distinct dialects of what they believed to be a Berber language....

    Chroniclers were amazed to discover that the Canarian natives were unaware of navigational methods and had remained isolated from the African continent. During the 15th century, the Spanish kingdom of Castile gradually conquered all of the Canary Islands, after previous European attempts. In most of the islands, the indigenous people resisted the European conquest. The crushing of the resistance, and subsequent European colonization, had a great impact on the indigenous people. In spite of the abolishment of slavery on the Islands in 1498, a large number of natives were deported during and after the conquest.  Those that survived and stayed progressively mixed with the European colonizers, leading to the loss of indigenous culture and language....

    Most archaeological and anthropological data support a North African origin for the Canarian indigenous people, relating to the Berber populations. Key evidence supporting a Berber origin includes inscriptions belonging to the Libyco-Berber and Lybico-Canarian alphabets, pottery, communal granaries, and domestic species. Non-metric dental traits  and morphological analyses of cranial and long bones also show similarities between current inhabitants of Northwest Africa and the Canarian indigenous people.

    In regards to the time of the arrival of the first population groups, some authors have proposed the first millennium BCE as the upper bound for human presence in the archipelago, based on radiocarbon dating of charcoal and sediment samples.... Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) analyses support a later colonisation of the Canary Islands dating to the outset of the first millennium AD. If only AMS analyses performed on short-lived samples are considered, the earliest dates from the eastern islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura range between 100–300 cal AD, whereas those from the central island of Gran Canaria range between 400–500 AD. The oldest AMS dates from Tenerife are around 660–880 cal AD, while the western islands of La Palma, El Hierro and La Gomera yield AMS dates ranging respectively between 260–450 cal AD, 420–610 cal AD, and 120–330 cal AD. On the other hand, older radiocarbon dates that place the arrival of human populations before the 1st century BCE were obtained from sediment, wood and charcoal samples that could be older than the archaeological site where they were excavated....

    The analysis of current Canary Islands samples using mtDNA has provided support for a North African origin for the indigenous people, based on the presence of the mtDNA U6 haplogroup, which has a clear Berber ascription. Within the U6 lineages observed in the current Canary Islanders, it is worth mentioning U6b1a, a haplogroup that is not present today in North Africa and which is considered a Canarian autochthonous lineage. Interestingly, U6b1a’s coalescence age (3,600 years ago) predates the proposed time of arrival of the first inhabitants of the islands, suggesting an origin in North Africa.

    Other haplogroups observed in the current Canarian people have Eurasian (H, T, J. . .), sub-Saharan African (L1, L2 and L3) and Amerindian (A2 and C1) affiliations. These results highlighted the multiethnic nature of the modern population of the Canary Islands, correlating with historical events, such as the implementation of a slave workforce for the sugar cane plantations, or the commercial connection with the Americas in the colonial period....

    Regarding the colonization model, linguistic research has pointed to at least two migration waves from North Africa. Also, the observation of different cultural backgrounds affecting the island of La Palma has been interpreted as evidence of consecutive migrations.  The specific timing for those migrations is still unclear, except for La Palma, where the second wave of migration has been proposed to have taken place around the 10th century....

    confirmed the presence of North African markers in the indigenous people, including the U6b1a haplogroup, as well as some of the Eurasian lineages observed in the modern population. Admixture analysis based on mtDNA data, using the natives as parental population, determined that 42% of modern Canarian mtDNA lineages have an indigenous origin....the colonization of the archipelago was a heterogeneous process and that different islands could have had different evolutionary histories....  previous aDNA data suggested that the indigenous populations from different islands might have experienced different demographic processes. The inclusion of data from all seven islands is therefore of paramount importance to accurately characterizing the archipelago’s indigenous population....

    Observed haplogroups agree with previous studies, indicating the presence of North African (U6), Eurasian (H, J2, T2 and X) and sub-Saharan African lineages (L1 and L3) in the Canarian indigenous population.  As delineated before, the majority of haplogroups observed are of Eurasian origin, most with a Mediterranean distribution. This result is expected, as recent aDNA data from North Africa has indicated the presence of Neolithic European lineages as early as the Late Neolithic period (~5,000 BP).

    We also obtained complete mtDNA genomes from a set of 18 modern Canarians. More than 50% of the samples belong to haplogroup H, with a higher diversity of sub-haplogroups than the one observed in the indigenous population. In addition to H1cf and H1e1a, we observe other H1 sub-lineages and other branches, such as H6a1, H3c2 or H43, which are most likely of European origin. Other haplogroups present in the indigenous people are also observed in the modern population, including J2a2d, U6b1a and X3a. In line with previous analyses, a sub-Saharan African (L3d1b3a) and an Amerindian lineage (A2) are observed in the current population of the Canary Islands. Assuming that our set of 48 ancient genomes is representative of the native population, we performed a rough admixture estimate of 27.8% of maternal lineages in members of the present-day population possessing indigenous origins, while 61.1% would be of European ascription....

    As previously observed, the indigenous populations of the Canary Islands in the past were not homogenous. The islands of La Palma and Tenerife show a relatively diverse mtDNA composition (>70%), while the others show signs of genetic drift and/or diversity reduction events, such as a bottleneck or a founder effect. In La Gomera, mtDNA diversity was 54.2%, due to the high frequency of haplogroup U6b1a, while in El Hierro, this value was 2.9%, with the almost complete fixation of H1cf haplogroup in the Punta Azul site. This same result has been recently observed in a genome-wide study of the modern population of the Canary Islands. Concretely, El Hierro and La Gomera showed longer runs of homozygosity when compared to the other islands, which can be interpreted as signatures of genetic isolation and reduced population size....

    Table 1. MtDNA haplogroup absolute frequencies for the indigenous population of the Canary Islands.:  H=85% (33% GCA), H1cf=74% (57% HIE), T2c1=32%, U6b=52% (38% GOM), etc... (GCA = Gran Canaria; GOM = La Gomera; HIE = El Hierro)...

    By directly comparing the mtDNA types found in the indigenous population of each island, we observe that H4a1e, L3b1a, U5 and U6c haplogroups are present only in the eastern islands (Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura)....  Global admixture estimations using the new mtDNA dataset confirm previous results on the survival of native lineages in the modern population (55.9%). However, we observed that results within islands are variable. When the miscellaneous ancient sample is used as one of the parental populations, indigenous contribution to the modern population ranges from 30.7% in Gran Canaria to 71.4% in La Gomera. However, this approach is not correct, as we know that the indigenous population of the archipelago was heterogeneous and mtDNA frequencies were variable....  Admixture results for the modern population of the Canary Islands using the three main parental populations: Iberian Peninsula (IBP), sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the Canarian indigenous population... 

    Indigenous mtDNA contribution estimates are lower when a direct comparison is performed, with values ranging from 0% in El Hierro to 55.5% in La Gomera. The extreme result observed in El Hierro is evidently due to the marked difference between the ancient and current people.... This can be explained if we consider that El Hierro was almost depopulated at the time of the European conquest. In fact, it was recounted in the chronicles that the indigenous population of El Hierro was decimated due to razzias (raids for the purpose of capturing slaves) at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was later repopulated with indigenous populations from other islands and European colonizers....

    haplogroups occurring frequently in the Canarian ancient and current samples (e.g. U6b1a) are not present or appear in low frequencies within the reference populations. This result concurs with later demographic processes reshaping the mtDNA landscape of North Africa, and/or founder effects and isolation in the Canary Islands. It is interesting that, compared to the other islands, the modern populations of Tenerife and Gran Canaria are closer to the European populations. This result is expected, because they each have capital cities of the two Canarian provinces and, thus, have received substantial historical migration from the mainland....

    We observe five different H sub-lineages in the indigenous people of the Canary Islands:  H1cf, H1e1a9, H2, H3 and H4a1e. H1cf  seems to be restricted to both the Canary Islands and Central North Africa, and shows a coalescence age (~3,400 years ago) that is in agreement with a continental origin before the colonization of the islands. Newly defined haplogroups H1e1a9 and H4a1e are both restricted to the Canary Islands, with a distribution similar to that observed for U6b1a. However, in this case, H1e1a9 and H4a1e coalescence ages overlap with the human occupation period and are compatible with an origin in the islands. The presence of lineages derived of H1e1a and H4a1 in both European Neolithic and the Canary Islands ancient samples corresponds with Eurasian prehistoric intrusions in North Africa...

    Two sublineages of haplogroup J are observed in the indigenous population of the Canary Islands: J1c3 and the newly defined J2a2d1a1. J1c3 is present in Europe, North Africa and the Near East, and more interestingly, in ancient Neolithic samples from Spain and Sardinia. Although J2a2d1a. has been spotted in Central North Africa, subhaplogroup J2a2d1a1 is exclusive to the Canary Islands and Brazil, the latter representing an area with known historical migrations from the islands. Accordingly, this new autochthonous Canarian lineage has a coalescence age that overlaps with the indigenous occupation of the islands.

    Phylogenetic analysis of the Canarian T2 sequences places them within T2b and T2c1d, two haplogroups thoroughly observed in Neolithic and Bronze Age sites from Europe. The inclusion of ancient and modern Canarian samples allows us to define four new T2c1d subhaplogroups. T2c1d3 haplogroup is present in both Tunisia and the Canary Islands.  T2c1d1c1 and its two subclades (T2c1d1c1a and T2c1d1c1b) are present in both North Africa and the current population of the eastern Canary Islands. This distribution could be explained by an asymmetrical migration pattern, or, given its absence in the indigenous people, by a higher impact of Moorish slave trade in the eastern islands.

    We identify several ancient samples within macrohaplogroup L, belonging to L1b1a and the newly defined L3b1a12. Although current mtDNA analysis evidences the presence of Sub-Saharan lineages into North Africa in the Early Holocene, Later Stone Age, and Early and Late Neolithic samples from North Africa have not showed any mtDNA lineage of sub-Saharan origin. On the other hand, our results imply the presence of L1b and L3b1a in North Africa at least at the time of the colonization of the Canary Islands. Regarding L3b1a12, this lineage can also be considered autochthonous of the Canary Islands, with a coalescence age posterior to the proposed colonization date. Interestingly, this lineage was only present in the eastern islands in ancient times, but has a wider distribution at the present time, suggesting extensive movement of native people after the conquest.

    Canarian ancient sequences belonging to X haplogroup are classified within the X3a clade. This lineage is present both in Europe, the Near East and northeast Africa, as well as in the ancient and current populations of the Canary Islands.

    Finally, several U6 sublineages are observed in the indigenous population of the Canary Islands, including U6a1a1, U6a7a1, U6b1a and U6c1.  U6a1a1, U6a7a1 and U6c1 are present in the Maghreb, southern Europe and the Canary Islands, and are most probably related to prehistoric Mediterranean expansions. As reported before, the Canarian autochthonous U6b1a is also present in regions with recent Canarian migration, including mainland Spain and Cuba. Given its coalescence age and the oldest calibrated radiocarbon dates from human remains from the Canary Islands, U6b1a most probably originated in North Africa and later migrated to the Canaries. However, to date, this lineage has not been observed in the continent, indicating the migrations occurred after the colonization of the Canary Islands reshaped the North African mtDNA landscape. Interestingly, one modern sample from Lebanon has been assigned to the U6b1a3 cluster. Although an origin for U6b1a in this region is possible, the fact that the sample belongs to the derived U6b1a3 cluster might indicate that its presence is related to a historical migration to the Lebanon from the Canary Islands.

    Our mtDNA results on the indigenous people of the Canary Islands shed light on the prehistory of North Africa. Our data are in agreement with recent aDNA data from Morocco and further evidence of a complex pattern of Mediterranean migrations in North Africa.  Archaeological records in the Maghreb support this result, and also suggest further European intrusions during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age eras. Additionally, Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Romans arrived in the North African region in historical times. The presence of haplogroups of Mediterranean distribution in the indigenous people of the Canaries demonstrates the impact of these prehistoric and historical migrations in the Berbers and that they were already an admixed population at the time of the indigenous colonization of the islands.

    In our phylogeographic analysis of complete mtDNA sequences from the Canarian indigenous population, we found lineages that are only observed in Central North Africa and the Canary Islands (H1cf, J2a2d and T2c1d3), while others have a wider distribution including both West and Central North Africa, and, in some cases, Europe and the Near East (U6a1a1, U6a7a1, U6b, X3a, U6c1). These results point to a complex scenario, where different migration waves from a dynamic and evolving North African population reached the islands over time. Every island experienced their own evolutionary path, determined by the environmental conditions and limitations of insularity. Those islands with the capability of sustaining large populations retained variability, while others with more restricted means (La Gomera and probably El Hierro) had to develop cultural practices to avoid inbreeding, like mandatory exogamic practices.

    Although the North African Berber origin is the most widely accepted hypothesis, other lines of research have proposed that certain funerary practices and religious beliefs observed in the indigenous population of the Canary Islands could be linked to Punic-Phoenician influence, thus proposing the colonization of the Canary Islands as the result of Phoenicians expanding their control to the Atlantic Ocean. Based on the limits of the territorial occupation of the Atlantic West Africa by Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Romans, most researchers consider it unlikely that there was a political occupation or economic exploitation of the archipelago. However, the islands were not unknown to Mediterranean cultures, and Romans possessed the seafaring skills needed to travel to the islands. Some authors think Phoenicians also had the navigational technology required to reach the Canary Islands, although this idea has been challenged. The first Phoenician aDNA sample published was a complete mtDNA sequence of a child from Carthage dated to the 6th century BC. This Carthaginian sample was classified within U5b2c1 haplogroup. This result is interesting, given that U5 was more frequent in the indigenous population of the eastern islands, including the island of Lanzarote, where a Punic-Phoenician influence has been proposed. As U5 haplogroup was not uncommon in Neolithic European samples, and its presence in North Africa might be due to prehistoric migrations, an alterative explanation would be that haplogroup U5 was Incorporated into the Berber mtDNA pool before the Carthaginians were established in Tunisia. Recently, Matisoo-Smith et al. published thirteen complete mitogenomes from Punic-Phoenician samples from Lebanon and Sardinia. The only haplogroups in common with the indigenous population of the Canary Islands are H3 and H1e1a, although, in this case, the Phoenician H1e1a sample is classified within the sub-lineage H1e1a10. The lack of overlap between the mtDNA composition of Phoenicians and the Canarian indigenous people disagrees with either a Punic-Phoenician origin for the ancient islanders or sustained contact between the two populations.

    Previous genetic analyses of the modern Canarian population detected an symmetrical distribution of maternal and paternal lineages in the archipelago. Our aDNA results confirm the existence of asymmetrical distribution of mtDNA haplogroups in pre-colonial times, with the presence of haplogroups H1e1a9, H4a1e, L3b1a12 and U6c1 only in the eastern islands. However, it is worth mentioning that La Palma, the island with the most anthropological evidence of two migrations waves, does not show any of these lineages. If we consider the presence of H1e1a9, H4a1e, L3b1a12 and U6c1 haplogroups to be the result of further population movements from North Africa to the eastern islands, we could approximate the date based on radiocarbon dates of the sites where the sample was taken. Most sites where these lineages have been observed have radiocarbon dates placed around the 13th century, and all except one are from after the 10th century. The only site with an older date is Guayadeque; however, we have to take into account that this is a large site, with evidence of human occupation extending until the 14th centuries AD, and the dating was not performed directly on the analyzed sample.

    Archaeological data has evidenced significant changes in the productive strategies of some islands around the 11th - 12th centuries. In fact, recent data indicates probable population growth in Gran Canaria at that time, suggesting the appearance of new settlements associated with an exploitation model that intensified the use of marine resources, the increase in the size of settlements linked to agricultural nuclei, and changes in the production of some craftsmanships. These changes have been interpreted as part of an endogenous process, as it has been determined that this population growth involved neither significant changes in the structure of human settlements or burials, nor introduced differences in land management or the types of domestic species that were exploited.  However, it is also possible to explain those changes as the result of the arrival of new migrants to the island of Gran Canaria.  Although it is still under study, there is evidence for transformations in the configuration of some settlements in Lanzarote, between the 8th and 13th centuries....

AMAZIGH ARE BLOOD TYPE O neg WHICH IS THE SAME AS THE BASQUE PEOPLE FURTHER SUPPORTS IMAZIGHEN AMONG THE FIRST PEOPLES FROM EUROPE AND EURASIA, AND DISPROVING ANY AFRICAN ORIGINS WHICH MIXED IN MUCH LATER.  AND IF RELATED TO THE BASQUE MAY ALSO BE RELATED TO THE BASHKIR, THE "LEAD WOLF"...

Blood Group of AIT Haddidu Berbers of Morocco

By RHJohnson, Eliz.W.Ikin, and AEMourant   Human Biology Vol. 35, No. 4 (December, 1963), pp. 514-523 (10 pages) 

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41448631

    Atlas Mtn Tribes many had O, N, and cde (Rhesus-negative), Haddidu had extremely high frequency ... suggests a relationship with the Basques but, different tribes gave different Rhesus results due to different admixtures with other peoples... may indicate movements from N.Africa and S.Europe at end of Palaeolithic times...  The Touaregs of Air show similar but to lesser degree....  

    Ait Haddidu are Berber stock with a Negroid admixture...

THE BLOOD GROUPS OF THE PEOPLES OF THE  MEDITERRANEAN AREA by A.E. MOURANT

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1017.2025&rep=rep1&type=pdf

    There is a  well defined group of Berbers with gene frequencies very near A  =  20 per cent, B  =  5 per cent, O -- 75 per cent, figures closely similar to those  of the high 0 peoples of Sardinia and   the islands of north western Europe; the tribes concerned are described as Berbers of Beni Qunif; Douiret from near Tata- ouine, Tunisia; and Toureg of Tamanrasset, Hoggar. ...  The people of Ferrara have however an Rh composition almost identical with that for  the people of India....

    It was suggested by Chalmers,Ikin and Mourant (1949) that the Indians were the descendants of a  mainly D-positive population other members of which, mixing with a  mainly D-negative race akin to the modern Basques had given rise to the present population of Europe...if Indians represent one of the main stocks contributory to modern Europe, we still have to seek, probably to the north east, a source for the abundance of cDE(R~) chromosomes...

    We may sum up the  ABO distribution by saying that B is high in the east of the area, and A and O in a  somewhat patchy manner  high in the west....  Throughout the Mediterranean basin we find   a similar distribution recurring but with evidence of dilution with other neighboring stocks. Per- haps the most   interesting of the latter is the negro component which appears at both ends of the basin. In the east the Semitic speaking peoples including the Jews of Europe   have re- ceived it along the Nile or the east coast of Africa. The Galicians in the west must  have re- ceived it along the Atlantic coast and   further research will probably demonstrate this stream of migration more fully in other parts of the Iberian peninsula....

    The Berbers with their high O fre- quency will surely prove to  be related to one of the similar peoples in Europe, the Sardinians, the Basques or the north Atlantic islanders. Each of these has a  different and readily recognizable distribution of the Rh groups.

    SUMMARY

Blood group A shows high frequencies in the European    lands bordering the Western Mediter- ranean and

in Greece. Group B has a high fre- quency all around the Eastern Mediterranean. The Sardinians, the Basques and certain Berber tribes in North Africa have a high 0 frequency. The Rh blood groups of the Mediterranean lands differ considerably from those of Northern Europe. Two main strains can be recognized, typified by the Basques with   high cde(r) and the Sardinians with high CDe(Ph). These, together with a north European and a negro strain, are sufficient to account for  the Rh groups of all the Mediterranean populations yet examined. ...

Genetic studies on Moroccans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Moroccans

    The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 90,000 and 190,000 BC.  During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna more than today's arid landscape. 22,000 years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been observed between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains. The Iberomaurusian industry in Morocco was succeeded by the Capsian culture.  North Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians... 

    The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania under king Bocchus I....  In the 5th century AD, as the Roman Empire declined, the region was invaded from the north first by the Vandals and then by the Visigoths. In the 6th century AD, northern Morocco was nominally part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Throughout this time, the Berber inhabitants in the high mountains of the interior of Morocco remained unsubdued.  In 670 AD, the first Islamic conquest of the North African coastal plain took place...In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in central and southern Spain and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco...."In 1520, there was a famine in Morocco so terrible that for a long time other events were dated by it. It has been suggested that the population of Morocco fell from 5 to under 3 million between the early sixteenth and nineteenth centuries."...

    Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777....The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as the U.S.'s oldest non-broken friendship treaty....

    Genetic evidence

The genetic proximity observed between Moroccans and Southern Europeans is due to the fact that both these groups shared a common ancestor either in the Upper Paleolithic, and in the Neolithic or, alternatively, during history with the invasion and the occupation during nearly seven centuries of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moorish troops. A genetic study published in January 2012 stated that the indigenous North West African ancestry appears most closely related to populations outside of Africa but "divergence between Moroccan people and Near Eastern/Europeans likely precedes the Holocene (>12,000 ya) and The Paleolithic (>40.000BC)."...  Moroccans from North-Western Africa were genetically closer to Iberians than to either Sub-Saharan Africans of Bantu ethnicity and Middle Easterners....  The original berber population seem to have received a low genetic influx from the surrounding areas....

    E1b1b (E-M215) is the most prevalent haplogroup in North Africa. E-M215 and its dominant subclade E-M35 is thought to have emerged in East-Africa about 22,400 years ago, and would have later dispersed into North Africa and from there into West Asia. The E1b1b1 clade is presently found in various forms in Morocco. Total E1b1b1 (E-M35) frequencies reached at 93.8% in Moroccans....E1b1b1b1 (E-M81), formerly E1b1b1b, E3b1b, and E3b2, is the most common Y chromosome haplogroup in Morocco, dominated by its subclade E-M183. ...Due to the clade's prevalence among these Berber groups and others such as Mozabites, Riffians, Chleuhs, Middle Atlas and Kabyle, it is sometimes referred to as a genetic Berber marker.  [ I DISAGREE.  PARTLY BECAUSE THE U mtDNA HG IS NON AFRICAN COMING IN THRU EUROPE FROM EURASIA PROBABLY WITH R-YDNA HG ALSO FROM EURASIA.  THESE E-YDNA HG PEOPLE ARE AFRICAN ORIGIN AND SOMEHOW STOLE THE U HG FEMALES FROM THE R HG MALES EITHER BY WAR, TRADE, OR SOME OTHER EVENT REPLACING THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH MALES THAT ALLOWED THE E HG TO DOMINATE THE AREA OVER THE R HG.  THUS THE E HG MALES ARE NOT THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH.  THE U mtDNA IS AMAZIGH, AND THE R YDNA WAS PROBABLY AMAZIGH, OR SOME OTHER TRIBE FROM EURASIA, OR WEST EUROPE WHO ACCOMPANIED HER.  ADDING IN THAT E-M81 IS ONLY 3,000 YEARS OLD MADE UP OF A BASTARDIZED MIX FROM EAST AFRICA, SUBSAHARA AFRICA, AND MID EAST MIXING WITH THE INDIGENOUS AMAZIGH.  AN ELDER Y-DNA OF 10,000 TO 15,000 YBP COULD ONLY BETTER REPRESENT THE ACTUAL MALE AMZIGH.]

    DNA analysis has found commonalities between Berber Moroccan populations and those of the Sami people of Scandinavia showing a link dating from around 9,000 years ago.  Around 5000 BC, the populations of North Africa were primarily descended from the makers of the Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures, with a more recent intrusion associated with the Neolithic revolution.  The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age. 

    DNA evidence suggests that during the Last Glacial Maximum, a period between 25,000 and 19,000 years ago,...human populations retreated south to warmer regions near the Mediterranean. Refuges during this period are believed to have been in Iberia, the Balkans and Italy. There was some gene flow from Morocco into Iberia.  After the glacial maximum...the refuges are thought to have been the source from which Europe was repopulated. Berber lineages that had been introduced into the Iberian refuge would have then dispersed all over Europe with the Northward expansion of humans. This could explain the presence of genetic lineages in Eastern Europe and as far north as Russia, that appear to have prehistoric links to Northwest Africa, mainly Morocco (see mtDNA). The expansion of human populations from Iberian refuges is also believed to have moved back to Morocco and Northwest Africa.  

     Neolithic Revolution...The societies that first made the change to agriculture are believed to have lived in North Africa and Middle East around 10,000 BCE. According to the demic diffusion model, these Middle Eastern farmers either replaced or interbred with the local hunter-gather populations that had been living in Europe since the "out of Africa" migration....

    The Moroccan mitochondrial pool is essentially Berber in its structure, characterized by an "overall high frequency of Western Eurasian haplogroups" Represented by the Post-last glacial maximum expansion from Iberia to North Africa revealed by fine characterization of mtDNA HV haplogroup in Morocco is Estimated around 36% to 60%, a somehow lower frequency of sub-Saharan L lineages, and a significant (but differential) presence of North African haplogroups U6 and M1". And according to Cherni et al. 2008 "the post-Last glacial maximum expansion originating in Iberia not only led to the resettlement of Europe but also of North Africa".  Caucasoid mtDNA (maternal) sequences, were detected at frequencies of 96% in Moroccan Berbers, 82% in Algerian Berbers and 78% in non-Berber Moroccans, compared with only 4% in a Senegalese population.... [THUS PROVES THAT THE FIRST ORIGINAL AMAZIGH ARE WEST EURASIAN PEOPLE SETTLING INTO NW AFRICA FROM EUROPE BY THE LAST ICE AGE FORCING THEIR RETREAT TO WARMER CLIMES.]

    Moroccan Northern and Southern Berbers have only 3% to 1% of SSA mtDNA, This north-south gradient in the sub-Saharan contribution to the gene pool is supported by Esteban et al., for the rest of mtDNA lineages mostly are Caucasian/West Eurasian, while Moroccan Arabs have more elevated SSA maternal admixture at around 21% to 36% Via L-mtDNA sequences, Highest frequencies of L-mtDNA is Reported to Moroccan Arabs of The Surrounding area of El jadida at 36% and this is largely ascribed to the slave trade....

Aterian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aterian

    The Aterian is a Middle Stone Age (or Middle Palaeolithic) stone tool industry centered in North Africa, but also possibly found in Oman and the Thar Desert. The earliest Aterian dates to c. 145,000 years ago, at the site of Ifri n'Ammar in Morocco. However, most of the early dates cluster around the beginning of the Last Interglacial, around 150,000 to 130,000 years ago, when the environment of North Africa began to ameliorate. The Aterian disappeared around 20,000 years ago. ...

    Tanged tools persisted in North Africa until around 20,000 years ago, with the youngest sites located in Northwest Africa. By this time, the Aterian lithic industry had long ceased to exist in the rest of North Africa due to the onset of the Ice Age, which in North Africa, resulted in hyperarid conditions. Assemblages with tanged tools, 'the Aterian', therefore have a significant temporal and spatial range. However, the exact geographical distribution of this lithic industry is uncertain. The Aterian's spatial range is thought to have existed in North Africa up to the Nile Valley... 

    The Aterian is associated with early Homo sapiens at a number of sites in Morocco. While the Jebel Irhoud specimens were originally noted to have been similar to later Aterian and some Iberomaurusian specimens...  Jebel Irhoud specimens represent archaic Homo sapiens while the Aterian and Iberomaurusian specimens represent anatomically modern Homo sapiens.  The 'Aterian' fossils also display morphological similarities with the earliest modern humans found out of Africa at Skhul and Qafzeh in the Levant, and they are broadly contemporary to them.... 

    populations lived in subdivided populations, perhaps living most of their lives in relative isolation and aggregating at particular times to reinforce social ties.... 

ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE THE AUTHOR IS CONVINCED NO ATERIANS WENT INTO EUROPE THROUGH STRAIT OF GIBRALTOR, AND NO NEANDERTHALS DID EITHER.  DURING THE LGM THE NORTH IBERIANS AND SOUTH FRANCE MAY HAVE BEEN ATTRACTED TO MILDER CLIMES OF SOUTH IBERIA INCREASING DENSITY POPULATION IN THE SOLUTREAN SITES.  A SIMILAR PATTERN DEVELOPED IN NORTH AFRICA WITH CONCENTRATIONS OF LSA AND IBEROMAURUSIAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE MAGHREB, JEBEL GHARBI, AND CYRENAICA.  THESE DIFFERENT CULTURAL ENTITIES ESTABLISHED IN IBERIA AND NORTH AFRICA CONTINUED TO LIVE IN THEIR SEPARATE WORLDS... 

Crossing Deserts and Avoiding Seas: Aterian North African-European Relations

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3631007?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Different theories exist about North African European interactions, and when this occurred. 

Scenario 1:  Aterians in Europe with Solutreans.  Scenario 2:  Aterians in Europe with Aurignacians.  Scenario 3:  Aterians in Europe with Mousterians.  Scenario 4:  No Aterians in Europe...

The Strait of Gibraltar was much narrower during the Upper Pleistocene making passage likely...

The Aurignacian is the first cultural product of the first anatomically modern humans in Europe, as the Aterian is in North Africa.... Aterian did not influence Aurignacian in any way...

Aurignacian sites contemporary with Aterian sites in Maghreb are located in north Spain.  In Cantabria a gradual shift from Mousterian to the Aurignacian took place around 39 to 38 kya...

Neanderthals never lived on the African continent...  No anthropological evidence exists for early modern Africans choosing the Strait of Gibraltor as one of their migration routes during the late Upper Pleistocene...

Neither cultural nor influences are attested to in either the Aterian or the various European Middle or Upper Paleolithic cultures during the time the Aterians occupied Africa.  The Mousterian groups kept isolated from African modern humans and from European ones.  The Solutreans are only apparently similar to the Aterians...

PERSONAL NOTE: 

    THE PALEOLITHIC PEOPLES FROM THE CANTABRIA CREATE THE IBEROMAURUSIAN CULTURE ABOUT 26KYA. IF U6 IS 45000 YEARS OLD AND SHE IS INDIGENOUS TO NORTHWEST AFRICA THEN SHE MUST HAVE BEEN AMONG THE FIRST PALEOLITHIC PEOPLE INTO WEST EUROPE. THEN ENTERS NWAFRICA CROSSING THE GIBRALTAR. OR SHE TOOK THE NORTH AFRICAN ROUTE FROM THE NEAR EAST, OR SOMEWHERE ELSE SUCH AS ATLANTIS?

    SHE MUST HAVE BEEN IN NORTHWEST AFRICA DURING THE ATERIAN IF SHE IS 45000 YEARS OLD AND INDIGENOUS TO NORTH AFRICA.

AND IF THERE WAS AN EAST WEST CLINE DIVIDED BY THE NILE AND U6 IS DOMINATE WEST OF THE NILE IT SEEMS LIKELY SHE WOULD HAVE ENTERED NORTHWEST AFRICA THRU THE GIBRALTAR IF NO ATERIAN FLOW ENTERED EUROPE AS THE ABOVE ARTICLE CLAIMS. 

Mechta-Afalou

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechta-Afalou

    Mechta-Afalou (Mechtoid) or Paleo-Berber are a population that inhabited parts of North Africa during the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic. They are associated with the Iberomaurusian archaeological culture. Mechtoids are believed to have been assimilated during the Neolithic and early Bronze Age by the makers of the ensuing Capsian culture. Craniometric analysis indicates that these Iberomaurusians were closely related to the early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb (Tamazgha), as well as the early Holocene Kiffians of the Sahara.

    Iberomaurusian fossils excavated at the Afalou site were found to carry the mtDNA haplogroups H or U (3/9; 33%), J (2/9; 22%), H103 (1/9; 11%), H14b1 or JT (1/9; 11%), R0a1a (1/9; 11%), and T2b (1/9; 11%). All of these are Eurasian Haplogroups.

    Iberomaurusian fossils excavated at the Ifri N'Ammar site were found to carry the Y-DNA haplogroups E-M35*(1/2; 50%) and E-L19*(1/2; 50%). All individuals carried the mtDNA haplogroup U6.

    Iberomaurusian fossils excavated at the Taforalt site were found to carry the Y-DNA haplogroups E-M78*(4/6; 66%), E-L618*(1/6; 16%), and E-M215*(1/6; 16%). All individuals carried the mtDNA haplogroups U6(6/7; 85%) and M1(1/7; 14%).

        Loosdrecht et al. (2018) analysed genome-wide data from seven ancient individuals from the Iberomaurusian Grotte des Pigeons site near Taforalt in north-eastern Morocco. The fossils were directly dated to between 15,100 and 13,900 calibrated years before present. The scientists found that all males belonged to haplogroup E1b1b, common among Afroasiatic males. The male specimens with sufficient nuclear DNA preservation belonged to the paternal haplogroup E1b1b1a1 (M78), with one skeleton bearing the E1b1b1a1b1 parent lineage to E-V13, one male specimen belonged to E1b1b (M215*). These Y-DNA clades 24,000 years BP had a common ancestor with the Berbers and the E1b1b1b (M123) subhaplogroup that has been observed in skeletal remains belonging to the Epipaleolithic Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures of the Levant.

Iberomaurusian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberomaurusian

    The Iberomaurusian is a backed bladelet lithic industry found near the coasts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. It is also known from a single major site in Libya, the Haua Fteah, where the industry is locally known as the Eastern Oranian.  The Iberomaurusian seems to have appeared around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), somewhere between c. 25,000 and 22,500 cal BP. It would have lasted until the early Holocene c. 11,000 cal BP.  The name of the Iberomaurusian means "of Iberia and Mauritania". ...

    In Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, but not in Morocco, the industry is succeeded by the Capsian industry, whose origins are unclear. The Capsian is believed either to have spread into North-Africa from the Near East, or have evolved from the Iberomaurusian. In Morocco and Western Algeria, the Iberomaurusian is succeeded by the Cardial culture after a long hiatus....

    researchers have proposed other names:  Mouillian or Mouillan, based on the site of La Mouillah (Goetz 1945-6).  The Oranian, based on the Algerian region of Oran (Breuil 1930, Gobert et al. 1932, McBurney 1967, Barker et al. 2012).  The Epipalaeolithic (Roche 1963).  The Late Upper Palaeolithic (of Northwest African facies, Barton et al. 2005).

    Genetics:  In 2013, Iberomaurusian skeletons from the prehistoric sites of Taforalt and Afalou were analyzed for ancient DNA. All of the specimens belonged to maternal clades associated with either North Africa or the northern and southern Mediterranean littoral, indicating gene flow between these areas since the Epipaleolithic. The ancient Taforalt individuals carried the mtDNA Haplogroup N subclades like U6 and M which points to population continuity in the region dating from the Iberomaurusian period....

    from seven ancient individuals from the Iberomaurusian Grotte des Pigeons site near Taforalt in eastern Morocco. The fossils were directly dated to between 15,100 and 13,900 calibrated years before present. The scientists found that all males belonged to haplogroup E1b1b, common among Afroasiatic males.... These Y-DNA clades are closely related to the E1b1b1b (M123) subhaplogroup that has been observed in skeletal remains belonging to the Epipaleolithic Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures of the Levant. Maternally, the Taforalt remains bore the U6a and M1b mtDNA haplogroups, which are common among modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Africa. A two-way admixture scenario using Natufian and modern West African samples as reference populations inferred that the seven Taforalt individuals are best modeled genetically as 63.5% Natufian-related and 36.5% Hadza-like ancestries, with no apparent gene flow from the Epigravettian culture of Paleolithic southern Europe. The scientists indicated that further ancient DNA testing at other Iberomaurusian archaeological sites would be necessary to determine whether the Taforalt samples were representative of the broader Iberomaurusian gene pool.

Capsian culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsian_culture

    Preceded by    Iberomaurusian.  Followed by Libyans.  The Capsian culture was a Mesolithic and Neolithic culture centered in the Maghreb that lasted from about 8,000 to 2,700 BC.[is this date calibrated?] It was named after the town of Gafsa in Tunisia, which was Capsa in Roman times.  The Capsian industry was concentrated mainly in modern Tunisia and Algeria, with some lithic sites attested from southern Spain to Sicily.... 

    During this period, the environment of the Maghreb was open savanna, much like modern East Africa, with Mediterranean forests at higher altitudes....  Anatomically, Capsian populations were modern Homo sapiens, traditionally classed into two variegate types: Proto-Mediterranean and Mechta-Afalou on the basis of cranial morphology....historical linguists have tentatively associated the industry with the Afroasiatic family's earliest speakers on the continent....

    Nothing is known about Capsian religion, but their burial methods suggest a belief in an afterlife. Decorative art is widely found at their sites, including figurative and abstract rock art, and ochre is found coloring both tools and corpses. Ostrich eggshells were used to make beads and containers; seashells were used for necklaces. The Ibero-Maurusian practice of extracting the central incisors continued sporadically, but became rarer.

Ancient Libya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Libya

    The Latin name Libya (from Greek Λιβύη: Libyē, which came from Berber: Libu) referred to the region west of the Nile generally corresponding to the Atlantic Mountains according to Diodorus. Its people were ancestors of the modern Libyan. They occupied the area for thousands of years before the beginning of human records in ancient Egypt. Climate changes affected the locations of the settlements....  

    In the Hellenistic period, the Berbers were known as Libyans, a Greek term for the inhabitants of the Berber world. Their lands were called "Libya" and extended from modern Morocco to the western borders of ancient Egypt. Modern Egypt contains the Siwa Oasis, which was part of ancient Libya. The Siwi language, a Berber language, is still spoken in the area. ...

    Homer names Libya, in Odyssey (IX.95; XXIII.311). Homer used the name in a geographic sense, while he called its inhabitants "Lotus-eaters"...Herodotus (1.46) used Λιβύη Libúē to indicate the African continent; the Líbues proper were the light-skinned North Africans, while those south of Egypt (and Elephantine on the Nile) were known to him as "Aethiopians";  this was also the understanding of later Greek geographers such Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, etc.  When the Greeks actually settled in the real Libya in the 630s, the old name taken from the Egyptians was applied by the Greeks of Cyrenaica, who may have coexisted with the Libu....  Latin absorbed the name from Greek and the Punic languages. The Romans would have known them before their colonization of North Africa because of the Libyan role in the Punic Wars against the Romans. The Romans used the name Líbues, but only when referring to Barca and the Libyan Desert of Egypt. The other Libyan territories were called "Africa"....  Classical Arabic literature called Libya Lubya, indicating a speculative territory west of Egypt. Modern Arabic uses Libya. The Lwatae, the tribe of Ibn Battuta, as the Arabs called it, was a Berber tribe that mainly was situated in Cyrenaica. This tribe may have ranged from the Atlantic Ocean to modern Libya, however, and was referred to by Corippius as Laguatan; he linked them with the Maures. Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah states Luwa was an ancestor of this tribe. He writes that the Berbers add an "a" and "t" to the name for the plural forms. Subsequently, it became Lwat....

    Compared with the history of Egypt, historians know little about the history of Libya, as there are few surviving written records. Information on ancient Libya comes from archaeological evidence and historic sources written by Egyptians neighbors, the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines, and from Arabs of Medieval times.

Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has become drier...dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, cairns, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step-pyramid-like mounds. Most remarkable are the trilithons, some still standing, some fallen, which occur isolated or in rows, and consist of two squared uprights standing on a common pedestal that supports a huge transverse beam. In the Terrgurt valley, Cowper says, "There had been originally no less than eighteen or twenty megalithic trilithons, in a line, each with its massive altar placed before it."

    In ancient times, the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the armies of Alexander the Great and his Ptolemaic successors from Egypt, then Romans, Vandals, and local representatives of the Byzantine Empire ruled all or parts of Libya. The territory of modern Libya had separate histories until Roman times, as Tripoli and Cyrenaica....

    The exact boundaries of Ancient Libya are unknown. It lay west of Ancient Egypt and was known as "Tjehenu" to the Ancient Egyptians. Libya was an unknown territory to the Egyptians: it was the land of the spirits.

To the Ancient Greeks, Libya was one of the three known continents along with Asia and Europe. In this sense, Libya was the whole known African continent to the west of the Nile Valley and extended south of Egypt. Herodotus described the inhabitants of Libya as two peoples: The Libyans in northern Africa and the Ethiopians in the south. According to Herodotus, Libya began where Ancient Egypt ended, and extended to Cape Spartel, south of Tangier on the Atlantic coast....After the Egyptians, the Greeks; Romans; and Byzantines mentioned various other tribes in Libya. Later tribal names differ from the Egyptian ones but, probably, some tribes were named in the Egyptian sources and the later ones, as well... All those names are similar to the name used by the Berbers for themselves, Imazighen....

    Ancient Libyan (Berber) tribes:

    There were many tribes in ancient Libya, including the now extinct Psylli, with the Libu being the most prominent. The ancient Libyans were mainly pastoral nomads, living off their goats, sheep and other livestock. Milk, meat, hides and wool were gathered from their livestock for food, tents and clothing. Ancient Egyptian sources describe Libyan men with long hair, braided and beaded, neatly parted from different sides and decorated with feathers attached to leather bands around the crown of the head while wearing thin robes of antelope hide, dyed and printed, crossing the shoulder and coming down until mid calf length to make a robe. Older men kept long braided beards. Women wore the same robes as men, plaited, decorated hair and both genders wore heavy jewelry. Depictions of Libyans in Egyptian reliefs show prominent and numerous tattoos, very similar to traditional Berber tattoos still seen today. Weapons included bows and arrows, hatchets, spears and daggers... 

    Ibn Khaldun divided the Berbers into the Batr and the Baranis.  Herodotus divided them into Eastern Libyans and Western Libyans. Eastern Libyans were nomadic shepherds east of Lake Tritonis. Western Libyans were sedentary farmers who lived west of Lake Tritonis... Ibn Khaldun and Herodotus distinguish the Libyans on the basis of their lifestyles rather than ethnic background. Modern historians tend to follow Herodotus's distinction... 

THE CHANGING RELIGIONS OF THE IMAZIGHEN...  cult of the dead > Megalithic > moon and sun > multiple gods > Egyptian-Libyans gods and goddesses > Berber and Phoenician cultures > Libyan-Greek > Roman-Berber >

Traditional Berber religion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion

    Many ancient Amazigh beliefs were developed locally, whereas others were influenced over time...  bodies of the dead were painted with ochre.  While this practice was known to the Iberomaurusians, this culture seems to have been primarily a Capsian industry...buried in a fetal position.  Unlike the majority of mainland Berbers, the Guanches mummified the dead. Additionally, Savino di Lernia discovered a Libyan mummy older than any comparable Ancient Egyptian mummy in 1958....  cult of the dead was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Berbers in antiquity....considered the spirits of their ancestors to be gods. They swore by them and consulted them. After making requests, they slept in their tombs to await responses in dreams....   pyramidal tombs spread throughout Northern Africa. The honor of being buried in such a tomb appears to have been reserved for those who were most important to their communities.... 

    Megalithic culture:  Augustine of Hippo mentioned that the polytheistic Africans worshipped the rocks. Apuleius stated as well that rocks were worshipped in the second century. The megalithic culture may have been part of a cult of the dead or of star-worship.

The monument of Msoura is the best-known megalithic monument in northwest Africa. It is composed of a circle of megaliths surrounding a tumulus....

    Herodotus mentioned that the ancient Berbers worshipped the moon and sun and sacrificed to them. He reported:

    They begin with the ear of the victim, which they cut off and throw over their house: this done, they kill the animal by twisting the neck. They sacrifice to the Sun and Moon, but not to any other god. This worship is common to all the Libyans. ..

    The Berber pantheon also contained multiple gods, known as the Dii Mauri, represented on reliefs and also the subject of dedications. During the Roman period, Saturn was the focus of an important cult, subsuming that of Baal Hammon, a deity of Punic origin. ...

    The Ancient Egyptians were the neighbors of the Berbers. Therefore, it is sometimes supposed that some deities were originally worshipped by the Ancient Egyptians and the Ancient Libyans as well. The Egyptian-Libyans gods and goddesses can be distinguished according to their origin. The Eastern ancient Berbers worshipped Isis and Set...Those Libyans supposedly did not eat the flesh of swine, because it was associated with Set, while they did not eat the cow's flesh, because it was associated with Isis.  Osiris was among the Egyptian deities who were venerated in Libya....

    The Egyptians considered some Egyptian deities to have had a Libyan origin, such as Athena... The goddess Ament was thus portrayed with two feathers, which were the normal ornaments of the Ancient Libyans as they were drawn by the Ancient Egyptians...common god of the Berbers and the Egyptians was Ammon...He was honored by the Ancient Greeks in Cyrenaica, and was united with the Phoenician god Baal due to Libyan influence. Early depictions of rams (related possibly to an early form of the cult of this deity) across North Africa have been dated to between 9600 BC and 7500 BC.  The most famous temple of Ammon in Ancient Libya was the augural temple at Siwa in Egypt, an oasis still inhabited by Berbers.

    The Phoenicians were originally a Semitic people that inhabited the coasts of modern Lebanon and Tunisia. They were seafarers and they founded Carthage in 814 BC. They later gave birth to the so-called Punic culture which had its roots in the Berber and Phoenician cultures....Some scholars distinguish the relationships between the Phoenicians and the Berbers in two phases:

    Before the Battle of Himera (480 BC)

When the Phoenicians established in Northwest Africa, they stayed in the coastal regions to avoid wars with the Berbers. They maintained their deities which they brought from their homelands. The early Carthaginians had two important deities, Baal and Astarte.

    After the Battle of Himera

Carthage began to ally with the Berber tribes after the Battle of Himera, in which the Carthaginians were defeated by the Greeks. In addition to political changes, the Carthaginians imported some of the Berber deities.

    Baal was the primary god worshipped in Carthage. Depictions of this deity are found in several sites across northwest Africa. The goddess Astarte was replaced by a native goddess, Tanit, which is thought to be of Berber origin. The name itself, Tanit, has a Berber linguistic structure. Feminine names begin and end with "t" in the Berber languages. Some scholars believe that the Egyptian goddess Neith was related to the Libyan goddess Tanit (Ta-neith). There are also Massyle and Phoenician names that apparently contain roots from the god Baal, such as Adherbal and Hannibal.

    The ancient Greeks established colonies in Cyrenaica. The Greeks influenced the eastern Libya pantheon, but they were also influenced by Libyan culture and beliefs. Generally, the Libyan-Greek relationships can be divided into two different periods. In the first period, the Greeks had peaceful relationships with the Libyans. Later, there were wars between them. These social relationships were mirrored in their beliefs....

    Before the Battle of Irassa (570 BC)

The first notable appearance of Libyan influence on the Cyrenaican-Greek beliefs is the name Cyrenaica itself. This name was originally the name of a legendary (mythic) Berber woman warrior who was known as Cyre. Cyre was, according to the legend, a courageous lion-hunting woman. She gave her name to the city Cyrenaica. The emigrating Greeks made her their protector besides their Greek god Apollo.

    The Greeks of Cyrenaica seemed also to have adopted some Berber customs and intermarried with the Berber women. Herodotus (Book IV 120) reported that the Libyans taught the Greeks how to yoke four horses to a chariot. The Cyrenaican Greeks built temples for the Libyan god Ammon instead of their original god Zeus. They later identified their supreme god Zeus with the Libyan Ammon...  The ancient historians mentioned that some Greek deities were of Libyan origin. The daughter of Zeus Athena was considered by some ancient historians, like Herodotus, to have been of Libyan origin...Herodotus also stated that Poseidon was adopted from the Libyans by the Greeks. He emphasized that no other people worshipped Poseidon from early times apart from the Libyans who spread his cult: ...Some other Greek deities were related to Libya. The goddess Lamia was believed to have originated in Libya, like Medusa and the Gorgons. The Greeks seem also to have met the god Triton in Libya. The modern day Berbers may have believed that the Hesperides was situated in modern Morocco. Some scholars situate it in Benghazi of Irassa where Antaeus lived, according to some myths. The Hesperides were believed to be the daughters of Atlas a god that is associated with the Atlas mountains by Herodotus. The Atlas mountain was worshipped by the Berbers and the Canary Islands represent to many the daughters of Atlas. But that could be wrong since all historical evidences states that the modern fay Benghazi original name which is Euesperides gave rise to the mythological associations of the garden of the Hesperides....

    After the Battle of Irassa

The Greeks and the Massyle began to break their harmony in the period of Battus II of Cyrene. Battus II began secretly to invite other Greek groups to Libya, Tunisia and East Algeria. The Libyans and Massyle considered that as a danger that had to be stopped. The Berbers began to fight against the Greeks, sometimes in alliance with the Egyptians and other times with the Carthaginians. Nevertheless, the Greeks were the victors...

    Roman-Berber beliefs:  The Romans allied firstly with the Massyle against Carthage. They defeated Carthage in 146 BC. But later, they also annexed Massyle to the Roman Empire.  According to Pliny the Elder, the Libyans honored the war goddess Ifri or Africa, who was considered to be the protector of her worshipers...  When the Romans conquered Northwest Africa, she appeared in sculpture and on the coins of the Roman states in North Africa.  The Roman pantheon seems to have been adopted generally, although the cult of Saturn, as mentioned above, was perhaps the most important.  A new god appears in later texts, identified with tribes such as the Austuriani outside the Roman frontiers of Libya. Gurzil was a war god who identified with the son of Ammon. He was taken by the Berbers to their battles against the Byzantines and Arabs....

Ochre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre

    is a natural clay earth pigment which is a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow. A variant of ochre containing a large amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as "red ochre".   The word ochre also describes clays colored with iron oxide derived during the extraction of tin and copper....  The major ingredient of all the ochres is iron(III) oxide-hydroxide, known as limonite, which gives them a yellow colour.... 

    Red ochre, Fe2O3, takes its reddish colour from the mineral hematite, which is an anhydrous iron oxide....  When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colours, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are non-toxic and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly.... 

    Aurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings...  In Wales, the paleolithic burial called the Red Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in paleolithic sites at Pech Merle in France (ca. 25,000 years old), and the cave of Altamira in Spain (ca. 16,500–15,000 BC). The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse coloured with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old....

HAPLOGROUP E YDNA MAYBE AFRICAN ORIGIN, OR EURASIAN ORIGIN.  IT IS DEBATED AND NOT PROVEN EITHER WAY.  FEMALE COMPANION OF E WAS L3.    REGARDLESS OF E ORIGIN THEY ARE NOT THE FIRST PEOPLE OF NORTHWEST AFRICA.  E MIGRATED MUCH LATER INTO NORTH AFRICA FROM THE HORN OF EAST AFRICA.  R1b ARE THE FIRST MALE PEOPLE, AND U6 AND U5 ARE THE FIRST FEMALE COMPANIONS OF R1b REFERRED TO AS AMAZIGH, AND SAAMI WHICH ARE THE FIRST NATIVE INDIGENOUS WEST EUROPEANS AND NORTH AFRICANS....

Haplogroup E-M96

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_E-M96

Haplogroup E.  Possible time of origin:  65 ka to 73 ka.  Possible place of origin:  East Africa, or West Asia.  Ancestor:  DE.  Descendants:  E-P147, E-M75.

    Haplogroup E-M96 is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the two main branches of the older and ancestral haplogroup DE, the other main branch being haplogroup D. The E-M96 clade is divided into two main subclades: the more common E-P147, and the less common E-M75.

    Origins:  ...haplogroup E may have arisen in East Africa... may have originated in Asia, given that:  E is a clade of Haplogroup DE, with the other major clade, haplogroup D, being exclusively distributed in Asia.  DE is a clade within M168 with the other two major clades, C and F, considered to have a Eurasian origin.  However,... C and F have a common ancestor meaning that DE has only one sibling which is non-African.  DE* is found in both Asia and Africa, meaning that not only one, but several siblings of D are found in Asia and Africa. ...  a much older age for haplogroup E-M96 than had been considered previously, giving it a similar age to Haplogroup D, and DE itself, meaning that there is no longer any strong reason to see it as an offshoot of DE which must have happened long after DE came into existence and had entered Asia....

    haplogroup E, arose outside Africa, arguing that, "This model of geographical segregation within the CT clade requires just one continental haplogroup exchange (E to Africa), rather than three (D, C, and F out of Africa). The timing of this putative return to Africa, between the emergence of haplogroup E and its differentiation within Africa by 58 kya, is consistent with proposals, based on non–Y chromosome data, of abundant gene flow between Africa and Arabia 50–80 kya." ...

A Eurasian center of origin and dispersal for haplogroup E has also been hypothesized based on the similar age of the clade's parent haplogroup DE and the mtDNA haplogroup L3. According to this hypothesis, after an initial Out-of-Africa migration of early anatomically modern humans around 125 kya, fully modern human E-carrying males are thus proposed to have back-migrated from the paternal haplogroup's place of origin in Eurasia around 70 kya along with females bearing the maternal haplogroup L3, which is also hypothesized to have originated in Eurasia. These new Eurasian lineages are then suggested to have largely replaced the old autochthonous male and female African lineages.... 

African origin for DE (parent haplogroup of E) with E and D0 also originating in Africa, along with the migration out of Africa of the three lineages (C, D and FT) that now form the vast majority of non-African Y chromosomes. The early divergence dates for DE, E, and D0, as found in the study, which are determined to predate the Out-of-Africa migration of ancestral Eurasians...

    Distribution:  E1a and E-M75 are found almost exclusively in Africa. By looking at the major subclade frequencies, five broad regions of Africa can be defined: East, Central, North, Southern and West. The division can be distinguished by the prevalence of E-M2 in East, Central, Southern and West Africa, E-M78 in East Africa and E-M81 in North Africa. E-M2 is the most prevalent subclade of E in Africa. It is observed at high frequencies in all African regions from moderate to high. E-M243 (especially its subclades M78 and M81) is found at high frequencies in North East Africa and North Africa and is the only subclade that is found in Europe and Asia at significant frequencies. E-M243 is common among Afro-Asiatic speakers in the Near East and North Africa as well as among some Nilo-Saharan and Niger–Congo speakers in North East Africa and Sudan. E-M243 is far less common in West, Central, and Southern Africa,...

A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa

https://www.genetics.org/content/212/4/1421

    DE lineage now contains three, rather than two, early sublineages: one exclusively African (D0), one mainly African (E), and one exclusively non-African (D)....

    In conclusion, sequencing of the D0 Y chromosomes and placement of them on a calibrated Y-chromosomal phylogeny identify the most likely model of Y-chromosomal exit from Africa: an origin of the DE lineage inside Africa and expansion out of the C, D, and FT lineages. It suggests an exit time interval that overlaps with the time of Neanderthal admixture

Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup (E-M96)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup#Haplogroup_E_(M96)

     Proposed prehistoric migrations of Y chromosome bearing humans according to the recent African origin of modern humans theory [THEORY IS NOT FACT.  KEEP THAT IN MIND.]...

    The human Y-chromosome accumulates roughly two mutations per generation. Y-DNA haplogroups represent major branches of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree that share hundreds or even thousands of mutations unique to each haplogroup.

    The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA, informally known as Y-chromosomal Adam) is the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all currently living men are descended patrilineally. Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived roughly 236,000 years ago in Africa. By examining other bottlenecks most Eurasian men are descended from a man who lived 69,000 years ago. Other major bottlenecks occurred about 50,000 years ago and subsequently most Eurasian men can trace their ancestry back to a dozen ancestors who lived 50,000 years ago....

    Y-DNA haplogroup nomenclature is changing over time to accommodate the increasing number of SNPs being discovered and tested, and the resulting expansion of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. This change in nomenclature has resulted in inconsistent nomenclature being used in different sources....

[ACCORDING TO THE MONKEY MAN THEORY THE FOLLOWING MAP SHOWS E PEOPLE COMING FROM EAST AFRICA REACHING MAGREB NOT UNTIL 10 TO 1 KYA.  IT ALSO SHOWS R1b IN WEST EUROPE 25 TO 10 KYA.  WHICH IS FURTHER PROOF THAT R1b WAS FIRST IN NORTH WEST AFRICA BEFORE THE E PEOPLE.  FURTHER PROOF IS THAT E-81 IS ONLY 3,000 YEARS OLD. 

L3 WAS THE FEMALE COMPANION TO E MALES, WHILE THE FIRST PEOPLE WERE R1b AND HIS FEMALE COMPANION MUST HAVE BEEN U6 FEMALES IN NW AFRICA, AND U5. THE FIRST PEOPLE R1b MUST HAVE BEEN REPLACED BY THE LATER E MALES WHO CAME LATER.  THUS, THE FIRST PEOPLE WERE THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH MUST BE R1b/U6.  AND ORIGINAL SAAMI R1b/U5.  JUST MY THEORY AT THIS TIME.]

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Migraciones_humanas_en_haplogrupos_de_ADN-Y.PNG/660px-Migraciones_humanas_en_haplogrupos_de_ADN-Y.PNG

THE TEMEHU WERE PROBABLY A MIX OF THE FIRST PEOPLES OF NORTH AFRICA WEST OF THE NILE REFERED TO AS THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH WHO MAY HAVE BEEN MIXED WITH OTHER PEOPLES WHO MIGRATED IN BY THE TIME OF EGYPTIAN RULE. THEY WOULD BE THE LIGHT SKIN PEOPLE MIXED WITH OTHERS. THE TEHENU WERE DARK SKIN PEOPLE SOUTH OF EGYPT WHO MIGRATED IN FROM EAST OR CENTRAL AFRICA. JMO BASED ON THIS ARTICLE...

The Temehu Tribes of Ancient Libya

https://www.temehu.com/Temehu.htm

    The Ancient Egyptians called the land and the people west of the Nile Valley the Tehenu, whom appear to have been a numerous group, as attested by Egyptian references, such as "the countries of the Tehenu" and "the chiefs of the Tehenu". But since the Temehu were also referred to as "the Westerners", those who inhabited the area immediately west of the Nile, it becomes difficult to separate between the two Berber groups. Hence, according to Oric Bates, the ancient Egyptians often did not always discriminate between the Temehu (Tmh') and the Tehenu (Th'n)....

    The Egyptians divided the human race into four classes, namely the Egyptians, the A’mu (Semites), the Neh’esu (Nubians) and the Temeh’u (Temehu) in the country Tmh’ (Libyans). The Neh'esu refers to all Africans bordering Egypt from the south, like the Ethiopians; the Temehu covers all Africans bordering Egypt from the west; and the A'mu are obviously the Semites bordering Egypt from the east (of the Middle East), like the Akkadians and the Phoenicians, whom originally were Saharan groups split from the Afro-Asiatic family around the 5th millennium BC. ...

     the Nehesu as a separate group from the Temehu, and that the Temehu designates the whole of the Libyan peoples west of the Nile – that is all the Imazighen west of the Nile including the Tehenu, the Ribu, the Nasamons, the Garamantes, etc.... 

    Tamazight, the language of the entire Berber population of North Africa, currently spanning 10 countries, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to Lake Chad....

    If Temehu were recent sea-people invaders of Egypt (or of Libya, as it was known then), then how come the ancient Egyptians considered them the natives of both Egypt and Libya? Why did they include them in their genealogy of humankind long before the arrival of the sea-people? ...The Egyptian classification of the human race serves no scientific purpose other than show the Temehu as a massive group inhabiting the whole of Libya (that is the whole of Africa west of Egypt), and thus this by itself is more than enough to put all other theories concerning the European origin of the Temehu tribes out of their 'miseries'. ...Berber groups were natives to the area since pre-dynastic times....

     The Delta was called Tameh'et, one interpretation of which is 'the lotus land', just as pictured by its hieroglyph of three lotus flowers rising from a circle (the sign for 'city'). In relation to Meh', a mention must be made of the Seven Wise Ones of the goddess Meh'-urt, who, in the beginning of time, came from water at the feet of Nu or Nun, and who, in very early times, resided over the “weighing of words” in the Hall of Meh'-urt and thus rightly identified with Libyan Maat and Neith. This simple fact was known to many scholars and Egyptologists, like Sir Alan Gardiner who has noted that the name of the Libyan tribe Temeh'w means “Lower Egypt” as well as the “Delta”, whence mh's “the crown of Lower Egypt”. The name was also mentioned as Henet-Temehu, the princess daughter of Thenet-Hep, the wife of  Ahmose I, which further illustrates the Libyan element in the Egyptian dynasties, as we shall see below.  The ancient Egyptian Timhy (Tymhy) Stone of Wawat, found in one of the Egyptian lists of royal gifts, may indicate that the stones were of a particular type purveyed to the Egyptian by the Temehu....

    Temehu were famous for being skilled stone workers and that the monuments built of polygonal masonry in Cyrenaica were the work of the Temehu people whom often referred to as “the Westerners” ('those who dwell west of the Nile').  The Libyan struggle to free the taken land of Neith is pre-dynastic in nature,...To be fairer to the truth, from the extant preserved material one can safely ascertain the Pharaohs to have been the invaders of the region, who, as told by their own history, forcibly unified Libyan Lower Egypt and Nubian Upper Egypt into what is known as Egypt: the House of [Libyan] Ptah....

    Palermo Stone, the oldest document in the world, which preserves a long list of pre-Dynastic Libyan kings & queens of Lower Egypt before its invasion by the Pharaohs. The Delta city of Sais was the centre of the worship of the Libyan Goddess Neith...Sais were mostly of Libyan Berber origin. Other Libyan Delta cults included those of the Libyan Cat-Goddess Bast at Bubastis, and Osiris & Isis at Buziris, who went on to dominate the Egyptian and Roman pantheons, and even survive to the present day in Europe as the secret cults of Isis & Osiris. It is therefore generally concluded that the Berber Tehenu tribes were the natives of the Egyptian Delta long before the menace of Menes, who forcibly unified Egypt and invaded the Tehenu territories in the north and that of the Temehu and Nubian's in the south about 3100 BC or 3400 BC...

      Egyptian pre-dynastic records such as the inscriptions found in Neith's temples, showing the usual Libyan signs and Neith's tattoos as well as the names of queens and princesses, which usually contained the element Net or Nit;...struggle between the ancient Libyans and the Egyptians goes back to pre-dynastic times...the invading Pharaohs were forcibly trying to unify the two kingdoms: the northern Libyan Lower Egypt and the southern Nubian Upper Egypt....Egyptians always referred to the Tehenu and the Temehu with titles indicating their native origin and not as foreigners;...

     (some of) the Temehu people were said to be 'fair skinned' and 'blue eyed'. Generally speaking the Libyans were in the Old Kingdom shown "red brown", with an Osiris-like chin-beard and tattoos. The Temehu, like the Tehenu, adored the Goddess Neith in tattoos.  They wore single hair locks on each side of the head and pointed beards, and had a headdress of two ostrich plumes....  The long robe, fastened at the shoulders with golden clasps, and bordered with coloured lines, was a mark of dignity and rank, and therefore was more common than the kilt (skirt, kirtle). Over this garment the Temehu occasionally wore a cloak, under which they wore either a tunic, girded at the waist and stretched almost to the knee, or nothing except a belt.... 

    The Tehenu were portrayed as tall people, dark skinned (or bronze-skinned), with long black hair, short pointed beards, slender faces and thick lips; features which closely relate them to their African relatives, whose languages were of the same group, probably originating in East or Central Africa:   the Hamito-Semitic family which is now known as Afro-Asiatic, in which both Tamazight and Egyptian were classified as close 'sister languages'. Unlike the Temehu and other Libyan groups, the Tehenu wore no feathers on their hair. Their dress consisted mainly of two leather strips worn across the chest and held with a belt along the waist, which terminated in a penistache. They also wore animal tails as a sign of royalty. In historic times, only Berber children wore side-locks; with grown-up men, it indicated either royalty or the exercise of high priestly functions, rightly identified with the rites of the Libyan Goddess Neith. The long, lock-like beard, is very similar to the beard of Osiris, which the Pharaohs also adopted as a sign of royalty.

    The Temehu kept small live stock, were skilled workers, and highly religious (or mythical) people. The main principal deities of the Temehu people were the Great Goddess Neith, and the Libyan God Amon or Amen. These two deities were later adopted by other cultures, like the Greek’s Zeus (Amon) and Athena (Neith) [see Plutarch, Pluto, Diodorus, Herodotus, etc.] The cemeteries discovered between the First and Second Cataracts (and dated to the Sixth Dynasty) were identified with the Libyan Temehu. The cemeteries show  a distinctive Libyan culture, comprising tombs with circular stone walls, burials in contracted positions, and body tattooing, most of which, according to Egyptian inscriptions, is identified with the Libyan Triple Goddess Neith par excellence.

BY THE TIME OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CONTROL THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH WERE MIXING WITH BLACKS, JEWS, ARABS, AND TEBO.  THIS MIXING CAUSED THE ORIGINAL AMAZIGH TO LOSE THEIR POWER AND THEIR LANDS.  IT APPEARS THEY WERE BEING PUSHED MORE WESTWARD AS THE INVADERS WERE SEIZING POWERS FROM THE EAST...

Libyan People

https://www.temehu.com/Libyan-People.htm

    1) The Arabs.  2) The Berbers.  3) The Tebo.  4) The Jews.  5) Ancient Berber Tribes of Libya.

    The Ancient Berber Tribes of Eastern Libya:

(ONLY A FEW TRIBES SHOWN HERE.  CLICK LINK FOR THE COMPLETE LIST.)

The lists will deal only with the ancient Berber tribes of Libya, and will not cover the modern Berber tribes of the country. All the following tribes existed in classical times, during the times of Herodotus and Ptolemy, and some of which were earlier mentioned by the Ancient Egyptians.  Many of these ancient tribes were still present in the area when the Arabs arrived in North Africa in the 7th century,...

    Temeh’u, Tmh':   from the extent of their territories appear to have been comprised of various communities or tribes. The cemeteries of a distinctive non-Egyptian people, discovered between the First and Second Cataracts and dated to the Sixth Dynasty, were identified with the Libyan Temehu. In late dynastic times the Egyptians divided the human race into four classes, namely the Egyptians, the A’mu (Semitic), the Neh’esu (black Africans) and the Temeh’u (the Berbers); and thus Temeh’u designates the whole of the Temazight-speaking communities west of the Nile.

    Teh’nu: in the country Th’nw of ancient Egypt: designate the Berber people inhabiting the countries west of the Nile Valley (Fayum, the northern oases, and between the Egyptians and the Rebu). They are normally mentioned in the plural form such as "the countries of the Teh’nu"  and "the chiefs of Teh’nu", and were identified with the ancient inhabitants of the Egyptian Delta.

    Rebu:  this tribe was located farther west of Temeh’u and Teh’nu, in the region of Cyrenaica. The name Libya comes from this eastern tribe, known to the ancient Egyptians as Rebu. According to Bates (p. 80), Lbki, the earlier name of Leptis, is the same as Libu, in which the U being marked by an equivalent K....The Rebu group comprised a number of tribes along the north of Libya,...

    Kehek: the Kehek appear to have been a fairly numerous tribe, since they supplied the Egyptians with mercenaries. They were a close ally of the more powerful Rebu.  From their number and association with the Rebu, they have been placed by Bates (with reserve) in the interior of the territories of the Rebu.

    Meshwesh: a powerful group of allied Berber tribes of eastern Libya, who were able to regain the lost Egyptian throne (Shoshenq, Sheshenq).  The name Meshwesh is but one form of the generic Berber appellative MZGH, as seen in such classical forms as MaXY-es and MaZY-es. In ca. 945 BC the the Libyan Berber king Shishenq, from the Meshwash tribe, succeeded in establishing the 22nd Dynasty in Egypt; momentarily fulfilling the prophesy of the ancestors.

    Nasamones: the territories of the Nasamones extended from the coast, bordering the eastern part of the Greater Syrtis, into the interior of Augila, and even roamed far to the south and west towards the borders of the Garamantes.  According to Herodotus: “A numerous tribe, who in the summer leave their cattle on the coast and go up country to a place called Augila  for the date harvest.  The date-palms here grow in large numbers and to a great size, and are all of the fruit-bearing kind.  These people also catch locusts, which they dry in the sun and grind up fine; then they sprinkle the powder on milk and drink it” (iv. [167-174]). Recorded history informs us that the Forgotten begotten five Nasamonian brothers were the first geographers to explore the Sahara desert and as such we must remember them as such.

    Adyrmachidae: from the Egyptian Delta westwards to the harbour called Port Plynus (Port Bardia) [Herodotus, iiii. 328]. This old ethnic group is one of the ancient Libyan tribes of the Delta of Egypt, long before Shishenq of the Meshwesh tribe recovered the throne during the 22 dynasty, and so it was said the Adyrmachidae way of life is more or less Egyptian in character - that is the Egyptian way of life was more or less Berber.  They dress like the rest of the Libyans, and their women wear a bronze ring on each leg, and grow their hair long; when they catch a bug on their persons, they give it bite for bite before throwing it away. They are the only Libyan tribe to follow this practice.

    Libyaegyptii: or Libues Aegyptii is a mixed tribe, who were located by Ptolemy west of the Nile in Middle Egypt, and therefore may have been the dwellers of the oases H’argah, Dah’lah, etc.

    Leucaethiopes: Leucoe Aethiopes ('the White Aethiopians'), placed by Pliny  south of  Liby-Egyptian tribe. Oric Bates says the location is too vague to be of value geographically, and these Leucaethiopes of Pliny may be the Libyans of the Nubian Nile.

    Libyaethiopes: a mix of Ethiopians and Libyans, which my indicate a Nubian tribe, or another tribe farther south (Orosius i. 2 § 88).

    Asbystae: west of  Giligamae, in the vicinity of Cyrene, but not reaching the coast. They are conspicuous amongst the Libyans for their use of four-horse chariots.

    Nitriotae: in west Egypt: this locative name  indicated an ethnic fusion of Berbers and Egyptians, the inhabitants of the modern Wady Natrun, west of the Delta and  in the northern Fayum.

    Hes’:  mentioned once  with the Shai, the Hassah, a modern  Arabo-Berber  tribe of  Cyrenaica.

Tamazight (Berber) Mythology

https://www.temehu.com/imazighen/tamazight-mythology.htm

    A considerable amount of the traditional lore of the matriarchal Berbers is still based on the worship of the Ancestors and the Dead. Most of the Berbers' ancestral doctrines also form an integral part of the jinn lore. Westermarck had pointed out that many of the Berber religious and mythological principles were practiced mostly by Berber women under the disguise of Tomb Worship, where women regularly visit the tombs and perform various rituals in association with the ancient ancestors and the dead, such as receiving sacred prophecy through dreams obtained by sleeping in tombs of holy ancestors. This current practice, according to Herodotus, goes back to the ancient Libyan Nasamon Berbers, and it may even go back much farther in time since sacred traditions are indeed carried forward from previous generations....

    The Libyan Amazons:  According to several historical records, the Libyan birthplace of the Goddess Neith was also the  traditional homeland of the warrior women known as the Libyan Amazons, in the western parts of Libya, particularly around the legendary Lake Tritonis (southern Tunisia today). The etymology of the name "Amazon" is still undecided, with European enthusiasts deriving the name from Greek Muse, and Berberists linking it with Amazigh and Tamezyant. ...

    List of Berber Mythological Goddesses & Gods:

    The Libyan Gorgon Medusa, who often led the Libyans of Lake Tritonis in battle, against her enemies, was said to have once been a beautiful maiden until Poseidon lay with her and incurred the enmity of the goddess Athena, who turned Medusa's lovely hair into serpents and made her face so hideous that a glimpse of it would instantly turn man into stone. Jealous Athena helped brave Perseus, who was coming from Argos with an army, to behead Medusa; and the drops of blood that fell from Medusa's severed head onto the Libyan sand were transformed into snakes....

    The Libyan Goddess Tannit (Neith)...She is the wife of the Punic god Bal Hamon. She was the goddess of sowing, harvest and fertility, and a sky goddess essentially associated with the moon...emerged after the 5th century BC. She appears to be of Libyan origin....

    In Greek mythology, Antaeus was said to be a Libyan giant, son of Poseidon and mother-earth Gaia, and the husband of  Tinga, a name often linked with Tangier in Morocco.

    Gurzil: son of the Berber Siwan God Ammon. The Laguatans personified Gurzil in a magical bull (taurus), which they let loose in battle, and thus he was associated with "War"...

    Libya:  The Great Berber Goddess Libya (also known as Sibyl or Libica).  The Goddess "Libya" had three sons by the Libyan Sea-God Poseidon: Belus, Agenor and Lelex. King Belus ruled  at Chemmis or Chamesis of Leo Africanus,  Agenor migrated to Cana'an (the Middle East), and Lelex became king of Megara. The myth relates an interesting "deception tale" in which Danaus was sent to rule Libya where he had fifty daughters, and Aegyptus, who had fifty sons, ruled over Egypt.

    Belus:  King Belus, who ruled at Chemmis, was the son of the Goddess Libya by Poseidon, and the twin brother of Agenor and Lelex.  His wife Anchinoe, daughter of the Nile-god, Nilus, bore him the twins Aegyptus and Danaus and a third son Cepheus, and  one daughter:  Lamia, the Libyan Snake-goddess.

    Poseidon:  According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Greeks obtained their knowledge of  the Sea-God Poseidon from the Libyans (meaning the Berbers), whose cult was in high repute among the coastwise Libyans, and was especially worshipped about Lake Tritonis; while Plato says Poseidon was the chief God of Atlantis; arguably located near the Atlas Mountain in North Africa. Poseidon's son Triton was also worshipped around the Lake, and, according to Ibid, his female counterpart "Tritonis" bore the Goddess "Athena". Poseidon's wife, Libya, was made the daughter of Zeus's son Epaphus, the divine bull, the Libyan Gurzil.

    Awessu:  Awessu was originally a sea ceremony held in the town of Zuwarah, in west Libya, during the period between the end of July and the beginning of August - a name which some linguists mistakenly see as the source of the name Awessu itself. The name could have been a name of a sea deity of some sort, since the associated rite is clearly a religious ceremony to attract the good and banish the bad...

    The Goddess Libya has so many names (or titles) including Sibyl and Libica. The massive book represents the Berber civilisation created by Berber women, before the onslaught of patriarchy sent them back to slavery, where they remained so to this day.

    This matriarchal Tamazight civilisation had inspired Libya's neighbours (like Ancient Egypt and Greece) to incorporate the obscure mysteries of Libyan lore into their mythologies long before they ended up as corrupt "political cartoons" in classical mythology.

    The powerful muscular body reflects the power Berber women had in prehistoric times before the onslaught of patriarchy. They were the goddesses of the Goddess (regulating religion); the priestesses of  the temple (venerating Mother); the oracles (foretelling the future); the Queens (governing the egalitarian kingdom); and the Amazon fighters (defending the nation). Men then suckled like babies in the cradle of civilisation: LIBYA.

    The prophesy of the Libyan Sibyl was simple: "coming of the day when that which is hidden shall be revealed." 

CYBELE WAS THE GREAT MOTHER GODDESS WHO LIVED ON THE MOUNTAIN.  VARIOUS BELIEFS GREAT MOTHER RESIDES WITH FATHER SKY IN HEAVEN, OR SHE IS AN EARTH GODDESS.  SIBYL IS A PRIESSTESS OF GREAT MOTHER , AND SHE CAN BE PRIESSTESS OF GREAT FATHER.  SOME CLAIM SIBYL IS A GODDESS OF THE GREAT MOTHER GODDESS.

LYBIAN SYBIL PHEMONOE PRESIDES OVER ZEUS AMMON.  NAMES CHANGE FREQUENTLY AS THE FATHER GOD ZEUS CAN BE BAAL, ZEUS, APPOLLO, PHOEBUS, AND MANY OTHER NAMES.  THE MOTHER GODDESS HAS MANY NAMES AS WELL.  THE CYBIL, OR MOTHER GODDESS IS LYBIA IN NORTH AFRICA PRESIDES OVER THE FATHER GOD.  PROBABLY THIS MOTHER CULT BROUGHT IN BY THE PHOENICIANS, AND GREEKS.  THE GREEK SIBYL HEROPHILE WAS FROM MARPESSOS IN ANATOLIA.  BUT, THE TWO APPEAR TO BE THE SAME ACCORDING TO THESE ARTICLES.  AND ALSO CONSIDERS HER TO BE THE CUMAEAN SIBIL OF ITALY.

WHICH DIRECTION THE BELIEF ORIGINATED IS DEBATEABLE AS SO MUCH WENT BACK AND FORTH AFTER THE GREEKS AND PHOENICIANS MIGRATED IN.  BUT ACCORDING TO PAUSANIUS IT CAME FIRST FROM LYBIA:  "There is a rock rising up above the ground. On it, say the Delphians, there stood and chanted the oracles a woman, by name Herophile and surnamed Sibyl. The former Sibyl I find was as ancient as any; the Greeks say that she was a daughter of Zeus by Lamia, daughter of Poseidon, that she was the first woman to chant oracles, and that the name Sibyl was given her by the Libyans."  THUS IT COULD HAVE CAME FROM THE AMAZIGH THEN TO ANATOLIA AND THEN BACK TO LYBIA IN THE NEOLITHIC THEN BACK AGAIN WITH THE GREEK AND PHOENICIANS.  OR IT MAY HAVE BEEN THE RELIGION AMONGST ALL THE PEOPLE AT THE TIME FROM THE ATLANTIC TO SIBERIA AND BEYOND.  NAMES, AND STORIES DIFFERING WITH THE DIFFERING PEOPLES AND DIFFENT TIME PERIODS BEING PASSED ON BUT SIMILAR IN NATURE.  HOWEVER, MOTHER GODDESS RELIGION MAY PREDATE ANCESTOR WORSHIP...

Libyan Sibyl

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Sibyl

    The Libyan Sibyl, named Phemonoe, was the prophetic priestess presiding over the Oracle of Zeus-Ammon (Zeus represented with the Horns of Ammon) at Siwa Oasis in the Libyan Desert.  The word Sibyl comes (via Latin) from the ancient Greek word sibylla, meaning prophetess. There were many Sibyls in the ancient world, but the Libyan Sibyl, in Classical mythology, foretold the "coming of the day when that which is hidden shall be revealed."

    In Pausanias Description of Greece, the sibyl names her parents in her oracles:

    I am by birth half mortal, half divine;

    An immortal nymph was my mother, my father an eater of grain;

    On my mother's side of Idaean birth, but my fatherland was red

    Marpessus, sacred to the Mother, and the river Aidoneus. (Pausanias 10.12.3)

    The Greeks say she was the daughter of Zeus and Lamia a daughter of Poseidon. Euripides mentions the Libyan Sibyl in the prologue of the Lamia. The Greeks further state that she was the first woman to chant oracles, she lived most of her life in Samos, and that the name Sibyl was given her by the Libyans.

Marpessos

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marpessos

birthplace of the Hellespontine Sibyl Herophile...The detailed narrative which Pausanias preserves relates that the Sibyl was born at Marpessos prior to the Trojan War and that her mother was a nymph from Mount Ida and her father a mortal. Demetrios gleaned this information from one of her oracles which he preserves:

            I am by birth half mortal, half divine;

            An immortal nymph was my mother, my father an eater of corn;

            On my mother's side of Idaean birth, but my fatherland was red

            Marpessos, sacred to the Mother, and the river Aidoneus.

The reference to Marpessos being "sacred to the Mother" indicates that there was a cult of Cybele at the settlement, a goddess traditionally thought to have resided on Mount Ida. This passage, with its references to Mount Ida, the red soil of Marpessos, and the river Aidoneus, has also allowed scholars to locate the ancient remains of Marpessos. Two important divergences from the Heraclides tradition are, firstly, that she is thought to have lived before the Trojan Wars, not in the early 6th century BCE and, secondly, that she is named Herophile, which in the Heraclides tradition is instead the name attributed to the Cumaean Sibyl in Italy. Demetrios also relates that the inhabitants of Alexandria Troas had a local tradition in which they claimed that towards the end of her life Herophile had become a neokoros (temple warden) at the sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus in the territory of Alexandria Troas, and displayed a funerary epitaph for her to prove that she had been buried in the sanctuary:

            Here I am, the plain-speaking Sibyl of Phoebus,

            Hidden beneath this stone tomb.

            A maiden once gifted with voice, but now for ever voiceless,

            By hard fate doomed to this fetter.

            But I am buried near the nymphs and this Hermes,

            Enjoying in the world below a part of the kingdom I had then.

Pausanias  10.12.3

http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&getid=1&query=Paus.%2010.12.3

    10.11.6

The Athenians also built a portico out of the spoils they took in their war against the Peloponnesians and their Greek allies. There are also dedicated the figure-heads of ships and bronze shields. The inscription on them enumerates the cities from which the Athenians sent the first-fruits: Elis, Lacedaemon, Sicyon, Megara, Pellene in Achaia, Ambracia, Leucas, and Corinth itself. It also says that from the spoils taken in these sea-battles a sacrifice was offered to Theseus and to Poseidon at the cape called Rhium. It seems to me that the inscription refers to Phormio, son of Asopichus, and to his achievements. [Note]

    10.12.1

There is a rock rising up above the ground. On it, say the Delphians, there stood and chanted the oracles a woman, by name Herophile and surnamed Sibyl. The former Sibyl I find was as ancient as any; the Greeks say that she was a daughter of Zeus by Lamia, daughter of Poseidon, that she was the first woman to chant oracles, and that the name Sibyl was given her by the Libyans.

    10.12.2

Herophile was younger than she was, but nevertheless she too was clearly born before the Trojan war, as she foretold in her oracles that Helen would be brought up in Sparta to be the ruin of Asia and of Europe, and that for her sake the Greeks would capture Troy. The Delians remember also a hymn this woman composed to Apollo. In her poem she calls herself not only Herophile but also Artemis, and the wedded wife of Apollo, saying too sometimes that she is his sister, and sometimes that she is his daughter.

    10.12.3

These statements she made in her poetry when in a frenzy and possessed by the god. Elsewhere in her oracles she states that her mother was an immortal, one of the nymphs of Ida, while her father was a human. These are the verses:—

I am by birth half mortal, half divine;

An immortal nymph was my mother, my father an eater of corn;

On my mother's side of Idaean birth, but my fatherland was red

Marpessus, sacred to the Mother, and the river Aidoneus.

    10.12.4

Even to-day there remain on Trojan Ida the ruins of the city Marpessus, with some sixty inhabitants. All the land around Marpessus is reddish and terribly parched, so that the light and porous nature of Ida in this place is in my opinion the reason why the river Aidoneus sinks into the ground, rises to sink once more, finally disappearing altogether beneath the earth. Marpessus is two hundred and forty stades distant from Alexandria in the Troad.

    10.12.5

The inhabitants of this Alexandria say that Herophile became the attendant of the temple of Apollo Smintheus, and that on the occasion of Hecuba's dream she uttered the prophecy which we know was actually fulfilled. This Sibyl passed the greater part of her life in Samos, but she also visited Clarus in the territory of Colophon, Delos and Delphi. Whenever she visited Delphi, she would stand on this rock and sing her chants.

    10.12.6

However, death came upon her in the Troad, and her tomb is in the grove of the Sminthian with these elegiac verses inscribed upon the tomb-stone:—

Here I am, the plain-speaking Sibyl of Phoebus,

Hidden beneath this stone tomb.

A maiden once gifted with voice, but now for ever voiceless,

By hard fate doomed to this fetter.

But I am buried near the nymphs and this Hermes,

Enjoying in the world below a part of the kingdom I had then.

The Hermes stands by the side of the tomb, a square-shaped figure of stone. On the left is water running down into a well, and the images of the nymphs.

    10.12.7

The Erythraeans, who are more eager than any other Greeks to lay claim to Herophile, adduce as evidence a mountain called Mount Corycus with a cave in it, saying that Herophile was born in it, and that she was a daughter of Theodorus, a shepherd of the district, and of a nymph. They add that the surname Idaean was given to the nymph simply because the men of those days called idai places that were thickly wooded. The verse about Marpessus and the river Aidoneus is cut out of the oracles by the Erythraeans.

    [Sibyl of Phoebus:  Apollo is a very complex deity. As a god of shepherds, he was associated with music and was a protector of flocks. He was also god of medicine, and he replaced Hyperion and Helius as a god of the sun. He is often called PHOEBUS [fee'bus], or PHOIBOS, Apollo, an epithet that means “bright.” ] https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780195397703/student/materials/chapter11/summary/

    [Cumaean Sibyl:  The sibyls at Cumae in Italy were famous. Most famous among them was the CUMAEAN Sibyl, who was Aeneas’ guide in the Underworld. We learn about this Sibyl from Ovid.]

MOTHER EARTH GODDESS PREDATES ANCESTOR WORSHIP ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE.  IT DATES PRIOR TO 25,000BCE.  FOUND FROM IBERIA TO SIBERIA....

BOOK OF SHADOWS  WICCAN HISTORY

https://www.sacred-texts.com/bos/bos318.htm

The earliest remains of ancient civilization indicating some form

          of Goddess  worship were in the  caves in Lascaux, France.   Here, the

          first and earliest non-anthropomorphic divine figures were  symbolized

          by  the horse  for female Divinity  and the  Bison as  the male divine

          influence.   This  portion of  the cave  was painted  in approximately

          17,000  B.C.E. and sealed  approximately 10,000 B.C.E.   The anthropo-

          morphic Goddess figures appear sometime approximately 7,000 B.C.E. The

          earliest remains in  Catal Huyuk  have been reliably  carbon dated  to

          6,500  B.C. and show some interesting parallels  in that the horse was

          replaced with an  anthropomorphic goddess  and the Bison  (an ice  age

          animal)  has been replaced with  the aurochs bull,  ancestor of modern

          cattle.  The anthropomorphic Goddess is an Earth Mother and the nearby

          volcanoes (then active) were considered her breasts.1

                          One major conjecture has been that  the concept of the creator of

          all human life may have been formulated by the clan's  image of women.

          The  reasoning behind this conjecture lies in the observations in this

          century  of the few remaining Paleolithic type cultures.  These Paleo-

          lithic  cultures tend to be woman centered  since it is from the women

          that  babies come  and  the women  are  absolutely essential  for  the

          continuation of the tribe or clan.  Current information also indicates

          that it is also probable that the mother was regarded  as the sole (or

          at least  primary) parent of children in  this culture, and that there

          was a  definite pattern of ancestor worship.  It is also very probable

          that ancestry was matrilineal.

               The most tangible  evidence that these very  ancient cultures and

          their predecessors worshipped a goddess is the  numerous sculptures of

          women  found throughout  most of Europe  and the  Near east.   Some of

          these sculptures  date  as  far back as  25,000 B.C.E.!   Small female

          figurines, made of stone, bone and clay (most seemingly pregnant) have

          been found throughout  the widespread Gravettian-Aurignacian  sites as

          far apart as Spain,  France, Germany, Austria, and Russia  spanning an

          apparent period of  at least 10,000  years.  Erich  Neumnann, in  "The

          Great Mother" (p.95) says-  "Of the Stone Age sculptures  known to us,

          there are fifty-five female figures and  only five male figures.   The

          male figures, of youths, are atypical and poorly executed, hence it is

          certain that they had no significance for the cult.  This fits in with

          the secondary character of  the male godhead, who appeared  only later

          in  the history  of religions  and  derived his  divine rank  from his

          mother, the Goddess."

               Johannes  Maringer, in  his book  the  "Gods of  Prehistoric Man"

          says-  "it appears highly probable then that the female figurines were

          idols of a Great Mother cult, practiced by the non-nomadic Aurignacian

          mammoth hunters  who inhabited  the immense Eurasian  territories that

          extended from Southern   France to  Lake Baikal in  Siberia."  It  was

          from the Lake Baikal area in  Siberia that tribes are believed to have

          migrated across the  Bering land  bridge to North  America about  this

          time period, and formed the  nucleus of what was to become the race of

          North American Indians.  In some primitive societies known to history,

          the male role in procreation was not known.  Intercourse and pregnancy

          both begin with puberty, and there was no evident reason to regard one

          as the  cause of the other.  Women were  believed to conceive from the

          light of the moon or from ancestral spirits.

         Neolithic  cultures have left a  bit more evidence  for study and

          the images are a bit clearer and less speculative.   One good instance

          of this  is the stone age  painting of a priestess  officiating over a

          group of worshippers along with a male wearing a horned headdress.  An

          interesting point here  is that  the priestess pictured  is wearing  a

          garter and wielding a  ceremonial dagger, much  like the ones used  in

          modern witchcraft.  Of course much  has been made of this, including a

          lot of unfounded speculations on  the "ancient connections" of  modern

          witchcraft, but that is a topic beyond the scope of  the present work.

          The beginnings  of Roman religion are  sure to have been  based on the

          Etruscan  culture.  Ancestor worship was the earliest form of religion

          in Rome.... 

PHOENIX WAS A RESURRECTING BIRD LIKE EGYPT BENNU BIRD, AND TURC SAMRUK.  SO DID THIS BELIEF OF THE SACRED BIRD COME FROM ANCIENT URALIC/SIBERIA TURC, OR FROM ATLANTIS?  THE SACRED BIRD MAY HAVE COME FROM THE NEOLITHIC MIGRATING TO NORTH AFRICA, OR IT MAY HAVE BEEN THE STORY FROM THE FIRST PEOPLE AMAZIGH.

IS BAAL (SON GOD) ACTUALLY POSEIDONS SON BEL?

THIS ARTICLE SUMS MY THEORY THAT LYBIA SON ARE THE PRE CANANITE AND/OR ARE THE CANANITES PEOPLES BEFORE THE SEMITES RAN THEM OFF.  AND THESE PRE CANANITE PEOPLE WERE ALSO THE CHALDEANS OR CELTS OF BABYLON.  MOST LIKELY KASSITES WERE MIXED IN.  SO THAT THE PHOENICIANS WERE PROBABLY NATIONALITY NOT A RACE BUT A MIX OF LOCAL INDIGENOUS LIKE THE AMAZIGH, ALONG WITH TURANIANS, AND ARYANS.  THEN THE SEMITES TAKE OVER AND GENOCIDE THE PEOPLE OF THE LAND WITH MANY ESCAPING AS SOME WENT WEST AND SOME FLED EAST.

BELUS APPOINTED THE PRIEST-ASTROLOGERS OVER THE COLONY HE FOUNDED ON THE EUPHRATES RIVER. THE BABYLONIANS CALLED THESE PRIESTS THE CHALDEANS. SOME ARTICLES CLAIM THE TERM CELT REFERS TO CHALDEAN. SO CHALDEANS ARE THE PRIESTS OF BEL. BAAL MAY ALSO BE ANOTHER SPELLING FOR BEL, IDK. BEL IS A SUN GOD FROM THE SUN CULTS OF FATHER SKY WHOM ARE INDO-EUROPEANS, ARYANS, TURCS, ETC. OF FATHER SKY RELIGION. THE SUN CULTS HAVE MANY DIFFERENT NAMES OF THEIR SUN GOD DEPENDING ON TIME, PLACE, CULTURE, ETC...

FROM EGYPTIAN B OR BA IS THE SPIRIT, AND EL OR AL IS GOD. SO THAT BEL OR BAAL MAY BE DEFINED AS THE SPIRIT OF GOD...

I WOULD TAKE LIGHTLY THE FOLLOWING STORIES AS IT COULD BE WRITERS BIAS, MISINTERPRETATIONS OVER TIME, UNAVAILABLE INFORMATION, AND VICTORS WHICH WRITE HISTORY WHICH EXPLAINS DIFFERENCES FROM ONE STORY TO THE NEXT...

Poseidon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon

     god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses....In Plato's Timaeus and Critias, the island of Atlantis was Poseidon's domain....Poseidon supports the Greeks against the Trojans during the Trojan War...

    The origins of the name "Poseidon" are unclear. One theory...lord or spouse of Da, i.e. of the earth; this would link him with Demeter, "Earth-mother"...Another theory...master of waters.  There is also the possibility that the word has Pre-Greek origin....

    Origins:  It seems that the Arcadian myth is related with the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the Bronze Age. Their religious beliefs were mixed with the beliefs of the indigenous population. It is possible that the Greeks did not bring with them other gods except Zeus, Eos, and the Dioskouroi. The horse (numina) was related with the liquid element, and with the underworld. Poseidon appears as a beast (horse), which is the river spirit of the underworld, as it usually happens in northern-European folklore, and not unusually in Greece. Poseidon "Wanax", is the male companion (paredros) of the goddess of nature. In the relative Minoan myth, Pasiphaë is mating with the white bull, and she bears the hybrid creature Minotaur. The Bull was the old pre-Olympian Poseidon....   when the world was divided by lot among his three sons; Zeus was given the sky, Hades the underworld, and Poseidon the sea, with the Earth and Mount Olympus belonging to all three....

    According to Pausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation-sacrifice....

    Birth:  Poseidon was the second son of the Titans Cronus[SON OF URANUS SKY FATHER AND GAIA MOTHER EARTH] and Rhea[DAUGHTER OF GAIA MOTHER EARTH AND URANUS FATHER SKY]. In most accounts he is swallowed by Cronus at birth and is later saved, along with his other brothers and sisters, by Zeus....

    Poseidon was said to have had many lovers... His consort was Amphitrite, a nymph and ancient sea-goddess, daughter of Nereus and Doris. Together they had a son named Triton, a merman. ...    A mortal woman named Cleito once lived on an isolated island; Poseidon fell in love with the human mortal and created a dwelling sanctuary at the top of a hill near the middle of the island and surrounded the dwelling with rings of water and land to protect her. She gave birth to five sets of twin boys; the firstborn, Atlas, became the first ruler of Atlantis....   

    POSEIDON + LYBIA = AGENOR, BELUS, AND LELUX.

Lelex was one of the original inhabitants of Laconia which was called after him, its first king, Lelegia....

Belus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belus_(Egyptian) was a king of Egypt and father of Aegyptus and Danaus and brother to Agenor. The wife of Belus has been named as Achiroe, or Side (eponym of the Phoenician city of Sidon).

Belus founded a colony on the river Euphrates, and appointed the priests-astrologers whom the Babylonians call Chaldeans...   The Bibliotheca also claims that Agenor was Belus' twin brother. Belus ruled in Egypt, and Agenor ruled over Sidon and Tyre in Phoenicia. The wife of Belus has been named as Achiroe, allegedly daughter of the river-god Nilus. Her sons Aegyptus and Danaus were twins. Later Aegyptus ruled over Egypt and Arabia, and Danaus ruled over Libya...  According to Pherecydes, Belus also had a daughter named Damno who married Agenor (Belus' brother, her uncle) and bore to him Phoenix...  Nonnus makes Belus the father of five sons, namely Phineus, Phoenix, Agenor (identified as the father of Cadmus), Aegyptus, and Danaus, though Nonnus elsewhere makes Phineus to be Cadmus' brother. Nonnus has Cadmus identify Belus as "the Libyan Zeus" and refer to the "new voice of Zeus Asbystes", meaning the oracle of Zeus Ammon at Asbystes....

Belus and Ba‘al:  Modern writers suppose a possible connection between Belus and one or another god who bore the common northwest Semitic title Ba‘al.[citation needed] According to some sources Belus was the son of Poseidon by Libya, he is associated with Babylon and Assyria, and his name is an echo of the Canaanite god Baal, which are linguistically synonymous with Enlil and Marduk, and also in ancient Levantine/Canaanite mythology, a fertility god, whose attributes are lightning, rainstorms and the forces of nature.

Agenor https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenor was a Phoenician king of Tyre.  Herodotus estimates that Agenor lived sometime before the year 2000 BC....  Sources differ also as to Agenor's children; he is sometimes said to have been the father of Cadmus, Europa, Cilix, Phoenix, and Thasus. Some sources state that Phoenix was Agenor's brother (and Belus's son); and it was Phoenix who was the father of these individuals. Agenor's wife is variously given as Telephassa, Argiope, Antiope, and Tyro, with the latter giving her name to the city of Tyre. According to Pherecydes, Agenor's first wife was Damno, daughter of Belus, who bore him Phoenix and two otherwise unknown daughters, Isaia and Melia, who married Aegyptus and Danaus respectively; Agenor then fathered Cadmus with Argiope, daughter of Neilus.

In the Iliad, however, Europa is clearly a daughter of Phoenix.  Either Cadmus or Europa are confirmed as children of Phoenix by the Ehoeae attributed to Hesiod and by Bacchylides and by various scholia. Cilix and Phineus are also sons of Phoenix according to Pherecydes, who also adds an otherwise unknown son named Doryclus. ...

    Mythology

Zeus saw Agenor's daughter Europa gathering flowers and immediately fell in love with her. Zeus transformed himself into a white bull and carried Europa away to the island of Crete. He then revealed his true identity and Europa became the first queen of Crete. Agenor, meanwhile, sent Europa's brothers, Cadmus and Cilix in search of her, telling them not to return without her. In some versions of the tale, Agenor sends her other brothers as well: Phineus or Thasus (and of course Phoenix in the versions where the Cadmus's father is Agenor).  As Europa could not be found, none of the brothers returned. Cadmus consulted the oracle of Delphi and was advised to travel until encountering a cow. He was to follow this cow and to found a city where the cow would lie down; this city became Thebes. Cilix searched for her and settled down in Asia Minor. The land was called Cilicia after him.

    Virgil calls Carthage the city of Agenor, by which he alludes to the descent of Dido from Agenor. German philologist Philipp Karl Buttmann points out that the genuine Phoenician name of Agenor was Chnas or Khna, which is the same as Canaan, and upon these facts he builds the hypothesis that Agenor or Chnas is the same as the Canaan in the books of Moses. Quintus Curtius Rufus considered Agenor to have been the founder of Sidon, and he was also popularly supposed to have introduced the Phoenician alphabet, which was later taught by Cadmus to the Greeks and became the foundation of their own writing system....

The Story of Atlantis

https://www.sacred-texts.com/atl/soa/

Religion

https://www.sacred-texts.com/atl/soa/soa38.htm

    It will be remembered that the government under which the Rmoahals came into existence, was described as the most perfect conceivable, for it was the Manu himself who acted as their king. The memory of this divine ruler was naturally preserved in the annals of the race, and in due time he came to be regarded as a god, among a people who were naturally psychic, and had consequently glimpses of those states of consciousness which transcend our ordinary waking condition. Retaining these higher attributes it was only natural that this primitive people should adopt a religion which, though in no way representative of any exalted philosophy, was of a type far from ignoble. In later days this phase of religious belief passed into a kind of ancestor-worship.

    The Tlavatli, while inheriting the traditional reverence and worship for the Manu, were taught by Adept instructors of the existence of a Supreme Being whose symbol was recognised as the sun. They thus developed a sort of sun worship, for the practice of which they repaired to the hill-tops. There they built great circles of upright monoliths. These were intended to be symbolical of the sun's yearly course, but they were also used for astronomical purposes--being placed so that, to one standing at the high altar, the sun would rise at the winter solstice behind one of these monoliths, at the vernal equinox behind another, and so on throughout the year. Astronomical observations of a still more complex character connected with the more distant constellations were also helped by these stone circles.

    We have already seen under the head of emigrations how a later sub-race--the Akkadians--in the erection of Stonehenge, reverted to this primitive building of monoliths....

Sun and fire worship then became the cult for the celebration of which magnificent temples were reared throughout the length and breadth of the continent of Atlantis...  The evil days were drawing near when no altruistic idea should remain to redeem the race from the abyss of selfishness in which it was destined to be overwhelmed. The decay of the ethical idea...Each man was his own "Law, and Lord and God," and the very worship of the temples ceased ... 

    Trinity personifying the cosmic powers of the universe as Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer, became publicly known in some irregular manner in the Turanian days. This idea was still further materialized and degraded by the Semites into a strictly anthropomorphic Trinity consisting of father, mother and child.  A further and rather terrible development of the Turanian times must still be referred to. With the practice of sorcery many of the inhabitants had, of course, become aware of the existence of powerful elementals--creatures who had been called into being, or at least animated by their own powerful wills...  The ritual with which these beings were worshipped was bloodstained from the very start, and of course every sacrifice offered at their shrines...  Though inaugurated and widely practised by the brutal Turanians, this blood-stained ritual seems never to have spread to any extent among the other sub-races, though human sacrifices appear to have been not uncommon among some branches of the Semites.

    In the great Toltec empire of Mexico the sun-worship of their forefathers was still the national religion, while the bloodless offerings to their beneficent Deity, Quetzalcoatl, consisted merely of flowers and fruit. It was only with the coming of the savage Aztecs that the harmless Mexican ritual was supplemented with the blood of human sacrifices, which drenched the altars of their war-god, Huitzilopochtli, and the tearing out of the hearts of the victims on the summit of the Teocali may be regarded as a direct survival of the elemental -worship of their Turanian ancestors in Atlantis...

    It must be remembered throughout that we are dealing with the Atlantean race only,...

But a brighter sun now shines on the Aryan race than that which lit the path of their Atlantean forefathers. Less dominated by the passions of the senses, more open to the influence of mind, the men of our race have obtained and are obtaining a firmer grasp of knowledge, a wider range of intellect....

THE PHOENICIANS MAY OR MAY NOT BE A NATIVE EUROPEAN GROUP.   ACCORDING TO THE ARTICLES ABOVE THE PHOENICIANS MAY BE THE SONS OF AGENOR, OR BELUS BOTH ARE THE SONS OF POSEIDON AND LYBIA WHICH MAKE THE PHOENICIANS AMAZIGH BY BLOOD WHO ARE THE FIRST NATIVE PEOPLE OF IBERIA AND NORTH AFRICA.  OTHER ARTICLES REFER THEM AS SEMITIC, OTHERS AS ARYAN, AND OTHER ARTICLES SAY TURCS.  BUT, PERHAPS WHILE IN CANAAN THEY MIXED WITH THE OTHER PEOPLES IN THAT AREA.

Phoenicians

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscellaneous/phoenicians-not-native

POEN

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/POEN.pdf

POEN HILITES

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/POEN%20hilites.rtf

The Phoenicians

http://members.tripod.com/cornwall_phoenicians/The%20phoenicians.htm

Since ancient times there has been speculation as to the origins of the Phoenicians. The Greeks were particularly puzzled by them and gave them the name “Phoinikes” which loosely translated as “red people” some say from the colour of their land, whilst others argue it was the colour of their hair. ...

[Temehu people were said to be 'fair skinned' and 'blue eyed'. Generally speaking the Libyans were in the Old Kingdom shown "red brown", with an Osiris-like chin-beard and tattoos]

[Lybian Sybil: birthplace of the Hellespontine Sibyl Herophile...The detailed narrative which Pausanias preserves relates that the Sibyl was born at Marpessos prior to the Trojan War and that her mother was a nymph from Mount Ida and her father a mortal. Demetrios gleaned this information from one of her oracles which he preserves: I am by birth half mortal, half divine; An immortal nymph was my mother, my father an eater of corn;  On my mother's side of Idaean birth, but my fatherland was red.  Marpessos, sacred to the Mother, and the river Aidoneus.

The reference to Marpessos being "sacred to the Mother" indicates that there was a cult of Cybele at the settlement, a goddess traditionally thought to have resided on Mount Ida. This passage, with its references to Mount Ida, the red soil of Marpessos, and the river Aidoneus]

Histories of Herodotus HiLites.rtf

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscellaneous/Histories%20of%20Herodotus%20HiLites.rtf

Ogdoad of Hermopolis (Khmunu)

https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/ogdoad/

Ogdoad (Egyptian)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogdoad_(Egyptian)

    In Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad were eight primordial deities worshipped in Hermopolis.  References to the Ogdoad date to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and even at the time of composition of the Pyramid Texts towards the end of the Old Kingdom, they appear to have been antiquated and mostly forgotten by everyone except religious experts. They are frequently mentioned in the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom. The oldest known pictorial representations of the group do not predate the time of Seti I (New Kingdom, 13th century BC), when the group appears to be rediscovered by the theologians of Hermopolis for the purposes of a more elaborate creation account.

    Texts of the Late Period describe them as having the heads of frogs (male) and serpents (female), and they are often depicted in this way in reliefs of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.  E. A. Wallis Budge (1904) compares the concept to a group of four pairs of primeval gods mentioned in the Babylonian Enma Eliš, viz. Abzu and Tiamat, Lahmu and Lahamu, Anshar and Kishar, Anu and Nudimmud....

    The names of Nu and Naunet are written with the determiners for sky and water, and it seems clear that they represent the primordial waters...  Qerḥ is replaced by Ni, Nenu, Nu, or Amun, and the name Qerḥet by Ennit, Nenuit, Nunu, Nit (NEITH, TANIT), or Amunet. The common meaning of qerḥ is "night...  Ḥeḥu and Ḥeḥut have no readily identifiable determiners...undefined or unlimited number...he may be a personification of the atmosphere between heaven and earth.

The names of Kekui and Kekuit...primordial darkness...but in some aspects they appear to represent day as well as night, or the change from night to day and from day to night.

    There is no obvious way to allot or attribute four functions to the four pairs of gods, and it seems clear that "the ancient Egyptians themselves had no very clear idea" regarding such functions.Nevertheless, there have been attempts to assign "four ontological concepts" to the four groups...

The Infinite Ogdoad: The Creation Pantheon of Ancient Egypt and Predecessor Gods of the Old Kingdom

https://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-religions/infinite-ogdoad-creation-pantheon-ancient-egypt-and-predecessor-gods-old-020447

    Considered to have come long before the Egyptian religious system currently recognized...Though their power among the Egyptian people was most widely recognized between 2686 – 2134 BCE—in the Old Kingdom settlement of Hermopolis (so named by the Greeks as they equated Thoth with messenger god Hermes)—traces of their pantheon permeated down to the next set of gods, correlating the formation of the human race with the hands of the Ogdoad...

Tamazight Matriculture in N.Africa

https://terramandala.ca/natality/3matriculture/tamazight/

    Plutarch, Diodorus and Herodotus wrote that Neith’s birthplace was Lake Tritonis in Libya (North Africa) and that she was adopted by the Greeks as Athena.  They confirm that Lake Tritonis was also the traditional homeland of Queen Myrina and the Libyan Amazons...

     The Primordial Mothers have common attributes because they are one and the same, with minor cultural distinctions:  Tamazight Tanit, Libyan Neith, Canaanite Anat, African Isis, Greek Athena, Akan Ngame and more....

    Greek historians Herodotus (484–425 BCE) and Diodorus Siculas (circa 60 BCE) reported that many deities in the Greek pantheon originate in North Africa.  The Greek myths of Poseidon, Tritonis, Antaeus, Libya, Medusa, the Gorgons, Atlas and the Hesperides are all situated in North Africa...

TANIT MAY NOT BE FROM THE AMAZIGH RATHER MAY BE SYRIAN BROUGHT INTO NORTH AFRICA ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE  SPECIFICALLY CARTHAGE, BY THE PHOENICIANS  BUT ACCORDING TO OTHER ARTICLES IT MAY HAVE FIRST ORIGINATED IN LYBIA, THEN TO CANAN, UP TO SYRIA, THEN BACK TO CARTHAGE.  THE AMAZIGH MAY HAVE JUST CALLED THOSE PEOPLE OF BAAL WORSHIP THE LAND OF NEITH WHO WERE THE RETURNING PHOENICIANS(WHO WERE PROBABLY AGENORS AND BELUS DESCENDANTS MIXED WITH THE OTHER PEOPLES OF CANAN AND THE AREA AT THAT TIME.)  IT MAY BE JUST ANOTHER NAME FOR THE WIDE SPREAD CULTS WHO MERGED GREAT MOTHER CULTS WITH FATHER SKY CULTS BY DIFFERENT "CULT"URES AND DIFFERENT TIMES AND DIFFERENT GEOGRAPHY...

Tanit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanit

    Tanit was a Punic and Phoenician goddess, the chief deity of Carthage alongside her consort Baal-Hamon.  She was also adopted by the Berber people. ...

Tanit was worshiped in Punic contexts in the Western Mediterranean, from Malta to Gades into Hellenistic times. From the fifth century BCE onwards, Tanit's worship is associated with that of Baal Hammon... In North Africa, where the inscriptions and material remains are more plentiful, she was, as well as a consort of Baal-hamon, a heavenly goddess of war, a "virginal" (unmarried) mother goddess and nurse, and, less specifically, a symbol of fertility, as are most female forms. Several of the major Greek goddesses were identified with Tanit by the syncretic interpretatio graeca, which recognized as Greek deities in foreign guise the gods of most of the surrounding non-Hellene cultures....

    The origins of Tanit are to be found in the pantheon of Ugarit, especially in the Ugaritic goddess Anat [Ugarit was an ancient port city in northern Syria.  Ugarit had close connections to the Hittite Empire, Egypt at times, and with Cyprus. The polity was at its height from c. 1450 BCE until its destruction in c. 1200 BCE; this destruction was possibly caused by the mysterious Sea Peoples. The kingdom would be one of the many destroyed during the Bronze Age Collapse.] 

    Long after the fall of Carthage, Tanit was still venerated in North Africa under the Latin name of: Juno Caelestis, for her identification with the Roman goddess Juno.[unreliable source] The ancient Berber people of North Africa also adopted the Punic cult of Tanit. In Egyptian, her name means 'Land of Neith', Neith being a war goddess....

CHILD SACRIFICE MAY JUST BE A PROPAGANDA DEFAMATION BY RIVALS OF THE CANANITES, PHOENICIANS, AND CARTHAGINIANS.  THE RIVAL PEOPLES TAKING INNOCENT RELIGIOUS RITES HONORING THE DEATHS OF CHILDREN PASSING ON TO THE PROTECTORANT POWERS OF GREAT MOTHER, AND DEFAMING THE INNOCENT AS EVIL MONSTERS FOR WAR PROPAGANDA PURPOSES.  PERHAPS THE SEMITES WHO GENOCIDED THE CANANITES WERE THE ORIGINATORS OF THIS DEFAMATION THEN THE LATER ENEMIES OF CARTHAGE i.e. ROME FURTHER CONTINUES THE PROPAGANDA...

In Praise of Tanit

https://www.goddess-pages.co.uk/in-praise-of-tanit-2/

    Tanit, chief deity of the Phoenician colony of Carthage, is a Goddess surrounded by speculation and controversy.  For one thing, there are widely differing theories as to the meaning of her name: is it of Berber or Semitic origin?  If the latter, does it arise from the root for ‘serpent’, ‘lament’, or ‘count/assign’? Is it merely co-incidental that Ta-nit means ‘Land of Neith’ in Egyptian?...

    Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, was founded circa 814 BCE by Phoenicians from Tyre, and eventually grew to become an Empire in its own right, declaring independence from Tyre in the 5th century BCE  and going on to become the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean.  The great Phoenician Goddess Astarte was originally honoured alongside her Punic counterpart Tanit, but eventually the two merged; Tanit became the ‘Carthaginian Astarte’, worshipped in a dual cult with her consort Baal Hammon – a title that has been variously translated ‘Lord of Hammon’ (an area near ancient Tyre), ‘Lord of Mount Amanus’ (a mountain on the Syrian border), or ‘Lord of the Brazier’ (from the Semitic root hamman)....

     infant remains in any other burial site at Carthage, it is much more likely that the ‘Tophet’ was a cemetery reserved for very young children who died of natural causes. M’hammed Hassine Fantar of the Tunisian Institute of National Cultural Heritage points out that Diodorus Siculus’ accusation was part of a polemical piece written to justify the Roman conquest of Carthage, and that the historian Polybius, who was actually present at the city’s destruction in 146 BCE, makes no such claim; neither does Diodorus’ more reliable and well-informed contemporary, Livy. Professor Piero Bartoloni of the University of Sassari cites the fact that seven out of ten children were likely to die in their first year in ancient times, and asks ‘is it reasonable that with such a high level of infant mortality, these people killed their own children?’

    The great Carthaginian general Hannibal equated his native Tanit with Juno Lucina, the aspect of the Roman Dea Coelestis invoked by pregnant women for a successful and easy delivery.  A beautiful stela unearthed at Lillibeum in Sicily depicts a pregnant woman with one hand on her belly standing in an attitude of worship before a caduceus/asherah with the Sign of Tanit above.  The association between the pregnant state of the worshipper and the protection offered by the deity could not be clearer.  Would a deity responsible for ‘bringing children into the light’ be likely also to demand their sacrifice?  It would be very unusual if that were the case.  It seems to me that if hostile Roman and Hebrew polemic is discounted, the archaeological and cultural evidence surrounding the ‘Tophet’ points to a children’s cemetery, possibly within the precincts of a sanctuary, where miscarried foetuses, stillborn babies and children who died very young were returned to the care of the Mother Goddess and her consort.  The votive inscription ‘that which was vowed’ – the vow pertaining to burial within the sanctuary – remains perfectly apt in this context, as does the cremation and dedication of a young animal ‘as a substitute’ if the body of the infant could not be recovered for some reason....

NEITH MAYBE THE NAME GIVEN TO GREAT MOTHER IN NORTH AFRICA BY NEOLITHIC PEOPLES WHO MIGRATED INTO THE NILE OF EGYPT.  THE AMAZIGH THEN CALLED THIS AREA TANIT.  OVER TIME TANIT BECAME THE GREAT MOTHER IN CARTHAGE WHEN HER LATER DESCENDANTS PHOENICIANS (POSSIBLY MIXED) SETTLE IN CARTHAGE.  THUS TANIT, AND NEITH MAY OR MAY NOT BE THE ORIGINAL NAME OF GREAT MOTHER USED BY THE FIRST PEOPLE AMAZIGH PRIOR TO THE NEOLITHIC.

TANIT MEANS "LAND OF NEITH"...  THIS ARTICLE SAYS NEITH IS FROM LOWER EGYPT AT SAIS IN THE NILE DELTA 6000BCE AS GREAT MOTHER.  OTHER NATIONS HAD SIMILAR GREAT MOTHERS BUT HAD DIFFERENT NAMES AND OVER TIME ADOPTIONS OF NAMES AND TRAITS WOULD MERGE AND CHANGE SOMEWHAT.  THUS, TANIT THE PHOENICIAN GODDESS OF CARTHAGE MAY HAVE BEEN THE LATER VERSION OF NEITH WHO MAY HAVE HAD TRAITS FROM NEIGHBORING NATIONS MIXED IN SOMEWHAT.  FOR EXAMPLES THE FESTIVAL OF LAMPS, OR LIGHTS IS A HOLIDAY WITH MANY NATIONS SUCH AS EGYPT, HINDU, IRAN, FRANCE, GERMANY, JAPAN, ETC..  ISIS AND OSIRUS LATER TAKE THE PLACE OF NEITH AT THIS FEST.  SAMHAIN REPLACES THEM...

 NEITH AS "WEAVER" CAN BE COMPARED TO NERTHUS, OR FREYA GREAT MOTHER GODDESS WHO WEAVES THE FATES OF MANKIND.

THE CREATION STORY IS SIMILAR TO THE HINDU CREATION STORY...

Neith

https://www.ancient.eu/Neith/

    Neith (aka Net, Neit or Nit) and is one of the oldest deities of ancient Egypt...(c. 6000 - 3150 BCE)...through...(323 - 30 BCE)... She was a war goddess, goddess of creation, mother goddess who invented birth, and funerary goddess who cared for and helped to dress the souls of the dead. Her cult center was at Sais in the Nile Delta...Neith continued to be honored as the patron goddess of Sais throughout Egypt's history as she was considered a great protector of the people of the land and the most effective mediator between humanity and the gods.  Neith is said to have been present at the creation of the world and, in some stories, even the creator herself who gave birth to Atum (Ra) who then completed the act of creation. She is always represented as extremely wise and just... 

    Her symbols are the bow and arrows and a sword and shield as a war goddess, a weaving shuttle as a funerary goddess, and the Red Crown of Lower Egypt as goddess of creation and mother goddess. Neith is frequently depicted sitting on her throne holding either a sceptre or a bow and two arrows. She is also sometimes seen as a cow, linking her with Hathor or with the Great Cow who was mother to Ra....  She was also called "mother of the gods", "grandmother of the gods", and "great goddess". Her worship began in Lower Egypt around the city of Sais and she is thought to have originally been a goddess of hunting....

    According to one myth, Neith preceeded creation and was present when the waters of Nun began to swirl at her command to give rise to the ben-ben (the primordial mound) upon which Ra (Atum) stood to complete the task. In another version of the story, Neith created the world and then went directly to found her city of Sais, leaving the rest of the work to Atum...she was "the personification of the fertile primeval waters" and was "the mother of all snakes and crocodiles" as well as being the "great mother who gave birth to Ra and who instituted giving birth when there had been no childbirth before". In still other myths, it is Neith, not Isis, who is the mother of Horus the divine child and restorer of order.

    Neith may have originally been a fertility deity corresponding to the goddess Tanit who was later worshipped in North Africa at Carthage in that Ta-Nit in Egyptian means "the land of Nit" and can also be interpreted as "from the land of Nit", as that region was known. She is also associated with Astarte of Phoenicia and, through her, to Ishtar of Mesopotamia. Herodotus claims that the people of Sais were deeply devoted to Neith as the creator and preserver of all and identified her with the Greek goddess Athena. Plato also comments on the link between Neith and Athena...Her identification as the most powerful creative force in the universe is noted by Plutarch (c. 50 - 120 CE) who writes that the temple of Neith at Sais held this inscription: "I Am All That Has Been, That Is, and That Will Be. No Mortal Has Yet Been Able to Life the Veil that Covers Me". It is interesting to note that her name, among its many other connotations, links to the root word for "weave" which carries with it the meaning of "to make exist" or "create" or "to be"...

    she was the mother of the sun god and his protector. She is depicted as destroying her child Apophis and, at the same time, creating him as she is also seen as protecting her son Ra while having created his arch enemy; in all of this, balance was achieved.  In the same way, Neith invented birth and gave life to humanity but was also there at a person's death to help them adjust to the new world of the afterlife. She helped to dress the dead and open the way for them to the afterlife and the hope of immortality and paradise in the Field of Reeds. As she was associated with weaving, she became linked to the goddesses Tatet and Nephthys who helped prepare the dead souls to move forward and also with Qebhet who cared for the dead and made sure they had cool water to drink as they awaited judgment. As with many, if not all, of the Egyptian deities, Neith was a part of a person's life from their birth through their death and on into the afterlife. One was never alone in the universe because the gods were constantly watching and protecting and guiding one on one's path and that path was eternal...

    she is pictured with three heads representing three points of view and also as a woman with an erect phallus representing both male and female. In these depictions she is also seen with wings spread wide and arms open in an embrace of all who come to her. 

Neith's clergy were female and her temple at Sais, according to Herodotus...People who came to the temple were allowed only in the outer courtyards where they offered their sacrifices to the goddess with requests for her aid or in thanks for assistance given.

    Her annual festival was celebrated on the 13th day of the 3rd month of summer and was known as The Festival of the Lamps...At Neith's festival the veil between the earthly realm and the land of the dead was thought to part and people could see and speak with their departed friends and family members...The festival touched upon the Osiris myth and Neith's part in his resurrection as she opened the way for the dead to communicate with the living in the same way she had helped Isis and Nephthys bring Osiris back to life....

Canaan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan

    The word Canaanites serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled and nomadic-pastoral groups—throughout the regions of the southern Levant or Canaan. It is by far the most frequently used ethnic term in the Bible. In the Book of Joshua, Canaanites are included in a list of nations to exterminate, and later described as a group which the Israelites had annihilated. Biblical scholar Mark Smith notes that archaeological data suggests "that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature.":13–14 The name "Canaanites" (כְּנָעַנִיְם kena‘anim, כְּנָעַנִי kena‘anī) is attested, many centuries later, as the endonym of the people later known to the Ancient Greeks from c. 500 BC as Phoenicians, and following the emigration of Canaanite-speakers to Carthage (founded in the 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by the Punics (chanani) of North Africa during Late Antiquity....

    the term Kinahnu as a synonym for red or purple dye, laboriously produced by the Kassite rulers of Babylon from murex shells as early as 1600 BC, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Phoenicians from a byproduct of glassmaking. Purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity...

    Canaanite culture apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture...the deity Dagon by the title "Lord of Canaan" If correct, this would suggest that Eblaites were conscious of Canaan as an entity by 2500 BC....

    Ugarit texts:      Text RS 20.182 from Ugarit is a copy of a letter of the king of Ugarit to Ramesses II concerning money paid by "the sons of the land of Ugarit" to the "foreman of the sons of the land of Canaan (*kn'ny)" According to Jonathan Tubb, this suggests that the Semitic people of Ugarit, contrary to much modern opinion, considered themselves to be non-Canaanite....

    Hattusa letters:  KBo XXVIII 1: Ramesses II letter to Hattusili III, in which Ramesses suggested he would meet "his brother" in Canaan and bring him to Egypt

KUB III 57 (also KUB III 37 + KBo I 17): Broken text which may refer to Canaan as an Egyptian sub-district...

    During the 2nd millennium BC, Ancient Egyptian texts use the term Canaan to refer to an Egyptian-ruled colony,...

    Egyptian sources, from the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt onwards.  Amenhotep II inscriptions: Canaanites are included in a list of prisoners of war ...Papyrus Anastasi IIIA 5–6 and Papyrus Anastasi IV refer to "Canaanite slaves from Hurru"

Papyrus Harris After the collapse of the Levant under the so-called "Peoples of the Sea" Ramesses III (c. 1194 BC) is said to have built a temple to the god Amen to receive tribute from the southern Levant. This was described as being built in Pa-Canaan,...

    Saint Augustine also mentions that one of the terms the seafaring Phoenicians called their homeland was "Canaan". Augustine also records that the rustic people of Hippo in North Africa retained the Punic self-designation Chanani. Since 'punic' in Latin also meant 'non-Roman', some scholars however argue that the language referred to as Punic in Augustine may have been Libyan....

    The migrant ancient Semitic-speaking peoples who appear to have settled in the region included (among others) the Amorites, who had earlier controlled Babylonia.... "Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. ...

    The Habiru seem to have been more a social class than an ethnic group.[citation needed] One analysis[which?] shows that the majority were, however, Hurrian (a non-Semitic-speaking group from Asia Minor who spoke a language isolate), though there were a number of Semites and even some Kassite and Luwian adventurers amongst their number....

        Some believe the "Habiru" signified generally all the nomadic tribes known as "Hebrews", and particularly the early Israelites of the period of the "judges", who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves....

    From the mid 14th century BC through to the 11th century BC, much of Canaan (particularly the north, central and eastern regions of Syria and the north western Mediterranean coastal regions) fell to the Middle Assyrian Empire, and both Egyptian and Hittite influence waned as a result. Powerful Assyrian kings extracted tribute from Canaanite states and cities from north, east and central Syria as far as the Mediterranean....

    By the Early Iron Age, the southern Levant came to be dominated by the kingdoms of Israel and Judah,...  The northern Levant was divided into various petty kingdoms, the so-called Syro-Hittite states and the Phoenician city-states.  The entire region (including all Phoenician/Canaanite and Aramean states, together with Israel, Philistia and Samarra) was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the 10th and 9th centuries BC...

    The Egyptians, then under a Nubian Dynasty, made a failed attempt to regain a foothold in the region, but were vanquished by the Assyrians, leading to an Assyrian invasion and conquest of Egypt and the destruction of the Kushite Empire. The Kingdom of Judah was forced to pay tribute to Assyria. Between 616 and 605 BC the Assyrian Empire collapsed due to a series of bitter internal civil wars, followed by an attack by an alliance of Babylonians, Medes and Persians and the Scythians. The Babylonians inherited the western part of the empire of their Assyrian brethren, including all the lands in Canaan and Syria, together with Israel and Judah. They successfully defeated the Egyptians, who had belatedly attempted to aid their former masters, the Assyrians, and then remained in the region in an attempt to regain a foothold in the Near East. The Babylonian Empire itself collapsed in 539 BC, and Canaan fell to the Persians and became a part of the Achaemenid Empire. It remained so until in 332 BC it was conquered by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, later to fall to Rome in the late 2nd century BC, and then Byzantium, until the Arab Islamic invasion and conquest of the 7th century....

     Phoenician Canaanite disappeared as a spoken language in about 100 AD....

    Canaanites were described as living "by the sea, and along by the side of the Jordan" Canaan was especially identified with Phoenicia.  The Philistines, while an integral part of the Canaanite milieu, do not seem to have been ethnic Canaanites, and were listed in the Table of Nations as descendants of Mizraim; the Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Midianites and Edomites were also considered fellow descendants of Shem or Abraham, and distinct from generic Canaanites/Amorites. "Heth", representing the Hittites, is a son of Canaan. The later Hittites spoke an Indo-European language (called Nesili)...  In the Bible, the renaming of the Land of Canaan as the Land of Israel marks the Israelite conquest...

    Canaan is the father of Sidon, his firstborn; and of the Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Girgashites, Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zemarites, and Hamathites. Later the Canaanite clans scattered, and the borders of Canaan reached [across the Mediterranean coast] from Sidon toward Gerar as far as Gaza, and then [inland around the Jordan Valley ] toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha....  The Canaanites (Hebrew: כנענים, Modern: Kna'anim, Tiberian: Kənaʻדnמm) are said to have been one of seven regional ethnic divisions or "nations" driven out by the Israelites following the Exodus. ...

    According to the Book of Jubilees, the Israelite conquest of Canaan...One of the 613 commandments (precisely n. 596) prescribes that no inhabitants of the cities of six Canaanite nations, the same as mentioned in 7:1, minus the Girgashites, were to be left alive....

    The name "Canaanites" is attested, many centuries later, as the endonym of the people later known to the Ancient Greeks from c. 500 BC as Phoenicians, and following the emigration of Canaanite-speakers to Carthage (founded in the 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by the Punics (chanani) of North Africa during Late Antiquity. ...

    During the Atlantic slave trade, many Christians began teaching that black Africans were descendants of Canaan and used the Curse of Ham to justify enslaving black Africans. This belief was common in American religions, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, whose Book of Abraham teaches that Canaan was a descendant of Cain, that his descendants settled Africa, and that they were cursed...Modern scholars do not believe that black Africans are related to the Canaanites based upon race as depicted throughout local and Egyptian arts, genetics, and physical anthropology.

WERE THE HABIRU THE SAME AS THE HEBREWS?  IN WHOLE, OR IN PART, OR NOT AT ALL?  HARD TO TELL BECAUSE ISRAEL, LIKE THE USA, IS A BASTARD NATION. EASTERN MED EXPERIENCED A MIX OF MANY DIFFERENT PEOPLES THRU THE AGES THAT HAD POPULATION TURN OVERS BY CONQUERING PEOPLES REPLACING PREVIOUS INHABITANTS. SOME NAMES THAT SOUND ALIKE CAN BE RELATED, OR TOTALLY UNRELATED.  WHAT MAY HAVE ORIGINATED AS ONE THING CAN BECOME TOTALLY REVERSED LATER WHILE RETAINING THE NAME.  DID HIBERNIA (IVERNI) GET ITS NAME FROM HABIRU?  IVERNI WERE LINKED LINGUISTICALLY TO ERAINN.  BUT, IF SO IRLAND HAS HAD ITS SHARE OF INVASIONS WHICH MEANS EVEN IF THIS IS ALL TRUE WOULD ONLY MAKE A SMALL PORTION OF THE POPULATION REPLACING PREVIOUS INHABITANTS.  THE FLEEING CANANITES WERE TRANSPORTED BY THE PHOENICIANS PERHAPS TO DISTANT LANDS AS REFUGEES?  ONE CAN ONLY SPECULATE.

ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES IF HABIRU WERE ORIGINALLY HEBREW THEN THE HEBREW WERE NOT A SINGLE PURE GENETIC GROUP RATHER WERE MIX OF KASSITES, SEMITES, LYBIANS, IE, ARYANS, TURCS, AND PROBABLY A FEW MORE.  AFTER JOSHUA THE ROBBER STOLE THE LAND FROM THE CANANITES AND DROVE OUT ALL THE CANANITES THEY DIVIDED THE LAND ACCORDING TO THE VARIOUS GROUPS.  LATER ASSYRIANS INVADE AND ALL THE NORTHERN GROUPS ARE SCATTERED WITH JUST JUDAH AND BENJAMIN REMAINING.  LATER THE BABYLONIANS ARE SAID TO HAVE THEN INVADED JUDAH BUT ALLOWING JEWS TO RETURN TO JUDAH LATER AFTER MIXING WITH BABYLONIANS.  THERE WAS A TOTAL REPLACEMENT OF GENETICS AFTER THE HEBREW TAKOVER BY JOSHUA.  THUS, THE PEOPLE PRIOR TO JOSHUA WERE NOT JEWS, AND NOT SEMITE EITHER.  ONLY THE RETURNING JEWS FROM BABYLON, MANY MIXED, WOULD HAVE TIES TO THE ALOTTED AREA GIVEN TO JUDAH AND NOT THE ENTIRE LAND OF CANAN.  EVEN IN THAT SENSE JEWS HAVE NO LEGITIMATE CLAIMS AS THEY STOLE IT FROM CANAN, THEN LATER LOST IT TO ASSYRIAN, AND LATER OTHER NATIONS. IT IS DEBATEABLE IF HABIRU ARE, OR ARE NOT HEBREW.

TO CLARIFY:  PHOENICIANS ARE CANANITES THE PEOPLE OF EAST MED PRIOR TO JOSHUA'S (HEBREW) TAKEOVER. SEMITES ARE NOT CANANITES.  HABIRU WERE A MIX OF SEMITES, INDO EUROPEANS, LYBIANS, KASSITES,...  AGAIN NO CERTAINTY IF HABIRU ARE, OR ARE NOT HEBREW, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, OR NOT AT ALL.  ALTHOUGH BOTH EXISTED IN HISTORY.

JOSHUA(PROBABLY SEMITE) GENOCIDED CANAN.  JOSHUA WAS HEBREW BUT, MAY OR MAY NOT BE HABIRU (MIXED GROUP OF BANDITS), NOR APIRU.  HEBREW SCRIPTURES CONDEMNED THE MIXING AND INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENT PEOPLE WITH THE HEBREWS SO MAY EXPLAIN THE DIVISION OF LAND AMONG THE 12 GROUPS (OR TRIBES) IF ONE ASSUMES THE HEBREW ARE HABIRU.

BUT THE HEBREWS NEVER OBEYED THEIR GOD AND MIXED ANYWAY SO THEY DID MIX PRIOR TO AND AFTER THEIR INVASIONS.

THE BOOK OF INVASIONS OF IRLAND SPEAK OF BATTLES IN IRLAND THAT MAY BE RELATED TO BATTLES BETWEEN THE CANANITES (IF CANANITE IS PHOENICIAN AND PHOENICIAN IS FOMORIAN) AND THE LATER INVADERS SOME BEING THE IVERNI ERAINS, MILESIANS, GREEKS, SCYTHS, ETC..  WHETHER OR NOT HABIRU ARE RELATED TO IVERNI IS UNKNOWN AS SOME TRY TO TIE IT TO IBRI (IVRI).

THE CONFUSION LIES ONLY IN SIMILAR SOUNDING NAMES, AND SOME NAMES ONCE GIVEN TO AN ORIGINAL PEOPLE HAVE BEEN REPLACED BY LATER DIFFERENT PEOPLES BUT RETAIN THE NAME.  AND SOME NAMES WERE DEROGATORY NAMES TO DEFAME PEOPLE  THAT ARE THEN USED AGAINST DIFFERENT PEOPLES USED ONLY AS SLANG TERMINOLOGY.  SO MUCH CONFUSION IN IDENTIFYING PEOPLE SOLELY ON NAMES....

Habiru

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habiru

    Habiru (sometimes written as Hapiru, and more accurately as ʿApiru, meaning "dusty, dirty") is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile Crescent for people variously described as rebels, outlaws, raiders, mercenaries, bowmen, servants, slaves, and laborers.  The word Habiru, more properly 'Apiru, occurs in hundreds of 2nd millennium BCE documents covering a 600-year period from the 18th to the 12th centuries BCE and found at sites ranging from Egypt, Canaan and Syria, to Nuzi (near Kirkuk in northern Iraq) and Anatolia (Turkey), frequently used interchangeably with the Sumerian SA.GAZ, a phonetic equivalent to the Akkadian (Mesopotamian) word saggasu ("murderer, destroyer").

    Not all Habiru were murderers and robbers: in the 18th century a north Syrian king named Irkabtum (c. 1740 BC) "made peace with [the warlord] Shemuba and his Habiru,"  while the 'Apiru, Idrimi of Alalakh was the son of a deposed king, and formed a band of 'Apiru to make himself king of Alalakh. What Idrimi shared with the other 'Apiru was membership of an inferior social class of outlaws, mercenaries, and slaves leading a marginal and sometimes lawless existence on the fringes of settled society. 'Apiru had no common ethnic affiliations and no common language, their personal names being most frequently West Semitic, but many East Semitic, Hurrian or Indo-European....

    The biblical word "Hebrew", like Habiru, denotes a social category, not an ethnic group. Since the discovery of the 2nd millennium BCE inscriptions mentioning the Habiru, there have been many theories linking these to the Hebrews of the Bible, but modern scholars see the 'Apiru/Habiru as only one element in an early Israel composed of many different peoples, including nomadic Shasu and Shutu, the biblical Midianites, Kenites, and Amalekites, displaced peasants and pastoralists.

Have Bible believers read the book of Joshua?

https://www.frontiersman.com/faith/have-bible-believers-read-the-book-of-joshua/article_db64ba18-90c0-11e5-b6b7-8f35b29abe8f.html

    Joshua was the successor of Moses.  He was appointed by God.  The job of Joshua was to take control of the land given to the Israelites by God.  Calling the acquisition of Palestine by Joshua and his cohorts a “gift” from God is a bit of a stretch.  The Israelites, having made a covenant with the Hibiru tribe, had become a killing machine.  The Hibiru were a mercenary band of killers, who controlled by violent killing.  The new alliance was a “holy” alliance.  Those who bowed down to Jehovah were spared by the Jehovah worshiping Israelites.  Those who did not were killed.  The Israelites became a warrior nation serving a warrior God.

    The first target of the Israelites was the city of Jericho, just west of the Jordan River.  The Israelites camped on the east bank of the Jordan.  First, Joshua sent spies into the walled city of Jericho.  His spies took shelter in the home of Rahab, a prostitute with an extended family.  When questioned, Rahab lied about the presence of the spies and devised a plan for their safe escape.  She had her price.  The Israelites were to spare the lives of her and her family, who were huddled in Rahab’s home.

    Joshua organized his troops, crossed the river on dry ground and started marching around the fear-filled city of Jericho.  This process is memorialized in our Christian churches by the song “Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho.”  Children love the song.  It makes great theatrics.  The parade was led by priests who each carried a ram horn.  They also carried the Arc of the Covenant, a wooden box where their killer God lived.  On command of Joshua, the priests blew their horns and the walls of Jericho fell flat.  Joshua’s army proceeded to kill EVERY inhabitant of the city of Jericho except Rahab and her family.  They all became Israelites.

    The story of the book of Joshua tells about Joshua and his killer army overrunning he cities of Palestine, usually killing all the inhabitants.  They were led by priests and their killer God in a box.  The concluding chapters of the book of Joshua tell of the dividing of Palestine among the twelve tribes of Israel.  The land now belonged to the tribes of Israel because the land had been given to them by God. 

    Did this all happen?  Probably not, but some of it is true.  Historians are saying that the children of Israel somehow escaped slavery in Egypt, hooked up with a band of killers and became a vicious warrior tribe that came to dominate Palestine under the rule of the great King David.

Were the Ancient Hebrews the Same as the Habiru?

http://www.britam.org/Hiberu.html

    This interpretation to our mind derives from a linguistic misunderstanding. Two different word-roots, "IBRI" and ChBR, have been confused....

    On the other side we do have the Egyptian word Apiru which has been interpreted to mean Hebrew and to also have been the equivalent of Habiru.

The oriignal meaning of Apiru in Egyptian is unknown.

Here too the same reservations exist but the Egyptian Apiru does seem to fit the word Hebrew in the sense of inhabitants of the Land of Israel or as slaves prior to the Exodus from Egypt.  It could be that the 19th century European scholars took the fact that Apiru seemed to parallel both Habiru and Hebrew to deduce that Habiru and Hebrew paralleled each other.

Such is not necessarily the case....

    We later find the appellation Iberi or derivations of it applied to peoples of Celtic Culture in Europe...

Shasu or Habiru: Who Were the Early Israelites?

https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/6/9

    It is time to clarify for BAR readers the widely discussed relationship between the habiru, who are well documented in Egyptian and Near Eastern inscriptions, and the Hebrews of the Bible.   There is absolutely no relationship!.. 

    The first appearance of the term habiru (also ‘apiru') surfaced in the late 19th century in the cuneiform archive from Egypt known as the Amarna Letters. Seven of the letters in the archive are letters of Abdi-Heba, king of Canaanite Jerusalem, to his overlord, the pharaoh (king) of Egypt.  “I fall at the feet of my lord, the king, seven times and seven times,” Abdi-Heba’s letters often begin. A frequent complaint is that “habiru have plundered all the lands of the king.” And again: “the habiru have taken the very cities of the king.” If Pharaoh does not send archers, “the land of the king will desert to the habiru.”  Abdi-Heba complains that the pharaoh is not sufficiently helpful to him: “I am treated like a habiru.”

    It was not long before some scholars suggested a relationship between “habiru” and the similar-sounding “Hebrew.”

ACCORDING TO THIS DESCRIPTION THE FIRST PEOPLE REFERRED TO AS MOORS CAME FROM PHOENICIA ESCAPING THE HEBREW THIEF JOSHUA THE ROBBER AFTER EGYPT KICKED THE HEBREWS OUT.  THESE PHOENICANS THEN SETTLE IN LYBIA.  THEY MAY HAVE BEEN ORIGINALLY FIRST RELATED TO THE NORTH AFRICANS PRIOR TO PHOENICIA BECAUSE PHOENICIANS DESCEND FROM AGENOR SON OF POSEIDON AND LYBIA AND BROTHER TO BELUS WHO WAS FATHER OF AEGYPTUS AND DANAUS. AND ALSO BROTHER OF LELEX THE ORIGINAL LACONIANS.  THESE PHOENICIANS BUILD UP CARTHAGE AND YEARS LATER THEY BATTLE THEIR NEIGHBORS SENDING THEM AWAY FROM CARTHAGE.  THEN ROME CONQUERS THEM BOTH SENDING THEM WESTWARD WHERE THEY WIN BATTLE WITH VANDALS LAND NOW CALLED MAURETANIA.  THESE PEOPLE OF MAURETANIA ARE THE MOORS.  THE RETURNING NATIVE NORTH AFRICAN PEOPLE WHO SETTLED AND MIXED IN PHOENICIA RETURNING TO NORTH AFRICAN MIX THEN PUSHED TO THE N.W. AFRICAN MIX....

Procopius of Caesarea, History of the Wars: Book III, The Vandalic War, IV.10.13–22, Loeb Ed., H.B. Dewing translation (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1914), pp. 289, 291.

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16765/16765-h/16765-h.htm#BOOK_III

     And now, since the narration of the history has brought me to this point, it is necessary to tell from the beginning whence the nations of the Moors came to Libya and how they settled there.

    When the Hebrews had withdrawn from Egypt and had come near the boundaries of Palestine, Moses, a wise man, who was their leader on the journey, died, and the leadership was passed on to Joshua, the son of Nun, who led this people into Palestine, and, by displaying a valour in war greater than that natural to a man, gained possession of the land. And after overthrowing all the nations he easily won the cities, and he seemed to be altogether invincible. Now at that time the whole country along the sea from Sidon as far as the boundaries of Egypt was called Phoenicia. And one king in ancient times held sway over it, as is agreed by all who have written the earliest accounts of the Phoenicians. In that country there dwelt very populous tribes, the Gergesites and the Jebusites and some others with other names by which they are called in the history of the Hebrews. Now when these nations saw that the invading general was an irresistible prodigy, they emigrated from their ancestral homes and made their way to Egypt, which adjoined their country. And finding there no place sufficient for them to dwell in, since there has been a great population in Aegypt from ancient times, they proceeded to Libya. And they established numerous cities and took possession of the whole of Libya as far as the Pillars of Heracles, and there they have lived even up to my time, using the Phoenician tongue. They also built a fortress in Numidia, where now is the city called Tigisis. In that place are two columns made of white stone near by the great spring, having Phoenician letters cut in them which say in the Phoenician tongue: "We are they who fled from before the face of Joshua, the robber, the son of Nun." There were also other nations settled in Libya before the Moors, who on account of having been established there from of old were said to be children of the soil. And because of this they said that Antaeus, their king, who wrestled with Heracles in Clipea, was a son of the earth. And in later times those who removed from Phoenicia with Dido came to the inhabitants of Libya as to kinsmen. And they willingly allowed them to found and hold Carthage. But as time went on Carthage became a powerful and populous city. And a battle took place between them and their neighbours, who, as has been said, had come from Palestine before them and are called Moors at the present time, and the Carthaginians defeated them and compelled them to live a very great distance away from Carthage. Later on the Romans gained the supremacy over all of them in war, and settled the Moors at the extremity of the inhabited land of Libya, and made the Carthaginians and the other Libyans subject and tributary to themselves. And after this the Moors won many victories over the Vandals and gained possession of the land now called Mauretania, extending from Gadira as far as the boundaries of Caesarea, as well as the most of Libya which remained. Such, then, is the story of the settlement of the Moors in Libya....

THIS FOLLOWING ARTICLE PROVIDES LATER SKEPTISM, AND DOUBT ABOUT THE INSCRIPTIONS ...

“Procopius' Phoenician Inscriptions: Never Lost, Not Found.” Palestine Excavation Quarterly (London) 139, no. 2 (2007): 99-104, with a rejoinder by Anthony Frendo.

https://www.academia.edu/1132493/_Procopius_Phoenician_Inscriptions_Never_Lost_Not_Found._Palestine_Excavation_Quarterly_London_139_no._2_2007_99-104_with_a_rejoinder_by_Anthony_Frendo

      Anthony J. Frendo (2002) makes a bold argument about a passage from the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea. Frendo recommends taking at face value an account in Procopius concerning two stelae in Numidia bearing Phoenician inscrip-tions that refer to the expulsion of Canaanites by Joshua.... 

    In this response, I wish to recommend considerable caution in interpreting Procopius’statements about these inscriptions. An error in Frendo’s assessment of the Armenian evidence for these inscriptions undoes the logic of his argument favoring the authenticity of Procopius’ ‘translation’ of the Phoenician. Furthermore, the word ‘robber’ used as an epithet of Joshua in the ‘translation’ has broader implications than Frendo accounts for. Thirdly, the diction of Procopius’ ‘translation’ indicates that it is ultimately dependent on a lost passage of Sextus Julius Africanus’ Chronographia. As Frendo cogently summarises, Procopius of Caesarea was a sixth-century rhetor who served as legal secretary (adsessor) to Belisarius, the general commissioned by emperor Justin-ian I to command his wars of conquest. From 527 until 540 Procopius travelled with Belisarius and the army, first on the Persian front, then in North Africa, and later during the reconquest of Italy. From 533 until 536, Procopius was in North Africa, observing and participating in the war against the Vandals; he remained well informed about North African affairs after his departure to Italy. His History of the Wars of Justinian falls into three parts accordingly:  the Persian Wars (Books 1–2), the Vandal Wars (Books 3–4), and the Gothic Wars (Books 5–7).  Frendo’s statement that ‘Procopius is basically a reliable historian’ can be nuanced further. His biographer Felix Dahn characterised Procopius’ histories as evidence of the author’s great learning and honest reporting. The inaccuracies of Procopius, however, drew criticism from von Ranke, and Averil Cameron declares him ‘an excellent reporter rather than a historian’ in the Wars. Cameron recommends especially that each of the many excurses in the Wars be closely analyzed for accuracy.  In the annalistic chronology of the Wars, Procopius’ digression about the Phoenician stelae is set in the context of events in 540, when Belisarius had departed for Italy and the general Solomon had assumed command of the army in Libya.  A general uprising of the Moors had begun...

    Whatever Procopius may have seen or been told, his ‘translation’ of the inscriptions here ported is borrowed from early Christian chroniclers’ attempts to populate the west with Canaanites displaced by Joshua....

Note:  The original Berber was not Muslim, nor Christian , nor Jew.  Over time the Berbers were forced to convert to these foreign religions by the foreign invasions.

Moors

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moors

    The Moors were the "Muslim" inhabitants of the Maghreb, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during the Middle Ages, who initially were Berber and Arab peoples from North Africa.

    Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that "The term 'Moors' has no real ethnological value."   Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, North African Berbers, and Muslim Europeans.  The term has also been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent, whether living in Spain or North Africa.

    In 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, which at its peak included most of Septimania and modern-day Spain and Portugal.

    In 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily,...They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy. Differences in religion and culture led to a centuries-long conflict with the Christian kingdoms of Europe, which tried to reclaim control of Muslim areas; this conflict was referred to as the Reconquista. In 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300.

The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, although a Muslim minority persisted until their expulsion in 1609.

    Mauretania, a state that covered modern northern Morocco, western Algeria, and the Spanish cities Ceuta and Melilla.  The Berber tribes of the region were noted... as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as "Moors" ...  Mauri is recorded as the native name by Strabo in the early 1st century... the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii ...

    In Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where "moor" implies 'alien' and 'non-Christian'. These beings were siren-like fairies with golden or reddish hair and a fair face. They were believed to have magical properties.  From this root, the name moor is applied to unbaptized children, meaning not Christian.  In Basque, mairu means moor and also refers to a mythical people....

    Although a Christian and pagan Berber rebellion pushed out the Arabs temporarily, ...a renewed and final conquest that left North Africa in Muslim hands by 698. Over the next decades, the Berber and urban populations of North Africa gradually converted to Islam...

    In 711 the Islamic Moors of Arab and Berber descent in North Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar onto the Iberian Peninsula, and in a series of raids they conquered Visigothic Christian Hispania.... The Maghreb fell into a civil war in 739 that lasted until 743 known as the Berber Revolt. The Berbers revolted against the Umayyads, putting an end to Eastern dominion over the Maghreb. Despite racial tensions, Arabs and Berbers intermarried frequently. ...

    The Muslims were resisted in parts of the Iberian Peninsula in areas of the northwest ...and the largely Basque Country in the Pyrenees. Though the number of Moorish colonists was small, many native Iberian inhabitants converted to Islam. By 1000, according to Ronald Segal, some 5,000,000 of Iberia's 7,000,000 inhabitants, most of them descended from indigenous Iberian converts, were Muslim. There were also Sub-Saharan Africans who had been absorbed into al-Andalus to be used as soldiers and slaves. The Berber and Sub-Saharan African soldiers were known as "tangerines" because they were imported through Tangier....

    The Kingdom of Asturias, a small northwestern Christian Iberian kingdom, initiated the Reconquista ("Reconquest") soon after the Islamic conquest in the 8th century. Christian states based in the north and west slowly extended their power over the rest of Iberia. ... On 2 January 1492, the leader of the last Muslim stronghold in Granada surrendered to the armies of a recently united Christian Spain ... The remaining Jews were also forced to leave Spain, convert to Roman Catholic Christianity, or be killed for refusing to do so. In 1480, to exert social and religious control, Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to allow the Inquisition in Spain. ... Some Muslims converted to Christianity and remained permanently in Iberia. This is indicated by a "high mean proportion of ancestry from North African (10.6%)" ...

FREE PEOPLE: THE IMAZIGHEN OF NORTH AFRICA

https://amazighworldnews.com/free-people-the-imazighen-of-north-africa/

Rh- Negative Blood and Antediluvian Civilizations (Robert Sepehr)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls_ZtM1Itzs

R1b is derived from a pure population of the M173 Y chromosome found in Iberia/Southern France 40,000 years ago....

Iberian Peninsula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula

     About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France.  Here, this genetically homogeneous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to Haplogroup R1b, still the most common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males....

Prior to the Neolithic, Northwest Africa did not contain J and E male haplogroups.  R1 (R-M173) was in west Europe and NW Africa since 40,000 ybp.  Thus, the E hg subclades replaced the R1 subclade males in North Africa beginning at the Neolithic.  Further proves the first people of Northwest Africa were R1/U6 Amazigh until the Neolithic.  R1 is the ancestor of the western European tribes of R1b.

Genetic history of North Africa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_history_of_North_Africa

    A thorough study by Arredi et al. (2004), which analyzed populations from Algeria, concludes that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation (including both J1 and E3b2 main haplogroups) is largely of Neolithic origin...

SIMILAR TO THE AMAZIGH R1/U6 SPLIT THE SAAMI UNDERWENT A SIMILAR SPLIT OF THEIR R1/U5 SUBCLADES.  SAAMI AND AMAZIGH ARE RELATIVES.  AFTER THE ICE AGE RETREATS THE SAAMI MIGRATE NORTH AND EAST EVENTUALLY ENDING IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA WHERE THE R1b MALE WAS REPLACED BY OTHER PEOPLES AS THEY MIGARTED NORTH AND EAST.  AMAZIGH REMAIN IN NORTH WEST AFRICA...

SAAMI

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/finno-ugric

Pillars of Hercules

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules

     A lost passage of Pindar quoted by Strabo was the earliest traceable reference in this context: "the pillars which Pindar calls the 'gates of Gades' when he asserts that they are the farthermost limits reached by Heracles."...Plato placed the fictional island of Atlantis beyond the "Pillars of Hercules". ...  According to some Roman sources, while on his way to the garden of the Hesperides on the island of Erytheia, Hercules had to cross the mountain that was once Atlas. Instead of climbing the great mountain, Hercules used his superhuman strength to smash through it. By doing so, he connected the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and formed the Strait of Gibraltar. One part of the split mountain is Gibraltar and the other is either Monte Hacho or Jebel Musa. These two mountains taken together have since then been known as the Pillars of Hercules,...

    Phoenician connection:

Beyond Gades, several important Mauretanian colonies (in modern-day Morocco) were founded by the Phoenicians as the Phoenician merchant navy pushed through the Pillars of Hercules and began constructing a series of bases along the Atlantic coast starting with Lixus in the north, then Chellah and finally Mogador.

    Near the eastern shore of the island of Gades/Gadeira (modern Cádiz, just beyond the strait) Strabo describes the westernmost temple of Tyrian Heracles, the god with whom Greeks associated the Phoenician and Punic Melqart, by interpretatio graeca. Strabo notes that the two bronze pillars within the temple, each eight cubits high, were widely proclaimed to be the true Pillars of Hercules by many who had visited the place and had sacrificed to Heracles there. But Strabo believes the account to be fraudulent, in part noting that the inscriptions on those pillars mentioned nothing about Heracles, speaking only of the expenses incurred by the Phoenicians in their making. The columns of the Melqart temple at Tyre were also of religious significance....

Melqart

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melqart

    Melqart was the tutelary god of the Phoenician city of Tyre. Melqart was often titled the "Lord of Tyre" (Ba‘al Ṣūr) and was considered to be the progenitor of the Tyrian royal family.[citation needed] As Tyrian trade and colonization expanded, Melqart became venerated in Phoenician and Punic cultures from Lebanon to Spain....  To the Greeks and the Romans, he was identified with Hercules and, when necessary, distinguished as the Tyrian Hercules....  Melqart is likely to have been the particular Ba‘al found in the Tanakh (the Jewish Bible, specifically in 1 Kings 16.31–10.26) whose worship was prominently introduced to Israel by King Ahab... 

The historian Herodotus recorded (2.44):

    In the wish to get the best information that I could on these matters, I made a voyage to Tyre in Phoenicia, hearing there was a temple of Heracles at that place, very highly venerated. I visited the temple, and found it richly adorned with a number of offerings, among which were two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of smaragdos, shining with great brilliance at night. In a conversation which I held with the priests, I inquired how long their temple had been built, and found by their answer that they, too, differed from the Hellenes. They said that the temple was built at the same time that the city was founded, and that the foundation of the city took place 2,300 years ago. In Tyre I remarked another temple where the same god was worshipped as the Thasian Heracles. So I went on to Thasos, where I found a temple of Heracles which had been built by the Phoenicians who colonised that island when they sailed in search of Europa. Even this was five generations earlier than the time when Heracles, son of Amphitryon, was born in Hellas. These researches show plainly that there is an ancient god Heracles; and my own opinion is that those Hellenes act most wisely who build and maintain two temples of Heracles, in the one of which the Heracles worshipped is known by the name of Olympian, and has sacrifice offered to him as an immortal, while in the other the honours paid are such as are due to a hero....

Archaeological evidence for Melqart's cult is found earliest in Tyre and seems to have spread westward with the Phoenician colonies established by Tyre...  it was customary to build a temple to Melqart, as protector of Tyrian traders, in each new Phoenician colony...(The Greeks followed a parallel practice in respect to Heracles....    In Tyre, the high priest of Melqart ranked second only to the king....

    Temples to Melqart are found at least three Phoenician/Punic sites in Spain:...Another temple to Melqart was at Ebyssus (Ibiza)...Another Iberian temple to Melqart has been identified at Carthago Nova (Cartagena)....  Athenaeus (392d) summarizes a story by Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 355 BCE) telling how Heracles the son of Zeus by Asteria (= ‘Ashtart ?) was killed by Typhon in Libya. Heracles' companion Iolaus brought a quail to the dead god (presumably a roasted quail) and its delicious scent roused Heracles back to life. This purports to explain why the Phoenicians sacrifice quails to Heracles....Sanchuniathon also makes Melqart under the name Malcarthos or Melcathros. the son of Hadad. who is normally identified with Zeus....

    In Nonnus' Dionysiaca the Tyrian Heracles is very much a Sun-god. However, there is a tendency in the later Hellenistic and Roman periods for almost all gods to develop solar attributes and for almost all eastern gods to be identified with the Sun...Dionysus identifies the Tyrian Heracles with Belus on the Euphrates, Ammon in Libya, Apis by the Nile, Arabian Cronus, Assyrian Zeus, Serapis, Zeus of Egypt, Cronus, Phaethon, Mithras, Delphic Apollo, Gamos 'Marriage', and Paeon 'Healer'.

    The Tyrian Heracles answers by appearing to Dionysus. There is red light in the fiery eyes of this shining god who clothed in a robe embroidered like the sky (presumably with various constellations). He has yellow, sparkling cheeks and a starry beard. The god reveals how he taught the primeval, earthborn inhabitants of Phoenicia how to build the first boat and instructed them to sail out to a pair of floating, rocky islands. On one of the islands there grew an olive tree with a serpent at its foot, an eagle at its summit, and which glowed in the middle with fire that burned but did not consume. Following the god's instructions, these primeval humans sacrificed the eagle to Poseidon, Zeus, and the other gods. Thereupon the islands rooted themselves to the bottom of the sea. On these islands the city of Tyre was founded....

    Because of the scanty evidence scholars vary widely on what kind of a god Melqart was...a god of the underworld...other sources does not suggest an underworld...Melqart began as a sea god who was later given solar attributes or alternatively that he began as a solar god who later received the attributes of a sea god. In fact little is known of his cult.

POPULAR TRADITIONS ORALLY TRANSMITTED DOWN THROUGHOUT THE AGES.  ADD IN SOME HYPE, BIAS, GIVE IT A SPIN, ADD IN A LITTLE ACTUAL HISTORIES, AND MORE TIME TO PASS.  WRITE IT ALL DOWN CENTURIES LATER.  REWRITE IT AND RETELL IT ADDING IN A LITTLE MORE MYTHOLOGIES...

Egypt Remembers: Ancient accounts of the Great Exodus

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-important-events/egypt-remembers-ancient-accounts-great-exodus-002295

    The biblical story of the Israelites’ Descent and Exodus speaks about important events that took place in Egypt, so we should expect to find records of these events in Egyptian sources...But we do not find even one contemporary inscription from the relevant period that records any of these events....However, although the Merenptah stele locates the Israelites in Canaan around 1219 BC, it makes no mention of them previously living in Egypt or departing from it in an Exodus under Moses....  popular traditions retained the story of the man whom Egyptians regarded as a divine being, for more than 10 centuries, before it was recorded by Egyptian priests. Under the Macedonian Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC...  Manetho, the 3 rd century BC Egyptian priest and historian who recorded the history of Egypt into Greek to be placed in the Library of Alexandria, included the story of Moses in his Aegyptiaca.... 

    Although Manetho’s original text was lost, some quotations from it have been preserved mainly by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in 1 st century AD....Josephus tells us that:     " Under the pretext of recording fables and current reports about the Jews, he (Manetho) took the liberty of introducing some incredible tales, wishing to represent us (the Jews) as mixed up with a crowd of Egyptian lepers and others, who for various maladies were condemned, as he asserts, to banishment from the country. " ...

    As we can see, although contemporary Egyptian official records kept their silence about the account of Moses and the Israelite Exodus, popular memory of Egypt preserved these events, and they were transmitted orally for many centuries before being put down in writing....

    On the other hand, Monatho’s dating of the religious rebellion in the time of Amenhotep III, assures us that he was giving a real historical account. For it was during this reign that Amenhotep’s son and co-regent, Akhenaten, abandoned traditional Egyptian polytheism and introduced a monotheistic worship centered on the Aten....a number of later independent historians, including Manetho, date Moses and the bondage to the Amarna period? Surely it is self-evident that the monotheistic preaching at Mount Sinai is to be traced back ultimately to the teachings of Akhenaten.” ...

    As for the starting point of the Exodus, while the biblical account gives the city’s name as Rameses, Manetho gives the name of another location: Avaris. Avaris was a fortified city at the borders of the Nile Delta and Sinai. It was the starting point of the road to Canaan, which had been occupied by the Asiatic kings, known as Hyksos, who ruled Egypt from about 1783 to 1550 BC, when they were driven out by Ahmosis I. ...  

EVALUATING THE UNIPARENTAL LINEAGES FINDS E-M81, E-M78, AND J SUBGROUPS MOST FREQUENT.  THE E-M2 ARE AT NON-NEGLIGIBLE FREQUENCY.  WHILE THE R1-M173 ARE NON-UNIFORMLY REPRESENTED.

E-M81 IS ONLY 2,000 TO 3,000 YEARS OLD.  E-M78 IS FROM EAST AFRICA.  NO E HG REACHING NW AFRICA UNTIL THE NEOLITHIC.  J SUBGROUPS ALSO NOT PRESENT IN NORTH AFRICA UNTIL THE NEOLITHIC COMING FROM THE MID EAST.

E-M2 IS FROM THE SUB-SAHARA AFRICA.  E MALES WERE COMPANION TO L FEMALES IN ORIGIN.  M HG FEMALES ARE FROM THE NORTH EAST AFRICA.  L HG FEMALES ARE FROM SUBSAHARA AFRICA.

R1-M173 WAS IN WEST EUROPE 40,000 YBP.  HIS FEMALE COMPANION SINCE HIS ORIGIN WERE U FEMALES.  ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE R1 HAS A NONUNIFORM PRESENCE IN NORTH AFRICA WHICH COULD MEAN VARIOUS POSSIBILITIES.  BUT, WHEN COMBINED WITH ALL ARTICLES I HAVE READ THUS FAR LEADS TO A MORE COMMON LIKELIHOOD THAT U6 FEMALES BROKE OFF FROM R1 MALES IN NORTH AFRICA MOST PROBABLY BY VARIOUS CAUSES FROM INVADING PEOPLES OF THE EAST.  EAST AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST BEING THE MOST PROBABLE INVADERS.  MOST PROBABLY BEGINNING IN THE NEOLITHIC TIMES, AND CONTINUING SINCE.  R1 HAS SINCE BECOME NEAR EXTINCT IN NORTH AFRICA, AS WELL AS HIS MALE DESCENDANTS R1b BEING REPLACED WITH THE NEOLITHIC EASTERN PEOPLES, AND THEIR SLAVES.  COMBINED WITH OTHER ARTICLES SHOW THE GREATEST PROBABLITY OF R1 AND U6 BEING IN THE LATE ATERIAN CULTURE AT LEAST 35,000 TO 45,000 YBP WITH R1 BEING REPLACED BY INVADING E AND J MALES SINCE THEIR ENTRY INTO NORTH AFRICA... JMO.

Genetic Heterogeneity in Algerian Human Populations

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138453&type=printable

    Historical events testify of many invasions, conquests and migrations by Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Jews ,Spanish, and French, as well as the presence of autochthonous groups such as the Libyans, Moors, Gaetuli, and Numidians, among others...      A few studies have focused on a single Algerian sample in the area extrapolating their results to a vast geographic area and ignoring the putative internalgenetic diversity and heterogeneity in the region. In addition, the whole of North Africa is rep-resented in the HGDP panel by a single Algerian Berber population, the Mozabites; and all the studies using the HGDP panel.In order to overcome these limitations and to explore the genetic heterogeneity within Alge-ria, the present study describes the distribution of the uniparental lineages (mtDNA and Y-chromosome) and whole genome autosomal SNPs in several Algerian samples, including Arab- and Berber-speaking groups...

    Four populations from Algeria were genotyped in this study (Oran, Algiers, Reguibate and Zenata)...  Reference samples from Sub-Saharan Africa (Yoruba), Europe (French Basques) and the Middle East (Palestinians) were used in comparative analyses....

    Results: 

    Uniparental lineages in Algeria Y-chromosome analysis:  The paternal lineage composition in Algerian samples is similar to other NW African populations, being E1b1b1b-M81 the most frequent haplogroup, fol-lowed by E1b1b1a-M78 and J subgroups...  Some subSaharan lineages, such as E1b1a-M2, are present at non-negligible frequencies in some sam-ples, such as the Zenata (~23%), whereas some European lineages such as R1-M173 are non-uniformly represented in the present sample set...  Haplogroup diversity in the Reguibate and the Mozabite was the lowest compared to the other Algerian samples. It is noteworthy that the lowest haplogroup diversity is not related to the current ethno linguistic affiliation, with some Berber groups such as the Zenata presenting high haplogroup diversities whereas some non-Berber groups such as the Reguibate showing lowhaplogroup diversity...

    Mitochondrial DNA Analysis:  An admixture of Eurasian, North African, and sub-Saha-ran African mtDNA lineages is found in all Algerian samples as shown in other North African populations. Sub-Saharan lineages were remarkably frequent in the Zenata (L lineages represent ~65%) compared to the rest of the Algerian samples...but the East African haplogroups (such as L0, L4b2) do not exceed 3.5% in the Zenata or in any of the other Algerian samples. It is also worth to note that the North Afri-can mtDNA haplogroup U6 is absent from the Algiers sample and it is only present in one Zenata individual, while it reaches 8.3–28.2% in other Algerian samples. Finally, M1, another North African lineage, is not found in the Zenata sample....

    PCA carried on mtDNA haplogroup frequencies showed that the first component separates the Reguibate (characterized by high frequencies of haplogroup U6a) whereas theAlgiers sample lies on the opposite side of the component (with high frequencies of MiddleEastern haplogroup J). The sub-Saharan contribution differentiates the Zenata populationfrom the others in the second component due to the presence of sub-Saharan lineages L2a, L3d and L1b....

    The AMOVA analysis based on mtDNA haplogroups and haplotypes data shows no differ-ences between the Southern and Northern populations and between the Arabs and Berbers,even excluding the Reguibate sample from the Arab group. Significant differences are found within populations reflecting their high degree of heterogeneity...

    one ancestral component is associated with sub-Saharan individuals while the other one is associ-ated with the Europeans, showing the rest of individuals an admixture of both components. At K = 3 a North African/Middle Eastern ancestral component appears, whereas at K = 4 a MiddleEastern ancestral component arises... The Mozabites show the highest North African ancestry, as expected from its position in the PCA, and also contain very low admixture with Middle Eastern, European or sub-Saharan ancestral populations.

In con-trast, the Zenata individuals present high variation due to differential sub-Saharan admixture,in agreement with the results shown in the PCA. The North African component in this Zenata sample is not as frequent as in the Mozabites...and the former also contain more admixture from the MiddleEast....

    The results of the PCA and ADMIXTURE analyses carried out exclusively for X-chromosome markers are similar to the autosomal analysis...    Nevertheless, some differences in autosomal and X-chromosome ancestry distribution can be found.  North African ancestry is higher in autosomal chromo-somes than in the X-chromosome, which could be explained by a contri-bution of this ancestry mainly driven by men. On the other hand, Middle Eastern, European and Sub-Saharan ancestries might have mostly been driven by women, as shown by the higher frequency of these ancestries in the X-chromosome when compared to autosomes...

    Discussion:  Concerning the Y-chromosome data, the highest frequencies are seen for the autochthonous North African lineages E-M81 and E-M78, this last one more frequent in Northeastern Africa where it has probably emerged; whereas the presence of the Middle Eastern Y-chromosome J1-M267 has been attributed to the Islamic expansion. In a similar way, the mitochondrial DNA analysis shows also different lineages in Algeria, already observed in North Africa: the North African lineages U6 and M1 that have been dated to Paleolithic times, the Eurasian H (related to the Neolithic expansion) and HV; and the sub-Saharan lineages (L). It has been suggested that the sub-Saharan lineages for both mtDNAand Y-chromosome reached very recently North Africa through the slave trade routes across the Sahara. Moreover, the autosomal genome-wide SNPs analysis also demonstrates the admixture of the Eurasian and African components in both Berber (Mozabite and Zenata)

and non-Berber populations from Algeria in agreement with the general genetic North African landscape..

     The distribution and frequencies of the North African, Eurasian and sub-Saharan components both in uniparental and autosomal markers is variable in each group, not only when comparing Berber and non-Berber, but also within linguistic groups. For example, some autochthonous North African hap-logroups were not present in certain samples, such as the mtDNA U6 haplogroup that was absent in Algiers and present in only one individual in the analyzed Zenata group. In the sameway, mtDNA haplogroup M1 is absent in the Zenata population. The absence of the maternalNorth African component in these groups, especially the Zenata Berbers, might be explainedby extensive genetic drift and the remarkable high frequency of sub-Saharan lineages (~23%for the Y-chromosome E-M2 haplogroup and ~ 65% of mtDNA L lineages) in the Zenata sam-ple....

    It has been shown that some Berber populations (Tuareg, Mozabite and Chenini-Douirat) are heterogeneous and outliers within the genetic North African landscape, and they seem to have experienced long periods of genetic isolation without subsequent admixture with other groups. This process of isolation was probably recent and has been followed by genetic drift.  However, our results in Algeria challenge the identification of Berber-speaking groups as isolated populations, whereas Arab-speaking groups are identified as genetically more diverse and less isolated. Our results demonstrate that Berber groups are not systemati-cally isolated and closed, such as the Zenata who show a different genetic profile compared to the Mozabites, already known to be an isolated Berber group... 

    Although the Mozabites are descendants of the Zenata Berbergroup in North Africa, nowadays, the majority of the Mozabites form an isolated Ibadi Muslim group in Algeria. The Ibadi form of Islam evolved from the 7th century Islamic group known as the Kharijites in Irak. They reached Algeria and found a refuge within the isolated group ofthe Mozabites... Mozabites have been more isolated and received less gene flow than the Zenata, who show more admixture not only with sub-Saharanbut also with Middle Eastern populations when analyzing autosomal markers....

    The Reguibate population might have experienced some genetic drift or a genetic founder effect that altered its unilinear lineage frequencies. Indeed, the Reguibate show the highest frequency of the North African component for both Y chromosome (E-M81) and mtDNA (U6a), after the Mozabite....

"differences among male populations are significantly greater than among the female. For instance, the mean FST distance between Algeria and other Maghreb countries for Y-chromosome (0.061) is nearly three times higher than for mtDNA (0.023), 5 times higher when based on distances between Algeria and Europe and nearly 8 times higher when involving Middle East populations."  SINCE ATERIAN TIMES THE NATIVE NORTH AFRICAN PEOPLE HAVE SEEN GREATER REPLACEMENTS OF THE MALE POPULATION WHILE THE FEMALE NATIVES HAVE SEEN LESSER REPLACEMENT.  THIS ITSELF SUGGESTS U6 COUNTERPART WAS NOT E NOR J HG's IN HER HG INFANCY.  THIS ARTICLE IS CONTRADICTORY AT TIMES.  THE PROBLEM IN UNDERSTANDING THE R1b MOVEMENT IS BECAUSE THE R1b IS DESCENDED FROM R1 THE FIRST IN WEST EUROPE.  R1b HAD SEVERAL MAJOR MOVEMENTS FROM HIS EURASIAN REFUGIA SINCE PALEOLITHIC, AND ALSO IN NEOLITHIC MAKING HIS MOVEMENTS IN EUROPE AND AFRICA MISLEADING AT TIMES.  HE WAS ALSO ALREADY WELL PLANTED IN HIS WEST EUROPE REFUGIA AS THE DESC ENDANTS OF R1 THE FIRST PEOPLE.  THIS ARTICLE MAKES THE MISTAKE ASSUMING R1b INTO NORTH AFRICA WAS NEOLITHIC.  BUT R1b WAS PALEOLITHIC, AND HIS HG FATHER R1, OR R1's FATHER HG MAY HAVE BEEN IN THE ATERIAN.

SOME ARTICLES CLAIM U6 IN NORTH AFRICA 9000 TO 15000 BC BUT, YET THEY CLAIM SHE IS AT LEAST 35000 TO 45000 YEARS OLD AND INDIGENOUS TO NORTH AFRICA.  THUS IF SHE WAS THE FIRST MODERN FEMALE IN NORTH AFRICA, AND R1 WAS THE FIRST MODERN MALE IN WEST EUROPE THEN R1 WOULD BE THE LIKELY PARTNER FOR U6.  AND AS A PART OF THESE NATIVE INDIGENOUS U6 PEOPLE MIGRATED EAST AFTER THOUSANDS OF YEARS LATER SHE MIGRATES BACK BUT HAD MIXED WITH FOREIGN MALE HAPLOGROUPS AS R1, AND OR R1b WAS REPLACED CREATING A HEALTHY POPULATION OF U6 IN NORTH AFRICA WHILE R1 AND R1b IS REPLACED BY THE EAST AFRICANS AND THE MIDDLE EAST MALE HG's.   ITS THE ONLY THING THAT MAKES SENSE WHEN INCORPORATING ALL THE FACTS FROM SEVERAL ARTICLES.  ELSE OTHER ARTICLES ARE WRONG, DATES ARE WRONG PLACING OTHER HG's IN THE AREA EARLIER, LACK OF ALL EVIDENCE, ETC... OR R1 WAS NOT THE FIRST MODERN HUMAN REPLACING AN EARLIER EUROPEAN OR EURASIAN HG THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO AS HE ENTERED THE WEST...  OR...

Introducing the Algerian Mitochondrial DNA and YChromosome Profiles into the North African Landscape

https://www.academia.edu/28191887/Introducing_the_Algerian_Mitochondrial_DNA_and_Y-Chromosome_Profiles_into_the_North_African_Landscape   

    Abstract:  North Africa is considered a distinct geographic and ethnic entity within Africa. Although modern humans originated in this Continent, studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome genealogical markers provide evidence that the North African gene pool has been shaped by the back-migration of several Eurasian lineages in Paleolithic and Neolithic times. More recent influences from sub-Saharan Africa and Mediterranean Europe are also evident. The presence of East-West and North-South haplogroup frequency gradients strongly reinforces the genetic complexity of this region....

    The region was Berber dialects are today confined to the more mountainous and known as Africa Minor by the ancients and as the Maghreb by the desert rural areas of the region.  Arabs, the far western region of their Empire. From the Middle Paleolithic on, while the Neanderthals occupied Europe and Western Asia, anatomically modern humans with their Aterian industry already flourished in the Maghreb. After a prolonged hiatus but still in Paleolithic times, a new backed bladelet industry, named Iberomaurusian, replaced the Aterian in this area. A wet period beginning around 9,000 years ago brought Saharan and Mediterranean Neolithic influences to the autochthonous Capsian Epipaleolithic. It seems that since that time Berber Afroasiatic dialects gave some cultural homogeneity to the anthropologically diverse populations of the Maghreb. In historical times, North Africa was affected by the expansion of several Mediterranean civilizations, particularly the Phoenicians and Romans, who left their cultural influences with only minor demic impact on the Berber population. However, the Berber language was not seriously threatened until the Islamic Arabs expanded their religion and culture to the Maghreb, since the end of the 7th century onwards. Widely superseded by Arabic, Berber dialects are today confined to the more mountainous and desert rural areas of the region....

    From the beginning, a prominent mtDNA Euroasiatic genetic component was observed in the Northern areas occupied by Morocco and Egypt, with gradual sub-Saharan African influences moving southwards to the Western Sahara and Mauritania, or to Nubia and the Sudan respectively....Comparisons between North African and Mediterranean Europe maternal and paternal gene pools reveal sharp discontinuities and limited gene flow between

both areas. Furthermore, Berbers constitute a very heterogeneous group showing significant differences even between geographically close communities. However, an unexpected lack of differentiation between Berber and Arab speaking communities was found.  These results suggest that the Arabization phenomenon was mainly an acculturation process of the indigenous Berber population.[BECAUSE BY THE TIME OF ARABIZATION THE ORIGINAL MALE BERBER WAS ALREADY REPLACED BY THE E AND J HG's.]

 However, the significantly higher presence of the prominently Arab Y-chromosome J-M267 haplogroup in cosmopolitan compared to rural samples pointed to a substantial male biased Arab influence in North Africa and the Levant... Interestingly, wide geographical longitudinal gradients are detectable overlying local microstructure in North Africa for several uniparental markers. Some of these lineages, such as the mtDNA haplogroups U6 [WHAT PROOF?  U6 DEVELOPED IN, AND IS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH AFRICA.  NOT THE MIDDLE EAST.], M1 and X1 had their ancestral roots in the Middle East but expanded in North Africa since Paleolithic times with instances of secondary dispersion in this area. [NOT TRUE FOR U6 BECAUSE SHE WAS INDIGENOUS TO NORTH AFRICA.  U6 EXPANDED FROM THE WEST TO THE EAST AND THEN BACK AGAIN IN THE NEOLITHIC.]

Others, like sub-haplogroup U5b1b, sub-haplogroups H1 and H3 and haplogroup V seem to have reached North Africa from Iberia in a post-last glacial maximum expansion. In concordance, an ancient DNA study from Ibero-Maurusian bone remains from Taforalt in Morocco detected the presence of haplogroups U6, V, T and probably H, pointing to a Paleolithic genetic continuity in Northwest Africa.  Additionally, male lineages also provide

support to a Paleolithic Asia to Africa back migration with Holocene trans-Saharan spreads as testified by the haplogroup R-V88 distribution. Other lineages, E-M8 and E- M78, seem to be of North African origin with Paleolithic and Neolithic expansions that reached surrounding areas. The presence of these clades in southwestern Europe has been attributed to trans-Mediterranean contacts without involving the Levant....

    Mozabites present a high excess of U3 and U6a1'2'3 haplotypes whereas the miscellaneous sample lacks HV0 representatives and has an outstanding excess of J/J1c/J2, L3e5 and L2a1 lineages.      In contrast, Oran frequencies fall within the range expected by its geographic position, presenting only a slight deficit of K* lineages (p = 0.04) and a notable excess of M1 lineages (p= 0.002), which could be characteristic of Algeria since it is also shared by the miscellaneous sample. For these reasons we considered the Oran sample as the best representative of the general Algerian pool....  Congruently, the most common western subgroups, H1 (47.8%) and H3 (10.1%), represent 60% of H lineages. Furthermore, the H1 frequency in Algeria is intermediate between that found in Morocco (51.6%) and Tunisia (29.4%), fitting the eastward-decreasing gradient previously observed for this subgroup. Thus, for the H haplogroup, Algerian affinities with the East seem to be weaker than with the West. Subgroups H2a1, H4 and H13a1 account for 42% of H lineages in Egypt but only 6% in Algeria. In addition, such a characteristic subgroup of the Arabian Peninsula as H6b (13%) was not found in our Algerian sample.  Of all North African populations, Eurasian lineages are the most frequent in Algeria (80%) while sub-Saharan Africa origin accounts for the remaining 20%. At least two Eurasian lineages, M1 and U6, had Paleolithic implantation and subsequent expansions in North Africa, reaching the Sahel and Sudan belts.  It seems that the main focus of distribution of U6 was in the Northwest and M1 in the Northeast areas of the Continent. Indeed, the U6 haplogroup frequency is significantly higher in Algeria (11.83%) and W.Sahara and Mauritania (11.04%) compared to the eastern: Tunisia (5.24%), Libya ,(4.08%)and Egypt (0.77%). However, the M1 frequency in Algeria (7.1%) raises an anomalous peak in its decreasing gradient from Northeast to Northwest.  The rest of the Eurasian lineages in North Africa had a Levantine or Middle Eastern origin and, most probably, had reached Europe and Africa in parallel episodes in which sea-travel across the Mediterranean, occurring since Epipaleolithic times, played an important role.  However, for some lineages present in North Africa but showing higher frequencies in Western Europe (for example, H1, H3, HV0 and U5b1b), a direct source in the Iberian Peninsula has been put forward, as a result of post glacial reexpansion....

    U5b1b haplotypes have not been found in Algeria yet, although this is a rare lineage in North Africa with its highest peak (6.2%) in the W. Saharan-Mauritanian region. Neither have we detected any representative of haplogroup U5b3, which expanded in Italy in Epipaleolithic times reaching nearby Mediterranean coasts. However, a peculiar U5 Haplotype belonging to the U5b2b3 cluster was observed. Until now, it has only exact matches with Hungarians and Romani from Bulgaria. Regarding the sub-Saharan African component, Algeria (20%) is at the same level as Morocco (20.4%) and Egypt (22.9%) but significantly lower (p =0.003) than Tunisia (30.1%) and marginally lower (p =0.059) than Libya (27.1%).  Aside from the widespread haplogroup L2a, the majority (14%) of Algerian L lineages (L1b, L2a1, L2b, L2c, L3b, L3d) are of West Africa origin. Those from Central Africa (L1c, L3e, L3f) account for an additional 5%, leaving around 1% for those of East African ancestry (L0, L3*, L4). It has been suggested that these lineages reached North Africa since Holocene times, when climatic amelioration permeated the Saharan desert.

However the historical trans-Saharan slave trade promoted by the Arabs may have been mainly responsible for their present day incidence....

    Therefore, the Eurasian E-V13 is the most common sub-group in Iberia although one North African E-V65 type has also been detected.  On the African side, the lack of E-M78 representatives in a total sample of 189 males from the W. Saharan-Mauritanian area is notable. For the Maghreb countries, the fact that the number of males belonging to para-group E-M78* is the same as those included in the autochthonous E-V65 group also stands out.  For the R-M343 subdivision, the Iberian Peninsula reflects a genuine European profile  except for the presence of one Sahel R-V88 type. In contrast, all R-M343 detected in W.Saharan-Mauritanian belong to sub-group R-V88, reaching a frequency of 7%, similar to those observed in other Sahel samples. In the Maghreb countries, the frequency of R-V88 drops to around 1%. On the other hand, the presence in this area of representatives of the European sub-groups R-M412, R-S116, R-U152 and R-M529 points to North-South maritime contacts across the Mediterranean. ... Clearly, markers E-V65, E-M81 and J1-M267 confirm the geographic and ethnic identity of Algeria but, while E-M81 represents an autochthonous group that sharply decreases in Egypt, J1-M267 points to a Levantine influence. Haplogroups G-M201, L-M20, R2-M124, T-M70, J2-M172 and the majority of derived J2 subgroups all reflect West Asian influences on Europe with only weak inputs on North Africa. On their part, several European I subgroups also extend to West Asia with minor gene flow to the African countries. Exceptions to this general pattern are the subgroups J2-M67 and R-M412 that have similar frequencies in Algeria as in Europe, and R2-M124 whose frequency in Egypt is not significantly different from the mean value of European and West Asian areas.... Within North Africa, the Maghreb region appears well differentiated from Egypt, which, reflecting its geographical position, is near to the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula. The most influential haplogroups in the first component separation are: E-M81, E-V65 and R-V88 that pull the North African countries together, and J-M172, R-M173, R-M17, R-M124 and R-L23 that pull West Asian countries in the opposite direction. In the second component, haplogroups R-L11, R-M529, R-U198, I-M223 and I-M26 are responsible for the spread of the European Mediterranean countries away from Egypt and Arabia, which in turn are pulled by J-M267, B-M60, E-V22 and E-M123.... 

    Based on genome-wide genetic analysis, up to five differentiated genetic components (Maghreb, Near East, Europe, and west and east sub-Saharan Africa) were recently Detected in the ancestry of North African populations....

    These results confirm that for both uniparental markers, Egypt and to a lesser extent Libya stand out sharply from the Maghreb...  This would imply a 100% European contribution to the maternal pool of the Maghreb... Genetic and geographic distances faithfully correlate for both uniparental markers, indicating populations from both sides of the Mediterranean remained apart until meeting in the Levant....

    However, these coincidences only reflect present-day frequencies, not common past histories.  Furthermore, in spite of the similarities, differences among male populations are significantly greater than among the female. For instance, the mean FST distance between Algeria and other Maghreb countries for Y-chromosome (0.061) is nearly three times higher than for mtDNA (0.023), 5 times higher when based on distances between Algeria and Europe and nearly 8 times higher when involving Middle East populations.  Thus, Tunisia is the most related to Algeria at mtDNA level but W.Sahara-Mauritania is the closest when using Y-chromosome. Moreover, France is the most distant population from Algeria based on mtDNA but Iberia is the furthest when based on Y-chromosome. Finally, in the Middle East, Saudi Arabia is the less related population when comparing maternal profiles, but from the paternal view, the most distant area is the Caucasus.      For the sub-Saharan East African component, Arabia and Egypt harbor the highest frequencies for both Y-chromosome and mtDNA. However, in the Maghreb, W.Sahara-Mauritania accumulates the maximum male eastern contribution and Tunisia the female one. Comparing the sub-Saharan West African component, the correspondence between male and female inputs is perfect; Iberia and Italy show the highest influences in Europe, W. Sahara-Mauritania and Libya in North Africa and the Levant and Arabia in the Middle East. For the European component, Iberia, France and Italy have the greatest representation in both uniparental markers, and for the Middle East it is the Caucasus. Nevertheless, in the Maghreb, the European mtDNA contribution in Morocco is the largest whereas Y-chromosome influence peaks in Algeria. Finally, the Middle East component shows congruent values for both markers, the Balkans is the region with the greatest Middle East component in Europe; Egypt has the greatest in North Africa and Iran in the Middle East. A big study concerning Y-chromosome in Iran has been published after this analysis was carried out, however haplogroup frequencies for both sets of Iranian samples are rather similar, and we do not think its inclusion would modify largely our conclusions.

    Recently, it has been reported that the sub-Saharan African gene flow to Tunisia Shows a strong sex bias, involving a significantly larger female contribution. The same tendency holds for all North African populations except Libya, which could be attributed to insufficient sampling....

    On the basis of uniparental markers and massive genomic analysis, the bulk of the sub-Saharan African gene flow has been attributed to historic events such as Romanization, Islamic role and, even more so, the Arab and Atlantic slave trades....

    From mtDNA and wide genome analysis the signals of Paleolithic influences are however evident. As the time to the most recent common ancestor through mtDNA is higher than that of the Y-chromosome, sex-specific demographic processes are probably the main factor behind this difference. A view reconciling the two perspectives would be that male lineages are better suited for detecting more recent human expansions whereas the ramifications of mtDNA genealogies extend to Paleolithic times and beyond.

BOTH BASQUES AND AMAZIGH ARE FROM ATLANTIS...

Cataclysm, Mass Extinctions, and the Consequent Myths

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-important-events/cataclysm-0012949

    According to geologists, in the interval from 10,000 to 8,000 BC, some 35 to 45 species of large mammals became extinct. This is called a mass extinction . Mass extinctions can be defined as species death within a relatively short interval of time.  None of the mainstream theories which attempt to account for these great extinctions are entirely satisfactory....  geologic time is marked by a relatively sudden change in climate about 10,000 years ago or more, from a cold glacial to warm interglacial environment.... 

During this time, there were catastrophic changes across the planet. For example, the asphalt and tar seeps of California, like those in South America and Africa, host a rich assemblage of evidence of faunal and floral life, the most spectacular having occurred in Rancho La Brea where the remains of numerous animals are tightly packed together. ...

Approximately 700 skulls of saber-toothed tigers have been systematically excavated, accompanied by a huge number of remains from horses, camels, bison, mammoths, mastodons, coyotes, wolves, sloths, and other faunal contemporaries, broken, mashed, and contorted. This suggests a sudden mass extinction where animals, predator and prey alike, were suddenly thrown together.  The Beresovka mammoth in Siberia was found with daises in its stomach. The intense refrigeration of this mammoth and others suggests that this happened very suddenly.  The Beresovka mammoth, except for head, it is an almost wholly preserved, mummified mammoth carcass discovered in Siberia. It froze the ground solid, turned lake and ground water into great lenses of ice, and froze dead and dying animals and plants throughout the region into grim memorials which have survived, unchanged, in that condition, down to our own day. Among these have been the frozen carcasses of mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and other large mammals. ...

    What could have caused the climate to change so suddenly?...  A modeled path of a rapid polar shift is shown. It is a spiral, starting in Greenland and ending in the Arctic sea....If the pole was at Hudson Bay instead of the Arctic Circle, as it is today, Siberia and Alaska would have been south of the pole and hence in a warmer climate. These large creatures could have survived, even flourished, in such an environment....Some theorists have proposed...the poles shifted from Hudson Bay to the Arctic Circle suddenly with dire consequences.... 

    Normal mantle viscosity, enhanced by powerful external influence, combined with sudden deglaciation, thus seemingly caused not only sudden crustal slippage and fracturing, volcanism, seismic activity but also a change in the actual inclination of the Earth’s spin axis. Proportional to the Earth as a whole, the crust is scarcely thicker than an onionskin is to an onion.  According to Hapgood, the last crustal displacement, around 11,500 years ago greatly affected North and South America, Australia, as well as parts of Asia. Hancock suggests some parts of Europe were impacted as well. The continent of Africa was not as greatly affected. ...

    Another theory is that an extraterrestrial object struck the planet, a catastrophic event....proposes that a comet struck North America 12,900 years ago and then again 11,600 years ago,...called the Younger Dryas comet impact theory, first proposed in 2007...

    Myths of the Great Flood...  The Berbers of North Africa have a legend of a land across the sea called Attala, which was rich in tin, silver, and gold but was submerged by the sea. The Basques of northern Spain and southern France consider themselves descendants of Atlaintika, or Atlantis....  Ancient Celtic legends called the continent reclaimed by the sea, Avalon. Arabian legends refer to the land of Ad, reputed to be the seat of civilization located across the western ocean. The ancient Indian texts refer to a continent called Atyantika, which was the scene of a catastrophic destruction. ...

ATLANTIS HAS BEEN FOUND!  BEST EVIDENCES COMPILES IN FAVOR OF THE EYE OF SAHARA AS THE SUNKEN ATLANTIS.  

Lost Roman Map has ATLANTIS at Eye of Sahara Africa! 

(Richat Structure)

https://youtube.com/watch?v=xo_fMcSLp7Q&si=roxZcZ0oZ5ppS2Ev

ATLANTIS DESCRIBED BY PLATO:  NOTE 9,000 YEARS IS THE TIME OF THE GREAT CATACLYSM AND MASS EXTERMINATION WHICH COINCIDES WITH THE SINKING OF ATLANTIS...  -9000 -360 -2020 = 11,380 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT (YEAR 2020)...

CRITIAS by Plato 360 BC translated by Benjamin Jowett [1871]

https://sacred-texts.com/cla/plato/critias.htm

       The two dialogs of Plato which contain the primary ancient account of Atlantis.  There is a short framing story about Solon in Egypt in Timaeus, and Critias, which contains the description of Atlantis, breaks off mid-narrative. Did Plato mean the tale literally or as an allegory?

      (HILITES)

       Let me begin by observing first of all, that nine thousand was the sum of years which had elapsed since the war which was said to have

taken place between those who dwelt outside the Pillars of Heracles and all who dwelt within them; this war I am going to describe. Of the combatants on the one side, the city of Athens was reported to have been the leader and to have fought out the war; the combatants on the other side were commanded by the kings of Atlantis, which, as was saying, was an island greater in extent than Libya and Asia, and when afterwards sunk by an earthquake, became an impassable barrier of mud to voyagers sailing from hence to any part of the ocean.  The progress of the history will unfold the various nations of barbarians and families of Hellenes which then existed, as they successively appear on the scene; but I must describe first of all Athenians of that day, and their enemies who fought with them, and then the respective powers and governments of the two kingdoms. Let us give the precedence to Athens. ...

The whole country is only a long promontory extending far into the sea away from the rest of the continent, while the surrounding basin of the sea is everywhere deep in the neighbourhood of the shore. Many great deluges have taken place during the nine thousand years, for that is the number of years which have elapsed since the time of which I am speaking; ...

I have before remarked in speaking of the allotments of the gods, that they distributed the whole earth into portions differing in extent, and made for themselves temples and instituted sacrifices. And Poseidon, receiving for his lot the island of Atlantis, begat children by a mortal woman, and settled them in a part of the island, which I will describe. Looking towards the sea, but in the centre of the whole island, there was a plain which is said to have been the fairest of all plains and very fertile. Near the plain again, and also in the centre of the island at a distance of about fifty stadia, there was a mountain not very high on any side.

In this mountain there dwelt one of the earth born primeval men of that country, whose name was Evenor, and he had a wife named Leucippe, and they had an only daughter who was called Cleito. The maiden had already reached womanhood, when her father and mother died; Poseidon fell in love with her and had intercourse with her, and breaking the ground, inclosed the hill in which she dwelt all round, making alternate zones of sea and land larger and smaller, encircling one another; there were two of land and three of water, which he turned as with a lathe, each having its circumference equidistant every way from the centre, so that no man could get to the island, for ships and voyages were not as yet. He himself, being a god, found no difficulty in making special arrangements for the centre island, bringing up two springs of water from beneath the earth, one of warm water and the other of cold, and making every variety of food to spring up abundantly from the soil. He also begat and brought up five pairs of twin male children; and dividing the island of Atlantis into ten portions, he gave to the first-born of the eldest pair his mother's dwelling and the surrounding allotment, which was the largest and best, and made him king over the rest; the others he

made princes, and gave them rule over many men, and a large territory. And he named them all; the eldest, who was the first king, he named Atlas, and after him the whole island and the ocean were called Atlantic. To his twin brother, who was born after him, and obtained as

his lot the extremity of the island towards the Pillars of Heracles, facing the country which is now called the region of Gades in that part of the world, he gave the name which in the Hellenic language is Eumelus, in the language of the country which is named after him,

Gadeirus. Of the second pair of twins he called one Ampheres, and the other Evaemon. To the elder of the third pair of twins he gave the name Mneseus, and Autochthon to the one who followed him. Of the fourth pair of twins he called the elder Elasippus, and the younger

Mestor. And of the fifth pair he gave to the elder the name of Azaes, and to the younger that of Diaprepes. All these and their descendants for many generations were the inhabitants and rulers of divers islands in the open sea; and also, as has been already said, they held sway in our direction over the country within the Pillars as far as Egypt and Tyrrhenia.

Now Atlas had a numerous and honourable family, and they retained the kingdom, the eldest son handing it on to his eldest for many generations; and they had such an amount of wealth as was never before possessed by kings and potentates, and is not likely ever to be again,

and they were furnished with everything which they needed, both in the city and country. For because of the greatness of their empire many things were brought to them from foreign countries, and the island itself provided most of what was required by them for the uses of

life....

The palaces in the interior of the citadel were constructed on this wise:-in the centre was a holy temple dedicated to Cleito and Poseidon, which remained inaccessible, and was surrounded by an enclosure of gold; this was the spot where the family of the ten princes first saw the light, and thither the people annually brought the fruits of the earth in their season from all the ten portions, to be an offering to each of the ten. Here was Poseidon's own temple which was a stadium in length, and half a stadium in width, and of a proportionate height, having a strange barbaric appearance. ...

In the temple they placed statues of gold: there was the god himself standing in a chariot-the charioteer of six winged horses-and of such a size that he touched the roof of the building with his head; around him there were a hundred Nereids riding on dolphins..

I have described the city and the environs of the ancient palace nearly in the words of Solon, and now I must endeavour to represent the nature and arrangement of the rest of the land...

TIMAEUS by Plato 360 BC translated by Benjamin Jowett [1871]

https://sacred-texts.com/cla/plato/timaeus.htm

    (HILITES)

    Crit. Then listen, Socrates, to a tale which, though strange, is certainly true, having been attested by Solon, who was the wisest of the seven sages. He was a relative and a dear friend of my great-grandfather, Dropides, as he himself says in many passages of his poems; and he told the story to Critias, my grandfather, who remembered and repeated it to us. ...

...if Solon had only, like other poets, made poetry the business of his life, and had completed the tale which he brought with him from Egypt...

Tell us, said the other, the whole story, and how and from whom Solon heard this veritable tradition.

He replied:-In the Egyptian Delta, at the head of which the river Nile divides, there is a certain district which is called the district of Sais, and the great city of the district is also called Sais, and is the city from which King Amasis came. The citizens have a deity for their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith, and is asserted by them to be the same whom the Hellenes call Athene; they are great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they are in some way related to them. To this city came Solon, and was received there with great honour; he asked the priests who were most skilful in such matters, about antiquity, and made the discovery that neither he nor any other Hellene knew anything worth mentioning about the times of old. On one occasion, wishing to draw them on to speak of antiquity, he began to tell about the most ancient things in our part of the world-about Phoroneus, who is called "the first man," and about Niobe; and after the Deluge, of the survival of Deucalion and Pyrrha; and he traced the genealogy of their descendants, and reckoning up the dates, tried to compute how many years ago the events of which he was speaking happened. ...

There is a story, which even you have preserved, that once upon a time Paethon, the son of Helios, having yoked the steeds in his father's chariot, because he was not able to drive them in the path of his father, burnt up all that was upon the earth, and was himself destroyed by a thunderbolt.  Now this has the form of a myth, but really signifies a declination of the bodies moving in the heavens around the earth, and a great conflagration of things upon the earth, which recurs after long intervals; at such times those who live upon the mountains and in dry and lofty places are more liable to destruction than those who dwell by rivers or on the seashore. And from this calamity the Nile, who is our never-failing saviour, delivers and preserves us. When, on the other hand, the gods purge the earth with a deluge of water, the survivors in your country are herdsmen and shepherds who dwell on the mountains, but those who, like you, live in cities are carried by the rivers into the sea. Whereas in this land, neither then nor at any other time, does the water come down from above on the fields, having always a tendency to come up from below; for which reason the traditions preserved here are the most ancient.

The fact is, that wherever the extremity of winter frost or of summer does not prevent, mankind exist, sometimes in greater, sometimes in lesser numbers. And whatever happened either in your country or in ours, or in any other region of which we are informed-if there were any actions noble or great or in any other way remarkable, they have all been written down by us of old, and are preserved in our temples. ...

As for those genealogies of yours which you just now recounted to us, Solon, they are no better than the tales of children. In the first place you remember a single deluge only, but there were many previous ones; in the next place, you do not know that there formerly dwelt in your land the fairest and noblest race of men which ever lived, and that you and your whole city are descended from a small seed or remnant of them which survived. ...

Solon marvelled at his words, and earnestly requested the priests to inform him exactly and in order about these former citizens. You are welcome to hear about them, Solon, said the priest, both for your own sake and for that of your city, and above all, for the sake of the goddess who is the common patron and parent and educator of both our cities. She founded your city a thousand years before ours, receiving from the Earth and Hephaestus the seed of your race, and afterwards she founded ours, of which the constitution is recorded in our sacred registers to be eight thousand years old. As touching your citizens of nine thousand years ago, ...

Many great and wonderful deeds are recorded of your state in our histories. But one of them exceeds all the rest in greatness and valour. For these histories tell of a mighty power which unprovoked made an expedition against the whole of Europe and Asia, and to which your city put an end. This power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean, for in those days the Atlantic was navigable; and there was an island situated in front of the straits which are by you called the Pillars of Heracles; the island was larger than Libya and Asia put together, and was the way to other islands, and from these you might pass to the whole of the opposite continent which surrounded the true ocean; for this sea which is within the Straits of Heracles is only a harbour, having a narrow entrance, but that other is a real sea, and the surrounding land may be most truly called a boundless continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there was a great and wonderful empire which had rule over the whole island and several others, and over parts of the continent, and, furthermore, the men of Atlantis had subjected the parts of Libya within the columns of Heracles as far as Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia. This vast power, gathered into one, endeavoured to subdue at a blow our country and yours and the whole of the region within the straits; and then, Solon, your country shone forth, in the excellence of her virtue and strength, among all mankind. She was pre-eminent in courage and military skill, and was the leader of the Hellenes. And when the rest fell off from her, being compelled to stand alone, after having undergone the very extremity of danger, she defeated and triumphed over the invaders, and preserved from slavery those who were not yet subjugated, and generously liberated all the rest of us who dwell within the pillars. But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island.

I have told you briefly, Socrates, what the aged Critias heard from Solon and related to us. And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon; ...

. And now, Socrates, to make an end my preface, I am ready to tell you the whole tale. I will give you not only the general heads, but the particulars, as they were told to me. The city and citizens, which you yesterday described to us in fiction, we will now transfer to the world of reality. It shall be the ancient city of Athens, and we will suppose that the citizens whom you imagined, were our veritable ancestors, of whom the priest spoke; they will perfectly harmonise, and there will be no inconsistency in saying that the citizens of your republic are these ancient Athenians. ...

Soc. And what other, Critias, can we find that will be better than this, which is natural and suitable to the festival of the goddess, and has the very great advantage of being a fact and not a fiction?  How or where shall we find another if we abandon this? We cannot, and therefore you must tell the tale, and good luck to you; and I in return for my yesterday's discourse will now rest and be a listener....

To know or tell the origin of the other divinities is beyond us, and we must accept the traditions of the men of old time who affirm themselves to be the offspring of the gods-that is what they say-and they must surely have known their own ancestors. How can we doubt the word of the children of the gods? Although they give no probable or certain proofs, still, as they declare that they are speaking of what took place in their own family, we must conform to custom and believe them. In this manner, then, according to them, the genealogy of these gods is to be received and set forth.

Oceanus and Tethys were the children of Earth and Heaven, and from these sprang Phorcys and Cronos and Rhea, and all that generation; and from Cronos and Rhea sprang Zeus and Here, and all those who are said to be their brethren, and others who were the children of these.

Now, when all of them, both those who visibly appear in their revolutions as well as those other gods who are of a more retiring nature, had come into being, the creator of the universe addressed them in these words: "Gods, children of gods, who are my works, and of whom I am the artificer and father, my creations are indissoluble, if so I will. All that is bound may be undone, but only an evil being would wish to undo that which is harmonious and happy.  Wherefore, since ye are but creatures, ye are not altogether  immortal and indissoluble, but ye shall certainly not be dissolved, nor be liable to the fate of death, having in my will a greater and mightier bond than those with which ye were bound at the time of your birth. And now listen to my instructions:-Three tribes of mortal beings remain to be created-without them the universe will be incomplete, for it will not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain, if it is to be perfect. On the other hand, if they were created by me and received life at my hands, they would be on an equality with the gods. In order then that they may be mortal, and that this universe may be truly universal, do ye, according to your natures, betake yourselves to the formation of animals, imitating the power which was shown by me in creating you. The part of them worthy of the name immortal, which is called divine and is the guiding principle of those who are willing to follow justice and you-of that divine part I will myself sow the seed, and having made a beginning, I will hand the work over to you. And do ye then interweave the mortal with the immortal, and make and beget living creatures, and give them food, and make them to grow, and receive them again in death."

Thus he spake, and once more into the cup in which he had previously mingled the soul of the universe he poured the remains of the elements, and mingled them in much the same manner; they were not, however, pure as before, but diluted to the second and third degree.

And having made it he divided the whole mixture into souls equal in number to the stars, and assigned each soul to a star; and having there placed them as in a chariot, he showed them the nature of the universe, and declared to them the laws of destiny, according to which their first birth would be one and the same for all,-no one should suffer a disadvantage at his hands; they were to be sown in the instruments of time severally adapted to them, and to come forth the most religious of animals; and as human nature was of two kinds, the superior race would here after be called man. Now, when they should be implanted in bodies by necessity, and be always gaining or losing some part of their bodily substance, then in the first place it would be necessary that they should all have in them one and the same faculty of sensation, arising out of irresistible impressions; in the second place, they must have love, in which pleasure and pain mingle; also fear and anger, and the feelings which are akin or opposite to them; if they conquered these they would live righteously, and if they were conquered by them, unrighteously. He who lived well during his appointed time was to return and dwell in his native star, and there he would have a blessed and congenial existence. But if he failed in attaining this, at the second birth he would pass into a woman, and if, when in that state of being, he did not desist from evil, he would continually be changed into some brute who resembled him in the evil nature which he had acquired, and would not cease from his toils and transformations until he followed the revolution of the same and the like within him, ...

BERBER IS STILL UNDEFINED.  THIS STUDY USES NEOLITHIC SAMPLES IN TUNISIA.  THUS, ITS RESULTS ARE NEOLITHIC TUNISIANS AND DO NOT IDENTIFY THE ORIGINAL BERBER.  KEEP IN MIND MANY BERBERS HAVE ATERIAN, AND PALEOLITHIC BLOODLINES.  THIS ARTICLE AT BEST CAN DESCRIBE THE PEOPLES WHO MIGRATED INTO TUNISIA IN THE NEOLITHIC.

YET IT IS STILL UNCERTAIN THE EXACT ORIGINS, AND TRUE DEFINITION OF THE BERBERS.  THIS STUDY IS ABOUT THE BERBERS IN TUNISIA.  THIS ARTICLE  NOTES IBERO MAURUSIAN CAME FROM EITHER CROMAGNON FROM IBERIA;  LOCAL ATERIAN, OR FROM THE NILE VALLEY.  THE IBERO MAURISIANS WERE MECHTOIDS.

THIS ARTICLE IS UNSURE OF ITSELF NOT KNOWING IF BERBERS ARE FROM EUROPEAN OR EURASIANS FROM THE LGM, OR DESCENDANTS OF THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF NW AFRICA, OR FROM EAST AFRICA, OR MID EAST, OR....

THIS STUDY IS BASED ON SAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC CAPSIAN BERBERS FROM TUNISIA.

THE SUBSAHARAN FLOW TO NORTH AFRICA WAS DUE TO THE CHANGING CLIMATE WHICH CAUSED MIGRATIONS.  THE CLIMATE CHANGES MADE THE SAHARA A NATURAL BOUNDARY.  DURING WETTER TIMES THE SOUTHERN PEOPLE EASILY FLOWDED NORTHWARD, THEN TIMES OF DESSICATION CUT OFF THE FLOW FROM THE SUB SAHARA.

THE ARTICLE STATES THE FEMALES WERE FROM IBERIA, AND THE MALES FROM EAST AFRICA WHICH EVOLVED IN NORTH AFRICA.  CLEARLY THE IBERIAN MALES WERE REPLACED BY THE EAST AFRICAN.

HOW, AND WHY?  WAS HE LESS SUPERIOR AND LOST HIS WARS ALLOWING THE EAST AFRICAN MALES AS VICTORS WHO STOLE THE IBERIAN FEMALES AS WAR BOOTY?  WERE THE IBERIANS SLAVES AND THE IBERIAN FEMALES WERE SOLD AS SLAVE GIRLS TO THE NEW MIGRANTS FROM THE EAST?  DID SHE JUST UP AND LEAVE IBERIA ON HER OWN?  MANY QUESTIONS WHY THE IBERIAN MALE WAS REPLACED AND HIS WOMEN BECAME WHORES FOR THE EAST AFRICAN MALES.

THEN WHAT IS A BERBER?  IS IT THE NEW HYBRID OF IBERIAN FEMALES FROM THE LGM AND NEOLITHIC WITH THE EAST AFRICAN MALES SINCE 3000 YEARS AGO MIXED WITH A LITTLE NEGRO FROM SUBSAHARA;  OR IS THE BERBER THE FIRST MODERN PEOPLE OF THE ATERIAN FROM 40,000 TO 50,000 YEARS AGO;   OR IS THE BERBER THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF POSEIDON FROM ATLANTIS;  OR...

Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41466688?seq=1

    The Ibero-Maurusian culture was thought to have emerged either as a result of the migration of Cro-Magnon people from the Iberian Peninsula, hence the name, or from the local Aterian culture. Ibero-Maurusian culture existed between 10,120 and 8,550 BC.     Subsequent study suggests that the Ibero- Maurusian industry is derived from a Nile River valley culture known as Halfan, which dates from about 17,000 BC. The Ibero-Maurusian people belonged to the Mechtoid anthropological type. The Mechta-Afalou, or Mechtoid, are an extinct people of North Africa. Mechtoids inhabited northern Africa during the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic (Ibero-Maurusian archaeological culture)....

    In North Africa the presence of Berbers since the Capsian (10,000–6,000 years ago) has been well described. They are considered the putative descendants of the early inhabitants of northwest Africa.  The social structure of the Berbers is tribal. Most Berber tribes currently have men as heads of the tribe. Their main activity is sedentary agriculture, which they carry out in mountains and valleys. But their long-recorded influence in trading in the region is also well known. They were the first to open the commercial routes between Western Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. They were responsible for bringing goods from beyond the Sahara Desert to northern African cities.

    Anatomically modern humans arose first in Africa.  Craniometric studies in North Africa have revealed several more or less complete crania of modern type that date to between about 40,000 and 20,000 years (from Dares Soltan, Morocco; and Nazlet Khater and Wadi Kubbaniya)....  living humans represent only a restricted part of past modern human variation.  Certainly the European and North African Upper Paleolithic samples appear to exhibit greater craniometric variability than recent human samples.

    Furthermore, historical sources and archaeological data predict significant population variability in mid-Holocene northern Africa.  Multivariate analyses of crania demonstrate wide variation but also suggest an indigenous craniometric pattern common to both Late Dynastic northern Egypt and the coastal Maghreb region. Both tropical African and European metric phenotypes as well as intermediate patterns are found in mid-Holocene Maghreb sites. Early southern Predynastic Egyptian crania show tropical African affinities, displaying craniometric trends that differ notably from the coastal northern African pattern.  The various craniofacial patterns discernible in northern Africa are attributable to the agents of microevolution and migration....  The results revealed a relationship between the Ibero-Maurusians, particularly those from Taforalt, and later Maghreb and other North African samples....

    Moreover, the origin of the Berber people has not been clearly established.... These studies have demonstrated a significant component of wider Asian and European distribution, particularly haplogroups H and T. The first large-scale fine characterization of Tunisian H lineages clarifies that the post–Last Glacial Maximum expansion based in Iberia led to Berber settlement not only in Europe but also in North Africa...

    Frequency and Diversity of Sub-Saharan Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations:  The mtDNA data of Tunisian Berber populations shows a mosaic composition of sub-Saharan haplogroups, especially for the Kesra, Sned, and Sejnane populations...  A local evolution in Tunisian Berbers was observed in haplogroups L2a, L3*, and L3b....  expansion event that involved both central sequence types. The age of this expansion is calculated as 16,000 years.  Haplogroup L1b1 was observed in three populations in Tunisia (Sejnane, Kesra, and Sned)...  The three haplotypes encountered in Tunisia are highly divergent, indicating the lack of a local evolution of haplogroup L1b1 in Tunisia and North Africa in general... 

    Most Tunisian sequences belong to haplogroup L2a, the most frequent and wide spread mtDNA cluster in Africa....Most of these haplotypes are phylogenetically divergent, indicating unrelated introduction to Tunisian populations from western or eastern sub-Saharan populations....

    The lineages within haplogroup L3* represent 20% of all L3A types in Africa. Although they are distributed throughout the continent, they reach the highest frequencies in East Africa, where they account for about half of all types from this region. Haplogroup L3* is widespread in Tunisian populations...  This age indicates an introgression of haplogroup L3* in Tunisia around 20,000 years ago....  Haplogroup L3b is predominantly West African....

    In this study we attempted to better elucidate the ancient African genetic background in the northwest African area, particularly in Tunisia. To this aim, we focused our study on Berber populations that are considered representative of the ancient North African populations that probably derived from Neolithic Capsians....

    Many genetic studies on Tunisian Berber populations demonstrate the heterogeneity of Berbers with respect to European and sub-Saharan African contributions and the mosaic structure of Tunisian Berber populations with an absence of ethnic, linguistic, and geographic effects.

    In the present work, mtDNA data show a diversified distribution of African haplogroups. However, a question remains concerning the date of the sub-Saharan African inputs. Our results demonstrate an ancient local evolution in Tunisia of some African  haplogroups (L2a, L3*, and L3b). The most ancient haplogroup is L3*, which would have been introduced from eastern sub-Saharan populations to North Africa about 20,000 years ago. The Siwa oasis sample studied by Coudray et al. (2009) contains sub-Saharan haplogroups L0a1, L3i, L4*, and L4b2, which are different from our Tunisian samples, in agreement with the heterogeneity of Berbers already shown in Tunisia....

    Thus the sub-Saharan contribution to northern Africa starting from the east would have taken place before the Neolithic.  The western African contribution to North Africa should have occurred before the Sahara’s formation (15,000 BP)....

    Indeed, most of the older hypotheses about North African population settlement used to suppose an Iberian or an eastern origin. The dates for subhaplogroups H1 and H3 (13,000 and 10,000 years, respectively) in Iberian and North African populations allow for this possibility.  Kefi et al.’s (2005) data on ancient DNA could be viewed as being in agreement with such a presence in North Africa in ancient times (about 15,000–6,000 years ago) and with the fact that the North African populations are considered by most scholars as having their closest relations with European and Asian populations.  However, considering the general understanding nowadays that human settlement of the rest of the world emerged from eastern northern Africa less than 50,000 years ago, a better explanation of these haplogroups might be that their frequencies reflect the original modern human population of these parts of Africa as much as or more than intrusions from outside the continent. The ways that gene frequencies may increase or decrease based on adaptive selection, gene flow, and/or social processes is under study and would benefit from the results of studies on autosomal and Y-chromosome markers.

    Since the end of the extreme Saharan desiccation, lasting from before 25,000 years ago up to about 15,000 years ago, the Sahara has had post- and pre-Holocene cyclical climatic changes, and corresponding increases and decreases in population are probable. Wetter phases with better habitats perhaps allowed for increased colonization and gene and cultural exchange.

    Desiccation would have encouraged the emigration and segmentation of populations, with resultant genetic consequences secondary to drift producing more variation. During the last glacial period, the Sahara was even bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries. About 13,000 years ago, large parts of the Sahara were as dry as the desert is now. The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, especially from about 8500 to 6000 BC. By around 3400 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, leading to the gradual desertification of the region. Thus the Sahara, through its cyclical environmental changes, might be seen as a microevolutionary “processor” and/or “pump” of African people that “ejected” groups to the circum-Saharan regions in times of increasing aridity....

    Our findings are in accordance with other studies on Y-chromosome markers that have shown that the predominant Y-chromosome lineage in Berber communities is the subhaplogroup E1b1b1b (E-M81), which emerged in Africa, is specific to North African populations, and is almost absent in Europe, except in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and Sicily. Molecular studies on the Y chromosome in North Africa are interpreted as indicating that the southern part of Africa, namely, the Horn/East Africa, was a major source of population in the Nile Valley and northwest Africa after the Last Glacial Maximum, with some migration into the Near East and southern Europe.

    Hence, contrary to the suggestion that mtDNA haplogroups were introduced mostly from Iberia, it seems that Y-chromosome markers have an eastern African origin with an ancient local evolution in North Africa. These observations are in agreement with the proposal that the ancient communities ancestral in language to more recent Berber communities absorbed a lot of females from the existing pre-Holocene populations. This would indicate that the North African populations arose from admixture rather than from local evolution, leading to an intermediate genetic structure between eastern sub-Saharan Africans and Eurasians. Rock paintings in North Africa that show people of different phenotypes living together are a strong argument for our hypothesis....

THIS STUDY LOOKS AT THE MALE COMPONENTS OF SOUSSE, TUNISIA. SOUSSE IS A VERY MIXED PEOPLE OF INDIGENOUS MIXED WITH PEOPLE FROM THE NEOLITHIC TO MOST RECENT MIGRANTS.  THIS STUDY IS IGNORANT IN THE CONCEPTION THAT BERBERS ARE A NEOLITHIC PEOPLE MADE FROM E-M81, J-M267, AND J-M172 MALES, AND SOME MINOR ELEMENTS AS WELL.  THIS STUDY INFERS THE MAJORITY MUST BE THE INDIGENOUS BERBER, UNDEFILED.  ALTHOUGH E-M81 DID EVOLVE IN NORTH AFRICA IT IS A RECENT HAPLOGROUP FROM EAST AFRICA PEOPLE MIXING WITH THE ORIGINAL INDIGENOUS NORTH AFRICAN FROM THE PALEOLITHIC, AND ATERIAN.  THIS STUDY FURTHER PROVES THE FIRST PEOPLE BERBERS WAS REPLACED BY NEOLITHIC MALES FROM THE EAST CREATING A HYBRID BERBER.

THIS STUDY REVEALS R-M207 WAS FOUND IN 9 INDIVIDUALS.  MY HUNCH IS R, AND/OR R1 MALE ALONG WITH U6 FEMALE WAS THE ORIGINAL BERBER BACK IN THE ATERIAN, AND PALEOLITHIC.  AGAIN THIS IS NOT PROVEN YET BUT, THE EVIDENCE FAR OUTWEIGHS IN FAVOR OF R OR R1 WITH U6, THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS IN THE WEST.  ELSE BERBER IS DEFINED TO HAVE BEGUN IN THE NEOLITHIC.  IN THAT CASE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF NORTH AFRICA BEFORE THE NEOLITHIC WOULD NOT BE BERBER AND WOULD BE CALLED BY ANOTHER NAME, AND BERBER WOULD NOT BE A FIRST PEOPLE RATHER THE NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT PEOPLES MIXED WITH THE FIRST INDIGENOUS.  A BASTARD HYBRID BEGINNING IN THE NEOLITHIC WITH UNENDING ADMIXTURES SINCE THEN.  ALSO THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES THE PHOENICIANS AS A SEMITIC J HAPLOGROUP WHO MIGRATE IN AFTER THE NEOLITHIC.  FROM OTHER ARTICLES ABOUT PHOENICIANS THIS DESCRIPTION CAN BE DEBATEABLE...

Sousse: extreme genetic heterogeneity in North Africa

https://www.academia.edu/19300256/Sousse_extreme_genetic_heterogeneity_in_North_Africa

    ...220 males from Sousse were examined, for the first time, for more than 50 Y-chromosome single-nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNPs) markers and compared with 3099 individuals from key geographically targeted locations in North Africa, Europe and the Near East. The  paternal lineages observed belong to a common set of Y haplogroups previously described in North Africa. In addition to the prominent autochthonous North African E-M81 haplogroup which is exclusively represented by its subclade E-M183 (44.55% of Y-chromosomes), a number of Near Eastern Neolithic lineages including E-M78, J-M267 and J-M172 account for 39% of the Y-chromosomes detected....Tunisian and North African groups, as a whole, are intra- and inter-specific diverse with Sousse being highly heterogeneous....

    Tunisia has been a crossroads of human migrations since the Paleolithic period, leading to population admixture that has increased during more than 3000 years of history. As a result, modern Tunisian populations display high intra- and inter-specific genetic diversity....Approximately 8000 years before the common era, Tunisia was characterized by the Capsian culture, which developed in situ in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa and subsequently experienced a Neolithic transition in its later stages.

    In historical times, because of its location on the main maritime roads of the Mediterranean, Tunisia has been settled successively by many diversed populations including Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals and Byzantines. By the end of the seventh century, Muslim armies from the Arabian Peninsula invaded North Africa and reached the region known today as Tunisia. In the late tenth century, Tunisia also experience an important movement of Arab populations, mostly Bedouin....In addition, because of its numerous small, isolated indigenous populations, Tunisia represents an interesting region to explore inter population relationships....

    Today, Tunisia has a population of about 11 millions represented by Berbers, Arabs, Andalusians, Jews, Europeans and people of sub-Saharan origins....Sousse, founded in the eleventh century B.C. as Hadrumetum by the Phoenicians it developed into an important center within the Carthaginian dominion. Sousse soon became the most important trading post on the North African coastline. Through history Hadrumetum came under the control of a number major cultures including the Vandals after the fall of the Roman Empire in the sixth century and later by the Byzantines that renamed it Hunerikopolis and Justinianopolis, respectively. The city became one of the most important Byzantine bases in North Africa. In the seventh century, the Arabs conquered the city renaming it Susa and introducing the Islamic religion and Arabic language. The city became a prosperous seaport during the Islamic Aghlabid Dynasty, which occupied and controlled Northern Africa for several centuries. 

    Subsequently, Sousse was invaded by the Normans of Sicily in the twelveth century followed by the Spanish. During the sixteenth century, Sousse received additional, but limited, contributions from the Ottoman Turks. Later, the city came under the control of the French, who once again renamed it to its current name of Sousse.  Considering this complex history, the expectation is that the genetic landscape of Sousse has been shaped by varying degrees of influences...In addition, Sousse is the most ancient settlement in Tunisia with uninterrupted habitation since its foundation by the Phoenicians.  Towns such as Carthage and Utique, also established by the Phoenicians were destroyed and their population dispersed. Berber groups, on the other hand, have been rather isolated, since their towns and villages were not located on the coast....

    Previous studies of North African populations have uncovered diverse genetic compositions as well as a high frequencies of two specific North African haplogroups (E-M81 and E-M78). Our previous investigation polymorphisms based on Y-chromosome using different Tunisian ethnic groups (Andalusian, Cosmopolitan Arab and three Berber speaking groups) indicate high frequency of the autochthonous and most common North African haplogroup E-M81 (71%). The finding published by Ennafaa et al also demonstrate that the E-M81 lineage is the most abundant (48.2%) in all Tunisian collections studied... This observation suggests that the Middle Eastern influence during Neolithic and Arab domination had a greater cultural impact rather than a genetic influence in North Africa. [BECAUSE THE GENETICS DURING THE NEOLITHIC AND ARAB DOMINATION HAD ALREADY REPLACED THE INDIGENOUS ATERIAN AND PALEOLITHIC MALES BY THAT TIME THUS THE CONTINUED MIDDLE EAST AND EAST AFRICAN MIGRATIONS WERE OF THE SAME GENTICS.]   In fact, the presence of the Near Eastern lineage J-M267, detected in the Tunisian samples at frequencies ranging from 17 to 30% is consistent with differential levels of paternal gene flow from the Near East that would have accompanied the Islamic invasion and previous dispersals from the Middle East during the Neolithic. In addition, a sub-Sahara African component is also detected in these populations as attested by haplogroups A, B, E-M96, E-M2 and E-M35 (16.3%) resulting, at least partially, from slavery or migration in recent times.

    In spite of these studies, the current understanding of Y-chromosome variation in Tunisia is limited compared with what is known of mitochondrial DNA diversity....

    The 220 Sousse Y-chromosomes represent 24 different haplogroups, the majority of them belonging to haplogroups E and J that account for 90% of our dataset (E; 56% and J; 34%). The predominant E sublineage, also commonly found in other North African populations is E-M81. All E-M81 derived chromosome are in subhaplogroup E-M183 (44.55%). Besides the common E-M81 lineage, traces of other lineages within the major E-M215 haplogroup were detected including E-M35, E-M78 and E-M123....  The second most prevalent major lineage detected in our dataset is J-M304 encompassing 34% of the total male population.... 

    Furthermore, Y-haplogroup R-M207 is found in 12 Sousse males of which three individuals are either R-M198 (0.45%) or R-V88 (0.91%). Also present were haplogroups G-M201, L-L20, T-M184 and A-M91, although each of these accounted for only 0.45% of the entire sample set....  distinct west–east genetic clines in North Africa. The frequency of haplogroup E-M81, for example, is much higher in northwestern Africa particularly in Tunisian and moderate in the Near East and Europe. On the other hand, the frequencies of haplogroups E-M78 and E-M123 are much higher in northeast Africa exhibiting a focal point of extreme frequencies in Egypt-Palestine. The J-M267 lineage is prevalent in all North African and Levantine groups. In North Africa, J-M267 exhibits the highest frequency in Andalusians from Zaghouan. It is also found at relatively high frequency in the Levantine samples....

    a greater number (51) of North African specific clades are also noted, further attesting to the high level of diversity observed throughout the region. It is noteworthy that of all Tunisian populations analyzed, Sousse possesses several unique haplotypes (13/27), indicating a high level of microsattelite diversity....The topology of the E-M78 network exhibits greater diversity compared with that of E-M81. The E-M78 haplogroup is mostly observed in the Near East populations. Noteworthy, with the exception of the Sousse population, this haplogroup was more frequent in northeastern (Libya; 12.7% and Egypt; 33%) compared with northwestern Africa.... The diversity values within haplogroup E-M78 are higher than for E-M81...  The age estimation for E1b1b1a-M78 is 12.2 +/- 9.2 kya.

    The J-M267 network includes 500 haplotypes, most of them are from Near Easterners. The most abundant haplotype consists of 106 individuals, including Libyans (42), Soussians (21) and Near Easterners (21). The 22 remaining haplotypes include people

from Algeria, Morocco and the Tunisian ethnic groups. In this J-M267 projection, extensive haplotype sharing between the Sousse population and different North African and Near Eastern groups is observed as well as the presence of 10 haplotypes unique to Sousse males....  The age estimation for J1-M267 is 7.6 +/- 5.2 kya.

    The J-M172 network is mostly represented by Near Eastern samples (73.9%) with a moderate number of European individuals (18.5%) and only a few North African haplotypes (11.7%).... A total of 41 haplotypes have been detected in North African populations. The J-M172 topology illustrates limited haplotype sharing, mostly between Near Easterners and Europeans....  its age estimate is 15.8 ± 7.1 kya....

    Haplogroup R-M207 was frequent in European groups and less abundant in Near Easterns. This clade is sporadically detected in sub-Saharan and in North African populations.  With regards to Tunisian collections, R-M207 is found only in Sousse and Andalusians samples....

    The first two components of the PCA account for 55.18% of the variation and reveal distinct geographical partitioning. The North African populations form a cluster located in the upper-left portion of the plot, except for the Egyptians that lie closest to Palestinians to the lower right. This cluster of North African populations is defined by the predominance of haplogroup E-M81. In contrast, Egyptians are characterized by high frequency of the E-M78 haplogroup and the absence of the E-M81 lineage. Within the North Africa cluster, the Sousse sample is close to the Cosmopolitans and Andalusians Tunisian groups and the general populations from neighboring states, namely Libya, Algeria and Morocco. The Tunisian Berber collections form a tide conglomerate isolated in the upper-left corner of the graph. The sub-Saharan Africans which possess higher frequencies of haplogroups B-M96, A-M91, E-M2 and E*-M96 lie close to each other in the lower left of the plot. The PCA also illustrate the genetic affinity of Levantine populations to [NEOLITHIC AND RECENT] Europeans especially Italians. In fact, both groups present relatively high frequencies of J-M172 and share some other lineages in particular I-M170 and T-M70....

    The MDS illustrate similar general features as the PCA, including the North Africans cluster close to Near Easterners with the Sousse population partitioning similarly relative to the other groups as well as the Egyptians affinity to the Palestinians. Yet in the MDS the Near Easterners and Tuareg segregate towards sub-Saharan Africans which, like in the PCA graph, aggregate in the lower-left corner of the plot distant from all other populations....

    This study characterizes the Y-chromosome DNA diversity of the Sousse population using high-resolution biallelic and STR markers coupled to a wide sampling coverage of reference populations in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the paternal genetic substructure of the Tunisian people and their origins in the content of the North African genetic landscape. Our results indicate that the frequency of the E-M81 haplogroup in the region of Sousse is relatively lower than in Berber group; it reaches a value of 45%, comparable with the values detected in the Cosmopolitan population from Tunis and Andalusians.  This frequency range of 36–45% of E-M81 in these Cosmopolitan and Andalusian Tunisian populations is consistent with a strong common Berber back-ground...In all of these parameters, the Sousse population exhibits characteristics of a highly genetically diverse North African population. Among the various Tunisian communities, haplogroup E-M81 is more prevalent in Berbers...

    The E-M81 lineage exhibits a star-like network structure, which suggests an ancient evolution. This network exhibits apparent rapid expansion at some point that may be explained by loss of diversity due to genetic drift. Indeed, most of the STR haplotypes belonging to the E-M81 haplogroup are shared among various North African communities without obvious genetic structure relative to geography. Based on these phylogeographic considerations, the E-M81 haplogroup is likely to represent an important paternal founder lineage of North African people. 

    In our previous work performed on Tunisian populations, this haplogroup [E-M81] was dated to 7.4 +/- 5.5 kya in the Neolithic, comparable with the age estimated in this study (5.7 +/- 3.9 kya), and by Arredi and collaborators.  However, considering the high level of genetic drift typically experienced by uniparental marker systems such as the Y-chromosome, it is possible that the E-M81 haplogroup had a more ancient genesis in North Africa. Indeed, according to Keita E-M81 most likely emerged from the sub-Saharan clade E-M35 either in the Maghreb region, or possibly as far south as the Horn of Africa. This conjecture is consistent with the creation of sub-Saharan mitochondrial DNA markers that date to 20 kya and probably contemporary with the Ibero-Maurusian civilization during the Paleolithic.

    Along with the high prevalence of E-M81 in Sousse, we observed the E-M78 mutation at low frequency (5%). In contrast to the above mentioned E-M81 haplogroup, E-M78 has a wide geographic distribution with its highest frequency observed in the Egypto-Palestinian area. It is detected at lower frequencies in Northwest Africa and is particularly observed in Andalusians and Cosmopolitans rather than Berbers. This suggests an east to west gene flow with greater penetration into the Cosmopolitan populations of North Africa.

    In addition to the indigenous components, gene flow from the Middle East is also evident in certain Tunisian populations by the presence of the J-M304 haplogroup. In fact, J-M304 is the predominant Y-chromosome lineage in the Middle East. This lineage splits into two main subclades, J-M267 and J-M172. The frequency and diversity of J-M267 is highest in the Middle East. In Tunisia, with the exception of three Berber communities, J-M267 is detected with frequencies ranging from 48% to 5%. In Sousse J-M267 is observed at levels (26%) comparable with that found in Cosmopolitans from Tunis (28%)....

    Gene flow from the Middle East should be considered according to different migration waves during prehistory, antiquity and in more recent times. In prehistorical and historical times, Middle Eastern contributions to North African populations could have happened during Neolithic period around 8000 BP as part of the Capsian civilization developments that were introduced in North Africa along with agriculture. The presence of the J-M267 haplogroup with a long local evolution in the Berber of Sened in the nominal Capsian region is congruent with this hypothesis. However, its presence in the Sousse population at a relative high frequency may be indicative of additional secondary regional gene flow events.

    Undoubtedly, the Muslim expansion of the seventh century into North Africa and the subsequent massive Bedouin migration during the eleventh century contributed considerably to the east to west gene flow into North Africa. The J-M267 haplogroup with frequencies as high as 40% in Saudi Arabia could have been introduced with the Arab migration waves into North Africa during historical times. Its presence in North Africa at frequencies around 30% and its absence in Berbers, excluding the Sened, may be explained by the Arab conquest. Hence, it could be considered as an indicator of Arab gene flow into these populations. Furthermore, the relative high frequency of the J-M267 haplogroup in Andalusians from Tunisia may be the result of the strong relationship between Andalusia in southern Spain and Northwest Africa as well as the Middle East during the Omeyad dynasty, and the subsequent expatriation of Muslims from Iberia.

    The Sousse population and the other Tunisian groups already studied exhibit a fair amount of differences in terms of their Middle Eastern paternal lineages composition. Sousse, particularly, possesses a relatively high frequency of haplogroup J-M172 (~9%) that is absent in all of the remaining Tunisian populations with the exception of Andalusians (~3%). Haplogroup J-M172 has been associated with population movements in the Fertile Crescent during the Neolithic Agricultural revolution. Today, it is very frequent in the Levant, Anatolia and Iran and its recent spread in the Mediterranean is believed to have been facilitated by the maritime trading culture of the Phoenicians (1550–300 BC)...

    The J-M172 haplogroup associated with the Phoenician expansion is distributed throughout the Mediterranean basin and Asia. It is thought that the Phoenicians originated in what is today coastal Lebanon and subsequently founded and settled several city-states in the Mediterranean including in North Africa. In Tunisia, their population number was estimated, at the end of their dominion, to be 100 000 compared with 500 000 Berbers.  It is important to note that although the most famous city founded by the Phoenicians was Carthage, they also established the settlements of Utique and Sousse.

    Interestingly, Sousse is the only Phoenician town in Tunisia that has foundation been continuously inhabited since its and it is the only population where the J-M172 Phoenician paternal marker is detected.  In Sousse, J-M172 dates to 5.8 kya. These results are consistent with the J-M172 introduction into the Sousse population as a diversified haplotype and subsequently maintained locally. This interpretation is congruent with the Network analysis of this haplogroup.  The J-M172 haplogroup is also observed in Andalusians.  Andalusians are expected to have a direct Middle Eastern contribution in the Iberian Peninsula before their expatriation to North Africa after the fall of Granada to Christian forcces in 1492 A.D.

    A more recent potential Middle Eastern genetic contribution to the North Africa gene pool may be associated with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. Sousse also may have been specifically impacted by the Turkish occupation of North Africa. Yet, the unique presence of J-M172 in Sousse and its absence from other Tunisian regions that were under Ottoman influence argues for J-M172 in Sousse as a Phoenician signal. Further, Sousse exhibits another haplogroup, T-M184, that is not detected in any other North African population attesting again to the Phoenicians contribution to that population.  Haplogroup T-M184 is more common today in East Africa and it is thought to signal the spread of agriculture from the Fertile Crescent.  Indeed, the oldest subclades and the greatest diversity of T-M184 are found in the Middle East, especially within the Fertile Crescent. Yet, T-M184 could also have been dispersed throughout the Mediterranean basin by the Phoenicians (1200–800 before the common era).

    In this study, we have also detected other haplogroups in Sousse including R-M207, G-M201, L-M20 and A-M91 that have not been reported in other Tunisian communities attesting to the genetic heterogeneity of this region.  Haplogroup R is mainly represented by R-M207 in Sousse (nine individuals) and its distribution includes all continents being fairly common in Europe, South Asia and Central Asia.  It also occurs in the Caucasus, Middle East and in some parts of sub-Sahara Africa.  In addition, its two subclades, R1a and R1b, are observed at low frequencies (0.45 and 0.91%, respectively) in Sousse. R1a is most prevalent in East Europe while R1b is most frequent among West Europeans.

    Although at very-low frequency (0.45%), it must be noted that haplogroupe A-M91, the oldest human haplogroup, is found in Sousse but nowhere else in North Africa. This haplogroup is mainly found in Eastern and Southern Africa. It is common among the Khoisan people, including the Bushmen, and it is considered an original ancestral haplogroup.

    In conclusion, the analysis of admixed populations represents an unique opportunity to examine the impact of multiple migrations into a region. Within a historical context, both population isolation and admixture have had a considerable impact on the Tunisian population

structure. The wide range of paternal lineages present in our Sousse population indicates a diverse origin. Indeed the genetic structure observed of paternal lineages in Sousse is more diversified than any other studied Tunisian population and reflects largely the influence of

successive migrations since its foundation by the Phoenicians.

FROM THE FOLLOWING WE CAN SAY U6 WAS THE INDIGENOUS FEMALE IN NW AFRICA AT LEAST 45,000 YBP. MIGRATIONS SINCE THE PALEOLITHIC HAS CHANGED THE GENETIC LANDSCAPE OF NORTH AFRICA, AND EUROPE, FROM A MOSTLY INDIGENOUS PEOPLE TO A HETEROGENEOUS MIX OF PEOPLE FROM MID EAST, SUBSAHARAN AFRICA, AND EUROPE. THE INDIGENOUS MALE COMPONENT HAS BEEN REPLACED BY MORE RECENT MIGRANTS FROM EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA OF THE E HG SUBCLADES. THE MAJORITY OF THE FEMALES AND MALES ARE FROM NEOLITHIC AND POST LGM EXPANSION FROM EUROPE, AND THE EASTERN NORTH AFRICANS ARE MAJORITY NEOLITHIC AND RECENT MID EASTERNERS AND EAST AFRICANS THAT MIGRATED TO N.AFRICA. THE INDIGENOUS MALE HAPLOGROUP ACCOMPANYING THE U6 FEMALE HAS NOT YET BEEN DEFINED YET BUT, MY HUNCH WOULD BE THE R, AND/OR R1 YDNA BUT NOT 100% CERTAIN. VERY CONFUSING BASED ON INFO I HAVE READ SO FAR. IT IS POSSIBLE, BUT UNLIKELY, C OR E MALE HAPLOGROUP WAS THE INDIGENOUS N.AFRICAN WHO ACCOMPANIED U6 BUT, AS OF TODAY I AM UNSURE BUT STILL FAVOR THE R OR R1 MALE AS ORIGINAL COMPANION TO U6(OR HER MOTHER U CLADE) BEFORE SHE ENTERED N.AFRICA. DOUBTFUL E YDNA's WERE HER ORIGINAL COMPANION AS E YDNA ARE FROM EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA WHOM ARRIVED THOUSANDS OF YEARS AFTER U6.  ADDITIONALLY, U mtDNA"s ARE EURASIAN. U FEMALES BROKE OFF FROM HER EURASIAN MALE COMPANION EITHER WHEN SHE MIGRATED INTO N.AFRICA AT LEAST 45,000 YEARS AGO, OR HER EURASIAN MALE WAS REPLACED AFTER THEY BOTH WERE IN N.AFRICA.

ANOTHER LIKELY SCENARIO WAS THE EARLIER HOMO'S(ERECTUS, FLORIENSIS, HEIDLEBERGENSIS, ETC...) LIVING IN NW AFRICA PRIOR TO THE U6 PEOPLE HAD REPLACED U6 ORIGINAL MALE COMPANION. THEN THE MORE RECENT SUBSAHARAN E MALES AND L FEMALES MIGRATE IN TO REPLACE THOSE FIRST MODERN HUMAN/HOMO__ ADMIXTURE IN N.AFRICA.  MUCH LIKE THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS IN EUROPE MIXED WITH NEANDERTHAL IN EUROPE TO CAUSE HIS ULTIMATE EXTINCTION BY WAY OF INTERMIXED BREEDING.

THUS, THE MAIN DIFFERENCES OF N.AFRICANS ARE TIME DEPENDANT MIGRATIONS WHICH SEPARATE THE FIRST INDIGENOUS U6 PEOPLE FROM THE MORE RECENT MIGRANTS;  THE SUBSAHARAN FLOW OF L mtDNA, AND E YDNA WHICH CAME IN MORE RECENT TIMES;  AND THE EAST AFRICAN AND MID EAST MIGRANTS.

U FEMALES AND R MALES BEING THE FIRST MODERN HUMAN IN EUROPE AND N.AFRICA WERE REPLACED AND REDUCED BY LATER EURASIANS DURING PALEOLITHIC, LGM , NEOLITHIC AND RECENT MIGRATIONS. SOME FROM EUROPE, SOME FROM MID EAST, SOME FROM EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA. ALL HG's OTHER THAN U, OR U6 WERE NOT THE ORIGINAL FIRST PEOPLE. THEY WERE THE MORE RECENT PEOPLES. THIS STUDY SHOWS THAT DIFFERENTIATION SEPARATING THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS U6 FROM AMONGST HER EURASIAN RELATIVES WHOM MIGRANT IN AT VARIOUS RECENT AGES. THE OTHER WELL DEFINED SEPARATION IS FROM THE SUBSAHARAN PEOPLE OF L FEMALES AND E MALES.

THE SIMILARITIES ARE DUE TO THE RECENT FLOWS OF PEOPLES REDUCING AND REPLACING THE ORIGINAL INDIGENOUS U6 AND HER ORIGINAL COMPANION IN N.AFRICA ADMIXTURES JUST AS WAS DONE IN EUROPE SO THAT MAJORITY OF N.AFRICA AND EUROPE BOTH ARE NEOLITHIC REPLACEMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS FIRST PEOPLES OF BOTH AREAS JUST MORE SUBSAHARAN ADMIXTURE IN N.AFRICA THAN IN EUROPE  AS WELL AS VARIOUS DEGREES OF ADMIXTURES OF THE SAME NEOLITHIC SOURCES....

Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean

https://www.academia.edu/12303665/Joining_the_Pillars_of_Hercules_mtDNA_Sequences_Show_Multidirectional_Gene_Flow_in_the_Western_Mediterranean

    Both the African and the European shores have acted as termini of population expansions. The independent and parallel colonisation from the East of both areas by anatomically modern humans in Palaeolithic times, and the expansion of farming during the Neolithic, have modelled the genetic landscape of both areas. Moreover other demographic events, such as the expansion of the Arabisation along the Maghrib, have also come from the East arriving in NW Africa...

    The phylogeographic structure of mtDNA in the Western Mediterranean can be

summarised as five sets of haplogroups: 1) sub-Saharan haplogroup L (including L1, L2, L3);   2) haplogroups J, T, J/T;    3) haplogroups H, V, HV; 

4) haplogroup U (including K);  and   5) haplogroups W, I, X, and M.

L haplogroups are relatively infrequent in Italians (with a maximum of 8.1% in South Italians) and Iberians (with a maximum of 6.1% in Central Portuguese). On the contrary, L  haplogroups are distributed in all North African populations at high frequencies (from 26% in South Berbers to 43.5% in Mauritanians) with the exception of Mozabites (12.9%) and Moroccan Berbers (3.2%). In fact, the frequency of the L haplogroups in Moroccan Berbers is similar to that found in Iberians and Italians. The frequency of the L haplogroups might represent the sub-Saharan genetic flow into the populations analysed, which has shown to be substantial in NW Africa but very limited in European populations.

In the populations analysed, haplogroups J and T present their highest frequencies in the Italian samples, with values over 15%. Iberians showed a heterogeneous frequency distribution with values that range from 6.6% in Valencians to 18.7% in Southern Portuguese. NW Africans have similar J and T frequencies to Europeans, although it is worth noting that Saharawi and Mauritanians, the southern NW African samples, differ from the other populations in that haplogroups J and T are almost absent.

    Haplogroup U is found in all samples analysed at considerable frequencies. The most relevant aspect within this group of sequences is the presence of haplogroup U6, to which a North African origin has been attributed (Rando et al. 1998). Haplogroup U6 is largely distributed among Mozabites (28.2%) and Mauritanians(20%). In other NW Africans, the frequency of U6 ranges from 4.2% in Tunisians to 8% in Moroccan Arabs, with the remarkable case of Algerians where haplogroup U6 is absent. In Italians, haplogroup U6 is practically absent, with only one sequence found among Sicilians.  In the Iberian Peninsula U6 distribution is sparse. It is present in the south-western part of the Peninsula at low frequencies (<7%), and is absent in Basques, Catalans, Valencians, Central Portuguese, and Southern Portuguese.

Few U6 sequences are found in other populations from different geographical regions:  Sub-Saharan and NE Africa, the Middle East and the Canary Islands (with a frequency of 14%; Rando et al. 1998, 1999). The structure of the variation of U6 sequences is shown in Figure 2, from which the age of U6 can be estimated at 47,000 +/- 18,000 years, similar to that first estimated by Rando et al. (1998). The network shows a clear structure in subhaplogroups within U6: U6a (characterised by 16278T; Rando et al. 1999), U6a1 (characterised by 16278T and 16189C; Richards et al. 2000), and U6b (characterised by 16311C; Rando et al. 1999). The present Iberian and NW African sequences are found within haplogroups U6a and U6a1, but haplogroup U6b contains no NW African sequences and is mainly composed of Canarian and Iberian sequences. Moreover, there is a group of sequences within U6b characterised by 16163T, which we named U6b1 (although unnamed, this was already discussed by Rando et al. 1999), which presents basically Canarian sequences. The age of this group is around 9,400 ± 5,500 years  of sequences (Canarians plus two Iberian sequences).  The presence of U6a and U6a1 haplogroups in the Iberian Peninsula could be attributed to gene flow from NW Africa, and the most plausible origin for U6b1 lineages in Iberia is recent gene flow from the Canary Islands after the contact between Europeans and the Canary aborigines in the fifteenth century.

H and V represent the major group of sequences in Iberia and Italy.  H  is by far the most frequent haplogroup in western European populations, as it is in all of Europe... [H AND V ARE NEOLITHIC]

    Out of the five different V haplotypes found in NW Africa, three were those that are most frequent in Europe, while only two were specific to NW Africa. A time depth for the haplogroup V of 13,700 ± 3,000 years was estimated when all sequences were included, similar to previous estimates (Torroni et al. 2001).

The last section of the mtDNA phylogeny considered includes the Eurasian haplogroups W, I, X, and haplogroup M. Haplogroups W, I, and X are basically found in continental Italy, and some traces are found in Iberians, Algerians, Tunisians and Moroccan Arabs.

The M sequences found in the analysed populations can be sorted into two different phylogenetic groups:  haplogroups M1 and M5. It has been suggested that haplogroup M1 originated in eastern Africa (Quintanta-Murci et al. 1999), and it is almost absent in the European samples analysed. Nevertheless, it has been found at high frequencies in Algerians, and at a lower frequency in Tunisians, Mozabites and Moroccan Arabs, showing a slight east-west cline. On the contrary, haplogroup M5, defined by 16129A (Bamshad et al. 2001), which accounts for 97.3% of the M lineages in Gypsies (also known as Roma; Gresham et al. 2001), has only been found in Andalusians and Central Spaniards, which is not surprising given that Spain is one of the European countries where the Gypsy community is more numerous (500,000 people; Liegeois, 1994)....

    Considering separately the southern and northern populations, NW Africans are more heterogeneous:  among NW Africans is 3.5% (4.5% without L sequences), as compared to 0.6% among SW Europeans.  When we grouped the samples according to their geographical area (SW Europeans versus NW Africans), 1.5% of the genetic variance was due to differences between samples of the same geographical area, and 2.6% was attributable to differences between geographical areas. The variance attributable to differences among geographical groups decreased to 1.4% when the L sequences were removed, whereas the variance attributable to differences within groups did not vary, showing that Sub-Saharan gene flow into NW Africa has in part been responsible for the differences between the two groups....

    We found that the proportion of the genetic variance that can be accounted for between the NW African and Iberian populations for mtDNA is 0.86% (p =0.053), 1.89% (p = 0.028) for Alu insertion polymorphisms, and 35.2% (p = 0.024) for the Y chromosome. It is not surprising to find that the results show clear differences between male and female lineages due to the already described sexual differential migration...

    When focusing in SW Europe, very small (0.1%), non-significant differences were found between Iberians and Italians, in agreement with the large mtDNA homogeneity described in Europe (Simoni et al. 2000a, 2000b; Helgason et al. 2000; see also Richards et al.2002). Within NW Africa and grouping samples following a geographical east-west criterion (Tunisians and Algerians versus the other populations), no significant differences were found between groups, and 1.3% of the variation was attributed to differences among populations within groups. Nevertheless, when L lineages were removed, the variation attributed to differences among the two groups became significant (1.96%, p<0.05), and the differences within groups did not differ from zero, which points to an east-west differentiation in NW Africa that may have been partially dampened by gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa to both subregions.

    The genetic relationship between NW Africans, Iberians and Italians was assessed through a principal coordinate analysis based on the distance matrix. The plot of the first two principal co-ordinates (Figure 4a) accounts for 65.8% of the genetic variance observed. The first co-ordinate (56.3%) separates NW African and European populations, except for Moroccan Berbers who are embedded within Europeans, placing Mozabites and Mauritanians at one edge and Basques and Galicians at the opposite one. When L lineages are excluded from the analysis (Figure 4b), the plot clusters Europeans, Moroccan Berbers and Southern Berbers and even Tunisians in a group, whereas Algerians, Mozabites and Mauritanians are more distant to this cluster.  The genetic relationships between the populations was also assessed through a principal component analysis based on the frequencies of the haplogroups displayed (Richards et al. 2002).We observed a similar general pattern to that displayed in the principal co-ordinates, but some differences were also found. The first two principal components (Figure 5a) account for 36.3% of the genetic variance observed and separate the NW African populations, characterised by high frequencies of L and U6 sequences (with absolute correlations of 0.619 for L1, 0.887 for L2, 0.781 for L3, and 0.663 for U6), from the rest of populations, which present high frequencies of H lineages (with an absolute correlation of 0.835). The second principal component encompassed 12.1% of the genetic variance observed and separated the Southern Italians, Tuscans and Sicilians from the rest of the SW Europeans by their low frequencies of K (absolute correlation of 0.458) and the presence of J/T lineages (absolute correlation of 0.735) in their genetic pool. When L sequences were removed from the analysis (Figure 5b), the first two principal components encompassed 33.4% of the genetic variance and separated most NW African populations from Italians, with the remaining populations lying between them.

    The phylogeographic analysis of mtDNA in the Western Mediterranean has shown the presence of a common set of haplogroups shared with the rest of Europe and the Middle East (H, J, T, U, I, W, X) [U THE FIRST PEOPLE INTO EUROPE AND N.AFRICA], plus those of probable local origin (U6, V) [U6 DEVELOPING ABOUT 45,000YBP AND V DEVELOPING ABOUT 13,000YBP BUT OTHER SOURCES SAY V WAS FROM EUROPE MIRATED TO NW AFRICA LGM], and others introduced by gene flow from the south (L) and east (M)....

    The main difference, found through the mtDNA analysis, between the populations of the two geographical areas studied is the presence of sub-Saharan L lineages in NW Africa compared to SW Europe, up to the point that, if L sequences were removed from the analyses, most NW African populations were genetically very close to SW Europeans. Since L sequences make up almost all mtDNA lineages in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly in the areas just to the south of NW Africa, the frequency of L haplogroups in NW Africa can be read directly as a measure of gene flow.

Thus, it can be estimated that 25.9 +/- 2.1% of the NW African mtDNA pool has a sub-Saharan origin, under the assumption of negligible back flow from NW to sub-Saharan Africa. A similar estimation can be performed for Y-chromosome lineages, since E1* and *E3a1* haplogroups (according to the nomenclature of the Y Chromosome Consortium, 2002) found in NW Africa at a frequency of 8.0% +/- 2.0% (Bosch et al.2001), are of sub-Saharan origin. The female- and male mediated estimates of sub-Saharan gene flow into NW Africa are clearly different, which could be a local consequence of a global trend to higher female than male migration...

    Within NW Africa, L sequences are most frequent in Mauritanians and Saharawi, whereas their frequency is lowest in northern populations. Alu insertion polymorphism analysis in NW Africa (Comas et al. 2000) has also shown that gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa in the southern part of this geographical area was more pronounced.

A similar genetic gradient was also observed in NE Africa along the Nile valley from analysing Egyptian and Nubian mtDNA sequences (Krings et al. 1999), where south-north migration (and vice versa) could be facilitated by the Nile.

Sequence frequency and diversity, and nucleotide diversity, point to NW Africa as the cradle of U6, with an estimated age of 47,000 ± 18,000 years. Such an ancient age contrasts with the limited spread of U6, which is found in N Africa, the Canaries and Iberia, and at very low frequencies in Italy, the Middle East, and the Sahel. This could be explained because, with the exception of the Moslem invasions of Iberia and Sicily, no large population expansion has been known to originate in NW Africa, and the gene tree structure for U6 does not seem compatible with a strong population expansion. U6 represents, thus, a local background in NW Africa.  Its relatively low frequency (~10% overall, although ranging from absence in Algeria to 28.2% in the Mozabites) is in stark contrast with the high *frequency of Y-chromosome haplogroup E3b2* (64%;Bosch et al. 2001), which may also have originated (or expanded to such high frequency) locally in NWAfrica.  This discrepancy may be the result of ancient, random, locus-specific drift, and/or of a male-biased bottleneck or migration. A locus-specific effect may be evidenced by the fact that AMOVA between Iberian and NW African populations is much higher for Y chromosome haplogroups than for multiple autosomal Alu insertion polymorphisms or mtDNA. Since men contribute their autosomes as well, the fact that population differentiation as demonstrated by autosomal loci is much closer to that for mtDNA than to that for the Y chromosome maybe taken as evidence for ancient, random, locus-specific drift affecting the Y chromosome.

NW African populations are relatively heterogeneous in their mtDNA sequence pools. The eastern populations (Algeria and Tunisia) may have received more gene flow from the east, as evidenced by the frequencies of M1. This haplogroup originated in East Africa (Quintana-Murci et al. 1999) with a frequency 20% in Ethiopians (Passarino et al. 1998), and declines north westwards (Nubians 10% and Egyptians 8%; Krings et al. 1999), whereas its frequency in the Middle East is (lower 3% in Jordanians from Amman, Richards et al. 2000;  2% Israeli Palestinians, Richards et al. 2000;  2% in Israeli Druze, Macaulay et al. 1999).  The major outlier within NW Africa are the Mozabites, a well-known Berber isolated group in Algeria, where drift may have altered haplogroup frequencies....

    Thus, the presence of L sequences cannot be attributed to migration from NW Africa, and may instead represent gene flow from other sources, such as the Neolithic expansion or the Roman slave trade.  In contrast to mtDNA, no sub-Saharan Y chromosomal lineages were detected in Iberia (Bosch et al. 2001), or in Italy....

    As hinted above, the presence of haplogroup U6 in Iberia may signal gene flow from NW Africa, and those of the subhaplogroup U6b1 recent gene flow from the Canary Islands. Haplogroup U6 is present at frequencies ranging from 0 to 7% in the various Iberian populations, with an average of 1.8%. Given that the frequency of U6 in NW Africa is 10%, the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia can be estimated at 18%, with a 95% confidence interval of 8%–26% (estimated by sampling with replacement 10,000 times in populations having the same sample sizes and U6 frequencies as Iberia and NW Africa). This is larger than the contribution estimated with Y-chromosomal lineages (7%, 95% confidence interval 1%–14%, Bosch et al. 2001).

However, it should be noted that the variance due to genetic drift is not included in the estimates, and this may have had a larger effect on U6, which has a much lower frequency in NW Africa than its Y-chromosome* counterpart, E3b2* . In the same way, we can estimate the Canarian female contribution to the Iberian Peninsula:  the subhaplogroup U6b1 is present at a frequency of 13% in the Canary Islands, and reached a frequency of 0.2% in the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the mtDNA lineages of the Canary Islands contributed 1.5%, with a 95% confidence interval 0–4.7%, to the genetic pool of Iberia. The presence of lineages belonging to the U6b1 haplogroup in the Iberian Peninsula suggests recent gene flow from the Canary Islands, due to recent migration or to the enslavement and deportation of the native Canarians (also called Guanches) at the time of conquest by the kingdom of Castile (15th century)....

U6 IS THE MAIN INDIGENOUS NORTH AFRICAN CLUSTER PREDATES ALL OTHER HAPLOGROUPS.  FOUND MAINLY IN NW AFRICA U6 IS RARE IN E/NE AFRICA AND MID EAST, AND ALMOST ABSENT IN THE CAUCUSUS.  U6 PREDATES THE AFROASIATIC LANGUAGE.  SPECULATION EXISTS ABOUT U6 INTO AFRICA FROM THE NEAR EAST CORRIDOR DURING MODERN HUMANS MIGRATION BACK TO AFRICA.  ALTHOUGH U6 IS RELATED TO HER SISTERS OF GREAT MOTHER U SHE MUST HAVE ENTERED INTO NW AFRICA FROM WEST EUROPE RATHER THAN FROM EAST AFRICA OR NEAR EAST.  BUT THIS IS UP FOR MUCH DEBATE.  BUT THIS ARTICLE DOES SUPPORT AN ATLANTIS ORIGIN FOR U6 AS ATLANTIS BEING SOMEWHERE WEST OF THE PILLARS OF HERCULES.  WHETHER THIS IS NW AFRICA, WEST AFRICA, WEST EUROPE, OR ALL THE ABOVE.  AND IF NO SW ASIAN SPECIFIC CLADES DISCOVERED FOR U6 THEN IT IS DOUBTFUL SHE ENTERED AFRICA FROM THE NEAR EAST NOR FROM EAST AFRICA.  THUS, SHE MUST HAVE ENTERED FROM THE WEST, OR NORTH.  PERHAPS U6 NEVER MIGRATED OUT OF AFRICA.  U6 MAY HAVE ALWAYS BEEN IN NW AFRICA? ...

Divorcing the Late Upper Palaeolithic demographic histories of mtDNA haplogroups M1 and U6 in Africa

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-12-234

    No southwest Asian specific clades for M1 or U6 were discovered. U6 and M1 frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe do not follow similar patterns, and their sub-clade divisions do not appear to be compatible with their shared history reaching back to the Early Upper Palaeolithic.  . The Bayesian Skyline Plots testify to non-overlapping phases of expansion, and the haplogroups’ phylogenies suggest that there are U6 sub-clades that expanded earlier than those in M1. Some M1 and U6 sub-clades could be linked with certain events. ... haplogroup U6, a haplogroup that has been termed “the main indigenous North African cluster”, and, to a lesser extent the variation in M1, which is more predominantly found in Eastern Africa/Ethiopia. U6 and M1 both share the feature of being African-specific sub-clades of haplogroups otherwise spread only in non-African populations. Indeed, whilst most U clades are found in North Africa and in Eurasia, as far as the Ganges Basin, U6 is virtually restricted to North (West) Africa. For macro-haplogroup M, this African connection is even more puzzling, as haplogroups belonging to M are mostly found only in South, Central and East Asia, the Americas and Oceania, where no M1 has yet been reported....

    The Aterian, a regional variant of the Middle Palaeolithic (or Middle Stone Age), was previously thought to have existed ~40,000–20,000 years ago (KYA), and argued to mark the earliest modern humans in North Africa. These dates have been drastically reassessed and the upper bound is now closer to ~115 KYA or even as old as ~145 KYA....

    Given the geographical specificity of mtDNA haplogroups U6 and M1, some studies have investigated their potential implication in the peopling of North Africa, whilst some earlier studies assumed that M1 diverged from other M lineages prior to the early dispersals of Homo sapiens out of Africa ~60–70 KYA. However, most research that has followed explains its presence in Africa by a back-migration from Asia. Dating of the U6 and M1 variation in African and Middle Eastern populations has been at the centre of the debate on the timing of the back-migration to Africa and, in particular, whether these haplogroups co-dispersed with certain archaeological cultures or languages. A thorough study by Olivieri and co-authors proposed that both M1 and U6 were involved in an early dispersal, 40–45KYA, from Southwest Asia to North Africa in association with the first arrival of anatomically modern humans in the Mediterranean region. Considering this time frame, it was suggested, furthermore, that the spread of Aurignacian culture in Europe and the Dabban industry in North Africa derived from the same source....

    In contrast to high frequencies of M1 sub-clades, haplogroup U6 is rare in East/Northeast Africa and the Middle East, and is virtually absent in the Caucasus... the coalescence of U6 at ~35 KYA and M1 at ~29 KYA. U6 is mostly prevalent in Northwest Africa...  Both M1b and M1a have close coalescent ages around the LGM: ~20 and ~21 KYA respectively...prevalent in East Africa. ...all the Caucasian samples fall into just one sub-clade, M1a1b2, with no variation present at the intermediate level of resolution, signature of a likely founder effect.

    Contrary to M1, various clades of U6 predate the LGM, including U6a, which is very close to the overall age of U6 (~33 KYA vs. ~36 KYA). Confirming some previous observations, U6b and U6c were confined in our samples to Northwest Africa....

    A Southwest Asian origin has been proposed for U6 and M1. Yet, this claim remains speculative...Unfortunately, the sampling of extant populations of Africa and West Asia may not solve the question of their origin.  Assuming that M1 and U6 were introduced to Africa by a dispersal event from Asia, it would be difficult to accept their involvement in the first demographic spread of anatomically modern humans around 40–45 KYA...comparison of early Upper Palaeolithic artefacts from Haua Fteah and Ksar Akil does not support the notion that the early Dabban of Cyrenaica is an evidence of a population migration from the Levant into North Africa...Given the sequence data from 242 complete sequences and genotype data of 222 mtDNAs, we were unable to find conclusive evidence that any of the geographic regions of Africa or the Middle East would stand out as being uniquely or even significantly enriched with deep-rooted clades of U6 and M1 not found elsewhere. Whilst several U6 sub-clades seem to be confined to Northwest Africa, this pattern may be the result of drift and founder effects over many thousands of years and does not necessarily suggest that Northwest Africa was the geographic source of U6 dispersals in Africa....

    Even at the general level, U6 is hardly found outside Northwest Africa, whilst M1 is ubiquitous throughout North Africa, East Africa and the Middle East, reaching also northern Caucasus. The coalescent age for U6a is almost 10 000 years older than that for either M1a or M1b, and most of its sub-clades coalesce before or around the LGM. In contrast, most of the estimates for M1a and M1b sub-clades are post-LGM. Also, the BSP analyses show that M1 and U6 have probably experienced different molecular histories....

    There are currently two hypotheses about where AA languages originated. One places it in Northeast Africa, on the coast of the Red Sea, linking the reconstructed proto-Afro-Asiatic vocabulary to pre-Neolithic cultures in the Levant and their predecessors in southeast Egypt and northeastern Sudan, whilst the second places it in the Levant, and emphasises the Neolithic component in the Afro-Asiatic cognates. Notably, even the earliest time frame (~10 KYA or more) considered by the linguists for the earliest splits in the language family are more recent than the ages of U6 or M1 and their major sub-clades. However, if the sub-clades of M1 and U6 were to be involved in the dispersal event associated with the Afro-Asiatic languages they had to exist at the moment of the launch of this event, and therefore the fact that these sub-clades are older makes them plausible candidates for such dispersal. However, when considering M1 and U6 as a whole, or U6 alone, no correlation with language (and geography) was found with the current data, indicating for U6 that its expansion was not concomitant with that of the AA.

    Concerning haplogroup M1 individually, a significant correlation with languages was observed. Furthermore, within M1, it appears that the correlation is mostly due to M1a. However, given the small sample size of M1b, any potential signal correlating with language might not be detectable. Interestingly, M1a has a likely East African origin, but its coalescent age of ~21 KYA still largely predates that of the proto-AA....Although we found a correlation, limited sample sizes do not allow drawing unambiguous connection between genes and languages. ...

    Conclusions: 

Our analyses do not support the model according to which mtDNA haplogroups M1 and U6 represent an early dispersal event of anatomically modern humans at around 40–45 KYA in association with the spread of Dabban industry in North Africa as proposed earlier. A West Asian origin for these haplogroups still remains a viable hypothesis as sister clades of U (and ancestral to it, macro-hg N (including R)) and M are spread overwhelmingly outside Africa, notably in Eurasia, even though the phylogeographic data on extant populations do not present a clear support for it. Our estimates of coalescent times and demographic analyses of U6 and M1 variations suggest that their spread in North and East Africa is largely due to a number of demographic events, predominantly occurring at the end of the peak of as well as after the LGM, but largely before the Holocene. Hence, some of the topologically earliest sub-clades of U6 and M1 may have been involved in the origin and spread of the essentially North African Iberomaurusian culture, and the observed correlations with languages make it likely that the North and East African carriers of the two matrilineages have been absorbed into the expanding Afro-Asiatic languages-speaking people in the area, but in phylogeographically differential ways....

U6 MAY BE PALEOLITHIC IN BOTH NORTH AFRICA AND IN WEST EUROPE.

THIS ARTICLE SUGGESTS TRACES OF U6 IN IBERIA IN THE PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC WITHOUT ANY NORTH AFRICAN COMPONENT MUTATES INTO U6a1 ABOUT 19KYA THEN AGAIN 13KYA AS U6a1a.  U6 IN MAGHREB 35 TO 45KYA.   ABOUT 20KYA NORTH AFRICAN U6 IS SPREAD AROUND THE EUROPEAN MEDITERANEAN.  THE EAST MED BRANCH REACHES IBERIA, ITALY, AND BACK TO MAGHREB IN THE NEOLITHIC VIA MARITIME.  VARIOUS U6 CLADES FROM EUROPE TRAVEL TO NORTH AFRICA SINCE NEOLITHIC.  SEVERAL MIGRATIONS OF U6 TO AND FROM EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA AND LEVANT SOME ARE BACK MIGRATIONS TO AND FROM.

THIS ARTICLE IMPLIES U6 MUST HAVE DEVELOPED OUT OF NORTH AFRICA AND THEN MOST OF U6 WENT INTO NORTH AFRICA IN PALEOLITHIC BUT A TINY FRACTION MUST HAVE ALSO WENT INTO OR REMAINED IN EUROPE.  OR U DEVELOPS INTO U6 IN NORTH AFRICA AND SOME U6 MIGRATE TO EUROPE SIMULTANEOUSLY AS THEY DEVELOP IN NORTH AFRICA.  U6 BEING MOST FREQUENT IN THE WEST AND MIGRATION PATTERN TO THE EAST SHE MAY HAVE COME FROM ATLANTIS...

The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109#Fig1

    Reaching Europe

    In general, haplogroup U6 has very low frequencies in Europe. It is more frequent in the Mediterranean countries, mainly in those with longer histories of Moorish influence since medieval times, such as Portugal (2.5%), Spain (1.1%) or Sicily (0.4%). In fact, there is a significant longitudinal gradient in Mediterranean Europe, with frequencies decreasing eastwards (r = −0.87; p = 0.008) that run parallel to that found in North Africa (r = −0.97; p < 0.001). Congruently, the presence of U6 in the Iberian Peninsula has been attributed to the historic Moorish expansion. However, without denying this historic gene flow, others have also suggested prehistoric inputs from North Africa.

    Actually, the U6 phylogeny and the phylogeography of its lineages are better explained admitting both prehistoric and historic influences in Europe. Traces of Paleolithic and early Neolithic presence of U6 in Mediterranean Europe are the two Iberian lineages at the root of the U6a1 expansion of 18.6 kya, without involving any North African counterpart (Table 3). Again, when the next U6a1a radiation occurred at 13.1 kya, a lineage later expanded at its node as the U6a1a2 clade and only led to European sequences. There are also two sequences of Mediterranean European origin that directly emerged from the ancestral node of the East African cluster U6a2a (19.8 kya). The presence of a third Mediterranean European sequence identical to a Tunisian one that coalesces with a Palestinian sequence about 5.9 kya suggests that these eastern lineages most probably reached Italy, Iberia and the Maghreb from the Levant through maritime contacts since the Neolithic. Another Italian sequence that coalesces at 10.6 kya with a Levantine sequence forming the U6a4 clade reinforces such a conclusion. More difficult to ascertain is the presence of 3 additional Italian sequences that directly sprout from the basal node of the west sub-Saharan African clade U6a5 (12.7 kya). There are two clusters, U6a3a (9.6 kya) and U6a7a (7.6 kya), with mostly European sequences, that expanded in Neolithic times. Other European groups: U6a3a1, U6a7a1, U6a7a2, and U6c1 spread within the Chalcolithic period. Finally, at least 14 European lineages have coalescence ages in historic times. Some may be associated with the Roman conquest of Britain (U6d1a), the diaspora of Sephardic Jews (U6a7a1b), or the European colonization of the Americas (U6a1a1a2, U6a7a1a, U6a7a2a1, U6b1a). Roughly, 35 European lineages have prehistoric spreads and 50 sequences historic spreads. In all cases they are involved with clear North African counterparts.

    With less accuracy, information from HVI sequences also provides a phylogeographic perspective of U6 in Europe (Table 1). The largest U6 Maghreb component in Europe is found in Portugal (69.9%), then in Spain (50.0%) and Italy (53.0%), and decreases sharply in the Eastern Mediterranean (25.0%). No U6b representatives have been detected in Italy, although it is present in Iberia to the west and in the Near East to the east. Regarding the Canarian motif, 33% and 50% of the U6b haplotypes found respectively in mainland Portugal and Spain belong to the Canary Islands autochthonous U6b1a subgroup. Curiously, it has not been detected in the Portuguese island of Azores and Madeira or in Cape Verde either. U6c is confirmed as a low-frequency Mediterranean haplogroup. All four identified U6 HVI components have representatives in Atlantic Europe. This Maghreb component could have arrived through Atlantic Copper or Bronze age networks, leaving the presence of U6c to Punic or more probably, Roman colonization.

    On the other hand, the East African component in Europe has its peak in eastern Mediterranean area (62.5%) and gradually diminishes westward toward Italy (46.0%), Spain (28.3%) and mainland Portugal (20.0%). Complemented with the previous phylogeographic information obtained from complete sequences, it seems that the Levant component points to maritime contacts from the Neolithic onwards. Congruently, archaeological comparisons of the different prehistoric cultures that evolved on both shores of the Mediterranean Sea point to the conclusion that each region had its own technological traditions, despite some parallel developments. This finding weakens the hypothesis of important demic or cultural interchanges, at least until the beginning of the Neolithic when prehistoric seafaring started in the Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, the rapid spread of the Neolithic Cardial Culture, or the presence of the Megalithic culture on both sides of the Mediterranean during the Chalcolithic period, would suffice to explain the presence in Europe of U6 lineages with coalescence ages since Neolithic times onwards. However, at least two U6 lineages, U6a1a and U6a5, both with European coalescences around 13 kya, are left devoid of archaeological support. These would coincide with climatic improvement during the Late Glacial period. Curiously, several European mtDNA lineages, with similar coalescence ages, such as V, U5b1, H1 and H3, have been proposed as maternal footprints in North Africa of a hypothetical southward human spread after the Last Glacial period, from the Franco-Cantabrian refuge. This also lacks archaeological evidence. Accurate phylogeographic analysis of these and other mtDNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups are needed to disentangle these puzzling patterns.

    Table 2 Geography and ages of the African and Canarian U6 sub-clades

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109/tables/2

Haplogroup Geography Age

U6                                35300

U6a                              26200

U6a7     Maghreb         29000

U6a7b     Maghreb       24000

U6a6     Maghreb         21900

U6a2                            19700

U6a3                            18800

U6a1     Maghreb         18600

U6a1b     Maghreb       17100

U6a6b     Maghreb       14500

U6d                              12900

U6a2a1     Ethiopia      12700

U6b                              12500

U6d3     Maghreb         10600

U6a7c     Maghreb       10600

U6c                              10400

U6a8     Maghreb           8800 ...

      ...  (MORE CLICK ABOVE LINK)

 Table 3 Geography and ages of the European U6 sub-clades

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109/tables/3

Haplogroup     Age

U6a1          18600

U6a1a        13100

U6a1a2      16200

U6a4          10600

U6a3a          9600

U6a7a          7600

U6d1            5700

U6a3a1        5600

U6a7a1        4700

U6a7a2        4200

U6a7a1c      3500

U6a7a2a1    2600

U6a1b1b      2600

U6d1a          1700

U6a7a1b      1400

U6c1a          1300

U6a1a1a2      600

U6a7a1a        500

E AND J MALE HG"s ENTER EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA IN THE NEOLITHIC AND THEN IN MORE RECENT TIMES.  E IS FROM EASTERN AFRICA.  J IS FROM MID EAST.  THE E AND J HG's REPLACE THE FIRST INDIGENOUS MALES, AND STEAL THEIR LANDS BY WAY OF NUMEROUS SMALL SCALE MIGRATIONS, AND STEALING THE INDIGENOUS U FEMALES WHICH RESULTS IN THE REPLACEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL FIRST INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA WITH NEOLITHIC AND RECENT MIGRANTS FROM THE MID EAST AND EAST AFRICAN PEOPLES...

Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area

https://www.academia.edu/26190126/Origin_Diffusion_and_Differentiation_of_Y-Chromosome_Haplogroups_E_and_J_Inferences_on_the_Neolithization_of_Europe_and_Later_Migratory_Events_in_the_Mediterranean_Area

    The archaeological records suggest that the large-scale clinal patterns of Hg E and Hg J reflect a mosaic of numerous small-scale, more regional population movements, replacements, and subsequent expansions overlying previous ranges....

Both phylogeography and microsatellite variance suggest that E-P2 and its derivative, E-M35, probably originated in eastern Africa....It is interesting that both E-P2* and E-M35* and their derivatives, E-M78 and E-M123, exhibit in Ethiopians the 12-repeat allele at the DYS392 microsatellite locus, an allele scarcely seen, especially in other haplogroups and other populations. In addition, the Ethiopian DYS392-12 allele is usually as sociated with the unusually short DYS19-11 allele, which is typical of this area....occurs in E-P2*, E-M35*, and E-M78 but is almost absent in all other haplogroups and populations....the Ethiopian branch harboring DYS392-12 is not shared with either Near Eastern or European populations...The network of E-M78 and that of E-M123 are in agreement with the hypothesis of their ancient presence in the Near East and their subsequent expansion into the southern Balkans.

The divergence time (TD) between the Near East and European lineages has been estimated to a range of 7–14 thousand years (ky) ago....E-M81 has the lowest variance and a compact network, indicating either its relatively recent origin followed by expansion or its recent expansion after a bottleneck....

    Hg J harbors two main clades, J-M267 and J-M172....Similar to Hg E, different geographic distributions are displayed by the various subhaplogroups of J. J-M172, which occurs as frequently as J-M267 in some Middle Eastern populations, is the more prevalent in Europe...Finally, the J-M172* lineages display a decreasing frequency gradient from the Near East toward western Europe and strongly contribute to the overall gradient of Hg J. J-M267 is notable, since this haplogroup shows its highest frequencies in the Middle East, North Africa, and Ethiopia and its lowest in Europe, having been observed only in the Mediterranean area....

    The extent of differentiation of Hg J, observed both with the biallelic and microsatellite markers, points to the Middle East as its likely homeland. In this area, J-M172 and J-M267 are equally represented and show the highest degree of internal variation, indicating that it is most likely that these subclades also arose in the MiddleEast. However, their different frequencies in different Middle Eastern countries and in Europe suggest distinct demography processes, possibly in population groups that underwent different temporal expansions....

    The lower internal variance of J-M267 in theMiddle East and North Africa, relative to Europe and Ethiopia, is suggestive of two different migrations....

    According to this interpretation, the first migration, probably in Neolithic times, brought J-M267 to Ethiopia and Europe, whereas a second, more-recent migration diffused the clade harboring the microsatellite motif YCAIIa22-YCAIIb22 in the southern part of the Middle East and in North Africa. In this regard, it is worth noting that the median expansion time of the J-M267-YCAIIa22-YCAIIb22 clade was estimated to be 8.7–4.3ky,...These results are consistent with the proposal that this haplotype was diffused in recent time by Arabs who, mainly from the 7th century A.D., expanded to northern Africa...

    In conclusion, high-resolution Y-chromosome haplotyping and particular microsatellite associations reveal regional population differentiations, an East Africa home land for E-M78, and recent gene-flow episodes consistent with the Neolithic in Europe. In particular, the spatial distributions of J-M172*, J-M267, E-M78, and E-M123 indicate expansions from the Middle East toward Europe that most likely occurred during and after the Neolithic, that of J-M102 illustrates population expansions from the southern Balkans, and that of E-M81 reveals recent gene flow from North Africa. Distinct histories of J-M267* lineages are suggested: an expansion from the Middle East toward East Africa and Europe and a more-recent diffusion (marked by the YCAIIa-22/YCAIIb-22 motif) of Arab people from the southern part of the Middle East toward North Africa.

INDIGENOUS NATIVE EUROPEANS R1 TAKEN AS SLAVES FOR THE ABABS.

J ENTERS N.AFRICA IN THE NEOLITHIC FROM ARABIA AND MID EAST.  E-M81 IS NW AFRICAN, AND E-M78 IS E.AFRICAN.  THE AGE OF E-M81 IS ONLY 3000 YEARS OLD THEREFORE E-M81 REPLACED THE FIRST INDIGENOUS MALES OF NW AFRICA.  WHEN MORE RECENT ARABS MIGRATE INTO N.AFRICA THEY WERE PATERNALLY GENETICALLY SIMILAR BECAUSE OF THE EARLIER REPLACEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL BERBER MALE BY THE E HG.  THE E HG IS NOT THE ORIGINAL FIRST PEOPLE OF N.AFRICA, AND NOT THE ORIGINAL BERBER.  THE E AND J HG"s ARE NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT MIGRANTS OF EAST AFRICA, ARABIA, AND MID EAST.  THE FIRST PEOPLE OF N.AFRICA ARE OF U mtDNA DURING THE ATERIAN WHICH PREDATES THE NEOLITHIC AND RECENT TIMES OF E AND J MIGRANTS.  THEREFORE A MORE EARLIER MALE MUST BE THE FIRST PEOPLE COMPANION OF U FEMALES.  R AND R1 WAS THE FIRST MODERN MALE INTO WEST EUROPE ALONG WITH U FEMALES MAKING THE R HG A POSSIBLE SOURCE OF THE ORIGINAL MALE BERBER.  AND R1 WAS THE ORIGINAL MALE BASQUE, AND ORIGINAL MALE SAAMI.  BERBERS OF E AND J HG's ARE NEOLITHIC AND RECENT HYBRID MIXED BLOOD BERBERS AT BEST HALF BREED BERBERS....

Synthetic review on the genetic relatedness between North Africa and Arabia deduced from paternal lineage distributions

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271849020_Synthetic_review_on_the_genetic_relatedness_between_North_Africa_and_Arabia_deduced_from_paternal_lineage_distributions

    In the Middle East, the predominant categories of Y chromosomes are varieties associated with haplogroup J-M304.  It has been hypothesized that the center of origin of sub-haplogroup J1-M267 would be the southern Arabian Peninsula whereas J2-M172 seems to be originating from the Fertile Crescent region....  Haplogoup J has been considered to represent the signature of the Neolithic demic diffusion associated with the spread of agriculture.... The frequency distribution of haplogroup J has shown a radial decline from the Middle East toward Central Asia, Caucasus, North Africa and Europe....J2-M172 has been linked to the development and the expansion of agriculture in the wetter northern zone and is also considered the Y-chromosome marker for the spread of farming into South East Europe, J1-M267 has been associated with pastoralism in the semi-arid area of the Arabian Peninsula.... Hence, the high frequencies of J1-M267 among the Arabic-speaking populations of the Middle East added to its low variance in North Africa compared to that in the Middle East has been related to an important paternal gene flow from the Middle East, and particularly from the Arabian Peninsula towards North Africa...This result is in agreement with historical data such as the Arab expansion during the spread of Islam in the 7th Century CE as well as the important migration flows, during the 11th Century of Arabic tribes like the Hilalians... Similarly, the second sub-haplogroup J2-M172 is widespread in the Middle East...

    Haplogroup E is the most frequent haplogroup in Africa, but is also found in the Middle East, southern Europe and Asia.  Among its sub-clades, E-M81 and E-M78 seem to be of North African origin with Paleolithic and Neolithic expansions that reached surrounding areas.[E-M81 IS ONLY 3000 YEARS OLD.  E-M78 IS PALEOLITHIC IN EAST AFRICA.]  Firstly, E-M81 is the most common haplogroup in North Africa showing its highest concentrations in Northwestern Africa (76 % in Saharawis in Morocco with cline frequencies decreasing eastward... Hence, the distribution of this haplogroup in Africa closely matches the present area of Berber-speaking population’s allocation on the continent, suggesting a close haplogroup-ethnic group parallelism....However, knowing that the Berber dialects have been replaced by Arabic in North African populations, carriers of E-M81 haplogroup are currently Arab-speaking peoples whose ancestors were Berber-speaking.

Outside of Africa, E-M81 is almost absent in the Middle East and in Europe (with the exception of Iberia and Sicily). The presence of E-M81 in the Iberian Peninsula (12 % in southern Portugal) has been attributed to trans-Mediterranean contacts linked to the Islamic influence, since it is typically Berber....  Secondly, E-M78 is widespread in both eastern and northeastern Africa...However, this haplogroup is rare in northwestern Africa and in the Middle East.... the peripheral geographic distribution of the most derived sub-haplogroups with respect to northeastern Africa, as well as the results of quantitative analysis of UEP and microsatellite diversity are strongly suggestive of a northeastern rather than an eastern African origin of E-M78. Northeastern Africa thus, seems to be the place from where E-M78 chromosomes started to disperse to other African regions and outside Africa....

    More than 50 % of the human males in Europe are affiliated to haplogroup R, mainly to the sub-haplogroup R1-M173... Haplogroup R was also observed in the Arab-speaking populations, particularly in the Middle East...Between the Umayyad and the Abbasid Empires, many slaves were brought from Iberia, especially Cordoba and Andalusia. Furthermore, envoys of the British Empire to the Persian Gulf and the Middle East between the early 19th and early 20th Centuries CE, mention in their memoirs the enslaving of Georgians, Armenians and Circassians. These slaves were naturalized and given tribal affiliations under slavery abolishment treaties signed between the tribal chieftains—or emirs—and the envoys of the British Empire. This could be a reason for the presence of haplogroup R in the Middle East (Mohammad et al., 2009).  The presence of the European male lineages R in North Africa could be the male counterpart of the maternal gene flow signaled by the mtDNA haplogroups H1, H3 and HV0.[H FEMALES WERE NEOLITHIC FLOW AND RECENT.  R MALES ARE PALEOLITHIC.]  In fact, there are several haplogroups with clear geographical origins from European or North African sides of the Mediterranean, but also present on the opposite side highlighting the presence of gene flow between both areas....

NEOLITHIC FARMERS ARE THIEVES, GENOCIDAL MURDERERS, AND RAPISTS.

E AND J Y-DNA HAPLOGROUPS ARE A RECENT NEOLITHIC AND POST NEOLITHIC PEOPLES WHO MIGRATED INTO NORTH AFRICA AND EUROPE IN NUMEROUS SMALL GROUPS REPLACING THE EARLIER INDIGENOUS MALE FIRST PEOPLES BY STEALING THE LAND AND WOMEN OF THE ATERIAN AND PALEOLITHIC U/U6 mt-DNA FIRST PEOPLE...

A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1216069/

    Autocorrelation analyses reveal an east-west cline of genetic variation that extends into the Middle East and is compatible with a hypothesis of demic expansion. This expansion must have involved relatively small numbers of Y chromosomes to account for the reduction in gene diversity towards the West that accompanied the frequency increase of Y haplogroup E3b2, but gene flow must have been maintained to explain the observed pattern of isolation-by-distance. Since the estimates of the times to the most recent common ancestor TMRCAs) of the most common haplogroups are quite recent, we suggest that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation is largely of Neolithic origin. Thus, we propose that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic–speaking pastoralists from the Middle East....

    genetic analyses highlighted the similarity between northeastern Africa and the Middle East and the clear genetic differentiation between northwestern Africa and both sub-Saharan Africa and Europe, including Iberia. The Sahara and Mediterranean, despite the narrow width of the Strait of Gibraltar, seem to have acted as effective long term barriers to Y-chromosomal gene flow...

    The TMRCA of haplogroup E3b2 was estimated to be ~4.2 KY (95% CI 2.8–6.0 KY)...  The times for haplogroup J, the second most-common haplogroup observed in North Africa (6.8 KY, 95% CI 4.4–11.1 KY; or 7.9 KY, 95% CI 6.6–9.1 KY) were also quite recent, supporting the idea of a recent demographic event....

THIS OLD ARTICLE SUPPORTS THE E YDNA MALES AS A PALEOLITHIC NW AFRICAN BASED ON FREQUENCY AND HIS PALEOLITHIC STATUS.  BUT, E HG IS PALEOLITHIC IN EAST AFRICA AND THE M81 IS ONLY 3000 YRS OLD ACCORDING TO OTHER ARTICLES.  THIS ARTICLE DOES HINT ON A TINY PRESCENCE OF R HG IN NW AFRICA WHICH WERE THE FIRST PEOPLE OF EUROPE.  FREQUENCY DOES NOT INDICATE THE FIRST PEOPLE OF ANY GEOGRAPHY.  JUST LOOK AT THE FIRST PEOPLE mtDNA OF U, U5, AND U6 WHOM HAVE BEEN DIMINISHED IN FREQUENCY BY NEOLITHIC GENOCIDAL THIEVES.

U6 THE FIRST INDIGENOUS FEMALES OF NW AFRICA TODAY HAVE BEEN REDUCED TO ONLY 10% TO 20%.  WHILE THE FIRST MALE PEOPLE H104 (R-M173) MAKES UP JUST 3% IN NW AFRICA TODAY BUT ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE ARE FROM ANCIENT TIMES.  BOTH ARE THE FIRST PEOPLE PALEOLITHIC AND PRE-PALEOLITHIC BUT, THEY ARE THE MINORITES OF LESS FREQUENCY.  3% R-M173 AND 10% U6 SHOW A 7% DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE OF THE FIRST PEOPLE IN NW AFRICA WHICH CLEARLY REVEAL A GENOCIDE OF THE FIRST PEOPLE IN VARIOUS FASHIONS SUCH AS MIXED-BREEDING, WARFARE, FOREIGN INVASIONS, TRADE, TECHNOLOGY, ETC.. 

A LIKELY SCENARIO MAY BE SMALL GROUPS OF FIRST PEOPLE R MALE/U FEMALE OF WEST EUROPE MIGRATE INTO NW AFRICA DURING THE PRE-PALEOLITHIC OR PALEOLITHIC.  THIS SMALL GROUP(S) ARE THE FIRST MODERN HUMAN IN NW AFRICA BUT CAME FROM IBERIA (OR FROM THE NEAR EAST DURING PRE-PALEOLITHIC, OR FROM ATLANTIS IN THE WEST).  U FEMALES DEVELOP INTO U6.  THE R AND/OR R1 MALE WAS REDUCED IN NUMBERS WHILE IN NW AFRICA BY WARFARE, HUNTING, EXPLORATION, ETC... OVER TIME.  THEN MIGRATIONS OF LATER FOREIGN PEOPLE FROM THE EAST AND SOUTH REPLACE THE R MALES.  U6 FEMALES MAINTAIN HER PRESENCE DESPITE HER MALE R1 IS REDUCED IN NUMBERS AS SHE MIX BREEDS WITH THE NEOLITHIC E MALE PEOPLE OF THE EAST AFRICANS WHO WERE PALEOLITHIC IN EAST AFRICA.  BUT, OVER TIME HER DOMINANCE WANES FROM MORE SMALL NUMEROUS RECENT INVASIONS REPLACING HER.

THIS ARTICLE MAY BE MISINTERPRETTING CALLING THE EAST AFRICAN PALEOLITHIC LINEAGES, WHOM TODAY ARE MAJORITY THE INDIGENOUS NW AFRICAN IN ERROR.  AND LIKEWISE THE ARTICLE MISINTERPRETS AGAIN IN IBERIA.  FROM WHAT I GATHER FROM OTHER ARTICLES THE PALEOLITHIC MALES ARE MAJORITY IN IBERIA BUT THE FEMALES THERE ARE NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT.  IN CONTRAST TO NW AFRICA WHERE THE MALES ARE NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT BUT THE FEMALES ARE MORE PALEOLITHIC AND PRE-PALEOLITHIC.  THE H104 MAY HAVE BEEN THE FIRST MALE COMPANION ALONG WITH U WHEN THEY FIRST ENTERED THE ATERIAN OF NW AFRICA. U6 DEVELOPING THERE AS H104 BECOMES REPLACED IN SOME FASHION TO BECOME NEARLY EXTINCT IN NW AFRICA BUT HELD HIS DOMINANCE IN EUROPE MOST PROBABLY BECAUSE OF THE MEDITERANEAN BARRIER.

  BUT AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE THIS E HG PRESENCE DESERVES CONTINUED STUDY.  ALTHOUGH I CONTINUE TO SUPPORT U6 AS THE DAUGHTER CLADE OF U WHO WAS COMPANION TO R AND/OR R1 BOTH EURASIAN HG"s.  E BEING A LATER MIGRANT PEOPLE FROM EAST AFRICA MIXING IN OR REPLACING THE ORIGINAL MALE INDIGENOUS FIRST PEOPLE OF NW AFRICA.  ALTHOUGH I MAY BE WRONG YET OPEN TO ALL POSSIBILITIES.

AND WHY ARE THE IBERIANS AND NW AFRICANS SO DIFFERENT? BECUZ THE E MALES ARE NEOLITHIC IN NW AFRICA WHILE THE R MALES ARE PRE PALEOLITHIC.

THE FIRST PEOPLE R MALES ARE COMPLETELY DIFFERENT FROM THE NEOLITHIC E MALES.

NO WONDER THE BIG DIFFERENCE ON BOTH SIDES OF THE GATES OF GIBRALTAR.

ONE SIDE HAS RETAINED ITS FIRST PEOPLE DOMINATION OF R1 WHILE THE OTHER SIDE WAS NIGGERIZED BY NEOLITHIC INVADERS....

High-Resolution Analysis of Human Y-Chromosome Variation Shows a Sharp Discontinuity and Limited Gene Flow between Northwestern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1275654/

These results clearly show that the contemporary populations from both regions originated from different patrilineages:  group III haplotypes prevail in NW Africa, whereas Iberian haplotypes belong mostly to group IX.  The proportion of genetic variance that can be attributed to the difference between the NW African and Iberian populations is 35.2%(Pp.024), the minimum possible value, given the number of populations and the per mutation

procedure employed to estimate statistical significance...the sharpest genetic differences were between populations situated on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar....

Specific founder effect for some NW African haplotypes:  an Upper Paleolithic Differentiation? — Although group III haplotypes H35, H36, and H38 are found in eastern and southern Africa, southern Europe, and the Middle East, their overall frequencies in NW Africa are, by far, the highest reported to date.  This is particularly true for H38, which clearly constitutes the male population core of NW Africa. By contrast, haplotype H35 is found mainly in Ethiopia (22.7%) and Sudan (17.5%), and H36 is most frequent among Khoisans (10.3%) and Ethiopians (6.5%). Given that H36 is directly ancestral to H35 and H38 and is found at moderate frequencies in Ethiopia and in southern Africa, this branch of the haplotype phylogeny may have been introduced into NW Africa from eastern Africa. On the other hand, the dramatic discontinuity in frequencies of group III haplotypes (especially H38) that is seen in northern Africa suggests that such differences originated under strong genetic drift in small, isolated populations.  Such demographic conditions were probably found only before the population surge brought by the Neolithic, which may have prevented further significant differentiation by drift... Use of classical genetic markers has suggested that the NW African populations may have a sizeable Upper Paleolithic component. This hypothesized Upper Paleolithic expansion may be represented today by the descendants of the haplotypes that share mutation M35 and that are further characterized by M78 (H35) and M81 (H38). It remains to be resolved whether the latter two haplotypes arose independently from H36 or share a common ancestor, yet to be discovered, that distinguishes them from the remaining haplotypes derived from H36.... 

estimate the age of M35 (giving H36) to be 53,000+/-21,000 years ago (ya), that of M78 (giving H35) to be 16,000+/-10,000 ya, and that of M81 (giving H38) to be 32,000+/-11,000 ya. Under the more likely condition of population growth, the respective estimated ages were 30,000+/-6,000 ya, 7,600+/-6,000 ya, and 19,000+/-4,000 ya.  Hence, the expansion that brought the ancestors of H35 and H38 (or even those haplotypes themselves) into NW Africa could have happened at any time after 30,000 ya, and, more specifically, it could have happened during the Upper Paleolithic.  However, confidence intervals for those dates are large, even without the uncertainty in the effective population size or in generation time. Thus,

any interpretation derived from these dates should be regarded with caution....  Thus, recent gene flow, rather than common ancestry in the distant past, may have brought those chromosomes from NW Africa into Iberia....

Neolithic Y-chromosome traces in NW Africa and Iberia.— H58 and H71 are part of group VI, which is defined by the presence of M89 and by the absence of M9 and subsequently derived mutations.  These haplotypes constitute 10% of the Iberian and 13% of the NW African Y chromosomes and are likely to have spread, with the Neolithic expansions, from the Middle East....

So far, our analyses have allowed a clear dissection of almost all NW African and Iberian paternal line ages into several components with distinct historical origins. In this way, the historical origins of the NW African Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows:

75% NW African Upper Paleolithic (H35,H36, and H38), 13% Neolithic (H58 and H71), 4% historic European gene flow (group IX, H50, H52),and 8% recent sub-Saharan African (H22 and H28).

In contrast, the origins of the Iberian Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows: 5% recent NW African, 78% Upper Paleolithic and later local derivatives(group IX), and 10% Neolithic (H58, H71).  No haplotype assumed to have originated in sub-Saharan Africa was found in our Iberian sample....

The European Paleolithic background in Iberia....Group IX is found at a low frequency (3%) in NW Africa. In Iberia, 56% of the Y chromosomes carry H104, which is found across Europe, with increasing frequencies toward the west; its defining mutation, M173, may have been introduced by the first Upper Paleolithic colonizations of Europe...Of five H104 NW African chromosomes, one had an STR haplotype identical to that in an H104 Iberian chromosome, one was one mutation step away from Iberian H104 chromosomes, and the remaining three were two mutation steps away....The phylogenetic relations among H104 STR haplotypes is shown by a reduced median network, in which the NWAfrican chromosomes appear to be clearly embedded within the Iberian diversity. The time necessary to accumulate the STR allele differences between NWAfrican and Iberian H104 chromosomes was estimated at 2,100 +/- 450 years. This close STR-haplotype similarity seems to indicate that H104 chromosomes found in NW Africa are a subset of the European gene pool and that they may have been introduced during historic times....

We have detected male-mediated gene flow from NW Africa to the Iberian Peninsula; gene flow in the opposite direction, as shown by the Nm and admixture estimates and by ages obtained from STR haplotypes, occurred at lower levels and is more ancient....the more ancient age estimate for the north-to-south gene flow could have been caused by the fact that it occurred on a haplotype background, H104, that is slightly more diverse than its south-to-north counterpart, H38, thus carrying a more diverse set of Y chromosomes from Iberia into NW Africa....

Shocking Truth Behind Death of Ireland’s Egyptian Mummy Unraveled

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/egyptian-mummy-0013209

    The mummy, which is the cadaver of a woman called Takabuti who lived 2,600 years ago...ancient Egypt during the 25th Dynasty.  Takabuti is believed to have lived in Thebes, near modern Luxor. It appears that she was either the wife or the mistress of a noble. She herself was a daughter of an Egyptian priest and died in her twenties....

    her DNA was more similar to modern Europeans than the modern population of Egypt. Her genetic footprint is quite rare and almost unknown among ancient or modern Egyptians. Egyptologist Rosalie David told Manchester 1824 that “the surprising and important discovery of her European heritage throws some fascinating light on a significant turning-point in Egypt’s history.” These findings are adding to the body of research that indicates that the ancient Egyptian population was closer genetically to contemporary Europeans than Arabs...

The real identity of the moors (Berber) North Africa #maurs#moors#berbers#amazigh#north African  ***

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICG97EFmCIo

N. AFRICANS HAVE NEANDERTHAL DNA. WHICH COULD HAVE COME FROM THE WEST EUROPEAN NEANDERTHALS, THE CAUCUSUS NEANDERTHAL, THE SIBERIAN NEANDERTHAL,...  SUB-SAHARAN AFRICANS DO NOT HAVE ANY NEANDERTHAL DNA BECAUSE NEANDERTHAL NEVER WENT INTO AFRICA AT LEAST NO REMAINS FOUND AS OF YET IN AFRICA.

Ancient pyramid tombs in northern Africa Ancient Berber pyramid tombs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XztPJ0-XpKA

The fact of #spain and #france, Genocides against #amazigh people in north Africa

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Xodv4dEWaI

Morocco taken over by Arabs who enslave and tyrannize the Amazigh people...

The First North Africans

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OrwRzw6kJ8

Homo Sapiens dated to at least 80,000 to 100,000 years ago on North coast of Libya, N.Africa.  Perhaps the next 6 meters will reveal 200,000 years old history.  Located in Haua Fteah Cave, Libya. 

Berber people | Wikipedia audio article

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pEpNgSeHL4

This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:  Berber people

North Africa during the Middle Stone Age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_R46_ohwD88

TUAREG TAWSHIT TRIBES WERE OF SAME SOCIAL CATEGORY AND DEFINED BY THE COMMON FEMALE ANCESTOR.  THIS MAINTAINED THEIR PURITY KEEPING OUT THE NIGGERS.  MUST NOT HAVE WORKED.  HOW CAN YOU CALL 2/3rd'S WHITE AND 1/3rd NIGGER A PURE RACE?  TUAREGS ARE OVER 60% NEOLITHIC H mt hg.  THEY ALSO HAVE SOME V mt hg, AND SOME NIGGER L mt hg"s FROM CENTRAL AFRICA.  H AND V COMBINED MAKE UP ABOUT 2/3rd's WHITE AND 1/3rd NIGGER L mt hg OF TUAREG BLOOD.  THEY THINK THEY ARE BERBERS  BUT THEY'RE NOT.  H IS A NEAR EAST HG THAT WENT TO IBERIA DURING THE ICE AGE, AND V IS A SISTER OR DAUGHTER CLADE OF H.  THEY WENT INTO NW AFRICA IN THE NEOLITHIC.  HUNG OUT WITH THE BERBERS.  CLIMATE CHANGE CAUSED MOVEMENTS WHERE THEY MEET WITH EAST AFRICAN NIGGERS WHO FUKD THE NEAR EAST MIGANTS WHO THEN MIX IN WITH THE TUAREGS.  AS WELL AS NEAR EAST GROUPS WHO THEN MIGRATING WEST IN NORTH AFRICA FUKD THE BERBERS CONTAMINATING THEIR BLOOD.  THE REAL BERBERS ARE U6 mt hg.  SHE CAME INTO NORTH AFRICA 40 TO 50 KYA POSSIBLY WITH R1-M173 MALES THE FIRST MODERN PEOPLE OF WEST EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA.  R1 AND U6 BECOMING SEPARATED ALONG THE WAY IN AFRICA... 

HOLOCENE HUMAN PEOPLING OF LIBYAN SAHARA

maternal lineages in ancient and extant populations of Fezzan

HILITES:

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/HOLOCENE%20HUMAN%20PEOPLING%20OF%20LIBYAN%20SAHARA.rtf

Dozens of Mummies and Skeletons Found in Canary Islands Cave Tomb

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/guanche-mummies-0013321

    An 8th to 10th century grave containing 72 pre-Hispanic 'Guanche' natives has been discovered on Gran Canaria....  The Guanches were the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands and in 2017 the first genome-wide data project confirmed they were of North African origin - descended from the Berbers of Libya. These hunter-gatherers migrated to the archipelago around 1,000 BC and lived in caves and huts with a rudimentary knowledge of farming. Similarly to ancient Egyptians, their rituals led them to embalm and mummify their members of higher social standing, who were left in caves, while lower classes of people were buried in the ground.  The amateur archaeologists identified a unique site that archaeologists found contained the mummified ancient remains of 72 pre-Hispanic 'Guanche' natives - comprising 62 adults and 10 newborns - dated to the 15th century AD. ...

The History of North Africa Explained (Morocco,Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyBNJAs1HWc

AN INDIA POINT OF VIEW...

Who Were The Berbers? Who Were The Egyptians? Who Were The Canaanites?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTC9-03_NIQ

Theory that they are from Lemuria continent southern India....

ANCIENT BERBER LIBYA 1: The Dawn of Berber civilisation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_MLTWNmssI

ANCIENT BERBER LIBYA 2 PRE-ROMAN ERA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MJhXOcOfwXg

ANCIENT BERBER LIBYA 3 : The Ancient Chariots of Libya

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wsBNevgmitE

BEFORE BEING NAMED AFRICA BY THE ROMANS IT WAS CALLED LYBIA.  LYBIA WAS INHABITED BY THE BERBERS.  THE NEGROIDS FROM CENTRAL AFRICA, JEWS, AND ARABS FROM ARABIA STOLE THE LAND OF NORTH AFRICA FROM THE NATIVE INDIGENOUS BERBERS...

Africa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa

Etymology:

    Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of then-known northern Africa to the west of the Nile river, and in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modern Berbers; see Terence for discussion. The name had usually been connected with the Phoenician word ʿafar meaning "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber word ifri (plural ifran) meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya.

    Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province it then named Africa Proconsularis, following its defeat of the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War in 146 BC, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim region of Ifriqiya, following its conquest of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire's Exarchatus Africae, also preserved a form of the name.

    According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa" expanded with their knowledge.

    Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":

    The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.

    Isidore of Seville in his 7th-century Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests "Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning "sunny".

    Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."

    Michטle Fruyt in 1976 proposed linking the Latin word with africus "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".

    Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University in 1984 proposed: "The name Africa, derived from the Latin *Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to Hebrew Ophir."

    Ibn Khallikan and some other historians claim that the name of Africa came from a Himyarite king called Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi also called "Afrikus son of Abrahah" who subdued Ifriqiya....

    Prehistory:

    Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BP=before present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP,[25] Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.

    After the evolution of Homo sapiens approximately 350,000 to 260,000 years BP in Africa. the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco,[citation needed] [AND/]or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt....

MAURITANIANS:  BLACK SKINNED INDIANS. 

LYBIANS (BERBERS) : WHITE SKINNED.

MINERVA: ROMAN GODDESS = GREEK ATHENA = ETRUSCAN MENRVA = CANAANITE ANAT = CELTIC SULIS = EGYPTIAN? NEITH = ...

Accounts of Ancient North Africa, c. 430 BCE- 550 CE

https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/anc-nafrica.asp

    Herodotus: The Histories, c. 430 B.C., Book IV. On Lybia:

    As for Libya, we know it to be washed on all sides by the sea, except where it is attached to Asia. This discovery was first made by Necos, the Egyptian king, who on desisting from the canal which he had begun between the Nile and the Arabian gulf [i.e., the Red Sea], sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules, and return to Egypt through them, and by the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of the Erythraean sea, and so sailed into the southern ocean. When autumn came, they went ashore, wherever they might happen to be, and having sown a tract of land with corn, waited until the grain was fit to cut. Having reaped it, they again set sail; and thus it came to pass that two whole years went by, and it was not till the third year that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules, and made good their voyage home. On their return, they declared - I for my part do not believe them, but perhaps others may - that in sailing round Libya they had the sun upon their right hand. In this way was the extent of Libya first discovered.  Next to these Phoenicians the Carthaginians, according to their own accounts, made the voyage....

    The Nasamonians, a numerous people, are the western neighbors of the Auschisae. In summer they leave their flocks and herds upon the sea-shore, and go up the country to a place called Augila, where they gather the dates from the palms, which in those parts grow thickly, and are of great size, all of them being of the fruit-bearing kind. They also chase the locusts, and, when caught, dry them in the sun, after which they grind them to powder, and, sprinkling this upon their milk, so drink it. Each man among them has several wives, in their intercourse with whom they resemble the Massagetae. The following are their customs in the swearing of oaths and the practice of augury. The man, as he swears, lays his hand upon the tomb of some one considered to have been pre-eminently just and good, and so doing swears by his name. For divination they betake themselves to the sepulchers of their own ancestors, and, after praying, lie down to sleep upon their graves; by the dreams which then come to them they guide their conduct. When they pledge their faith to one another, each gives the other to drink out of his hand; if there be no liquid to be had, they take up dust from the ground, and put their tongues to it...

    The next tribe beyond the Machlyans is the tribe of the Auseans. Both these nations inhabit the borders of Lake Tritonis, being separated from one another by the river Triton. Both also wear their hair long, but the Machlyans let it grow at the back of the head, while the Auseans have it long in front. The Ausean maidens keep year by year a feast in honor of Minerva...The Auseans declare that Minerva is the daughter of Neptune and the Lake Tritonis---they say she quarreled with her father, and applied to Jupiter, who consented to let her be his child; and so she became his adopted daughter....

    Around dwell men who are the last inhabitants of Libya on the side of the desert, living, as they do, more inland than the wild-beast district. Of these nations the first is that of the Ammonians, who dwell at a distance of ten days' from Thebes [Waset], and have a temple derived from that of the Theban Jupiter. For at Thebes likewise, as I mentioned above, the image of Jupiter has a face like that of a ram....

    Ten days' journey from Augila there is again a salt-hill and a spring; palms of the fruitful kind grow here abundantly, as they do also at the other salt-hills. This region is inhabited by a nation called the Garamantians, a very powerful people, who cover the salt with mold, and then sow their crops. From thence is the shortest road to the Lutophagi, a journey of thirty days. In the Garamantian country are found the oxen which, as they graze, walk backwards. This they do because their horns curve outwards in front of their heads, so that it is not possible for them when grazing to move forwards, since in that case their horns would become fixed in the ground. Only herein do they differ from other oxen, and further in the thickness and hardness of their hides. The Garamantians have four-horse chariots, in which they chase the Troglodyte Ethiopians, who of all the nations whereof any account has reached our ears are by far the swiftest of foot. The Troglodytes feed on serpents, lizards, and other similar reptiles. Their language is unlike that of any other people; it sounds like the screeching of bats....

    Once more at the distance of ten days' there is a salt-hill, a spring, and an inhabited tract. Near the salt is a mountain called Atlas, very taper and round; so lofty, moreover, that the top (it is said) cannot be seen, the clouds never quitting it either summer or winter. The natives call this mountain "the Pillar of Heaven"; and they themselves take their name from it, being called Atlantes. They are reported not to eat any living thing, and never to have any dreams.

As far as the Atlantes the names of the nations inhabiting the sandy ridge are known to me; but beyond them my knowledge fails. The ridge itself extends as far as the Pillars of Hercules, and even further than these;...  Thus from Egypt as far as Lake Tritonis Libya is inhabited by wandering tribes, whose drink is milk and their food the flesh of animals. Cow's flesh, however, none of these tribes ever taste, but abstain from it for the same reason as the Egyptians, neither do they any of them breed swine....  West of Lake Tritonis the Libyans are no longer wanderers, nor do they practice the same customs as the wandering people, or treat their children in the same way...  The rites which the wandering Libyans use in sacrificing are the following. They begin with the ear of the victim, which they cut off and throw over their house: this done, they kill the animal by twisting the neck. They sacrifice to the Sun and Moon, but not to any other god. This worship is common to all the Libyans. The inhabitants of the parts about Lake Tritonis worship in addition Triton, Neptune, and Minerva, the last especially. The dress wherewith Minerva's statues are adorned, and her Aegis, were derived by the Greeks from the women of Libya....

    I think for my part that the loud cries uttered in our sacred rites came also from thence; for the Libyan women are greatly given to such cries and utter them very sweetly. Likewise the Greeks learnt from the Libyans to yoke four horses to a chariot.  All the wandering tribes bury their dead according to the fashion of the Greeks, except the Nasamonians....

    Westward of the river Triton and adjoining upon the Auseans, are other Libyans who till the ground, and live in houses: these people are named the Maxyans. They let the hair grow long on the right side of their heads, and shave it close on the left; they besmear their bodies with red paint; and they say that they are descended from the men of Troy. Their country and the remainder of Libya towards the west is far fuller of wild beasts and of wood than the country of the wandering people. For the eastern side of Libya, where the wanderers dwell, is low and sandy, as far as the river Triton;...

    The two indigenous are the Libyans and Ethiopians, who dwell respectively in the north and the south of Libya. The Phoenicians and the Greek are in-comers....

    Strabo: Geography, c. 22 A.D., XVII.iii.1-11.  On Mauritania:

    The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we imagine its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base is the coast opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the Nile to Mauretania and the Pillars; at right angles to this is a side formed by the Nile to Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypotenuse of the right angle is the whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and Mauretania. . . .Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by the Romans and the natives Mauretanii, a populous and flourishing African nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side of the strait, at the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On proceeding beyond the strait at the Pillars, with Africa on the left hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the barbarians Dyris. Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the foot of the mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the Coteis [modern Cape Espartel]. Near it is a small town, a little above the sea, which the barbarians call "Trinx"; Artemidorus, "Lynx"; and Eratosthenes, "Lixus" [modern Tangiers]. It lies on the side of the strait opposite to Gades [modern Cבdiz], from which it is separated by a passage of 800 stadia, the width of the strait at the Pillars between both places. To the south, near Lixus and the Coteis, is a bay called Emporicus [situated between modern Salee and el-Harגch], having upon it Phoenician mercantile settlements. The whole coast continuous with this bay abounds with them. Subtracting these bays, and the projections of land in the triangular figure which I have described, the continent may rather be considered as increasing in magnitude in the direction of south and east. The mountain which extends through the middle of Mauretania, from the Coteis to the Syrtes, is itself inhabited, as well as others running parallel to it, first by the Mauretanii, but deep in the interior of the country by the largest of the African tribes, called Gaetuli. ...

    Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country, except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees of vast size, and the soil produces everything. It is this country which furnishes the Romans with tables formed of one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most beautifully variegated. ...

    Although the Mauretanii inhabit a country, the greatest part of which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this time to live like nomads. They bestow care to improve their looks by plaiting their hair, trimming their beards, by wearing golden ornaments, cleaning their teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see them touch one another as they walk, lest they should disturb the arrangement of their hair. They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and ride on the bareback of the horse, with bridles made of rushes. They have also swords. The foot soldiers present against the enemy, as shields, the skins of elephants. They wear the skins of lions, panthers, and bears, and sleep in them. These tribes, and the Masaesylii next to them, and for the most part the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which are small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a switch. They have collars made of cotton or of hair, from which hangs a leading-rein. Some follow, like dogs, without being led. They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with broad heads. Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their cloak is a skin, as I have said before, which serves also as a breastplate....

    The Pharusii and Nigrites, who live above these people, near the western Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots also, armed with scythes. The Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with the Mauretanii in passing through the desert country, as they carry skins filled with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses. Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta [modern Constantine], passing through places abounding with marshes and lakes. Some of them are said to live like the Troglodytae, in caves dug in the ground. It is said that rain falls there frequently in summer, but that during the winter drought prevails. Some of the barbarians in that quarter wear the skins of serpents and fishes, and use them as coverings for their beds. Some say that the Mauretanii are Indians, who accompanied Hercules hither. A little before my time, the kings Bogus and Bocchus, allies of the Romans, possessed this country; after their death, Juba succeeded to the kingdom, having received it from Augustus Caesar, in addition to his paternal dominions. He was the son of Juba who fought, in conjunction with Scipio, against divine Caesar. Juba died lately, and was succeeded by his son Ptolemy, whose mother was the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra...

    Procopius of Caesarea: History of the Wars, c. 550 CE

Books III.xxv.3-9; IV.vi.10-14, vii.3, xi.16-20, xiii.26-29.  On Mauritania:

    For it was a law among the Mauretanii that no one should be a ruler over them, even if he was hostile to the Romans,...The Mauretanii live in stuffy huts both in winter and in summer and at every other time, never removing from them either because of snow or the heat of the sun or any other discomfort whatever due to nature. And they sleep on the ground, the prosperous among them, if it should so happen, spreading a fleece under themselves. Moreover, it is not customary among them to change their clothing with the seasons, but they wear a thick cloak and a rough shirt at all times. And they have neither bread nor wine nor any other good thing, but they take grain, either wheat or barley, and, without boiling it or grinding it to flour or barley-meal, they eat it in a manner not a whit different from that of animals. . . .A certain Mauretanian woman had managed somehow to crush a little grain, and making of it a very tiny cake, threw it into the hot ashes on the hearth. For thus it is the custom among the Mauretanii to bake their loaves. . . .

    And I have heard this man say that beyond the country which he ruled there was no habitation of men, but desert land extending to a great distance, and that beyond that there are men, not black-skinned like the Mauretanii, but very white in body and fair-haired.

I DO NOT KNOW WHY I AM POSTING THIS LITERATURE AS IT IS SOMEWHAT IGNORANT.  THIS BOOK BEGINS ITS EARLY HISTORY AT THE NEOLITHIC OMITTING THE VAST HISTORY PRIOR.  THUS THIS AUTHOR CLAIMS CONFUSION ABOUT THE BERBERS BECAUSE HE STARTS AT THE NEOLITHIC.  BERBERS ARE PALEOLITHIC.  THE FIRST OF THE FIRST MODERN PEOPLE INTO WEST EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA.

LATER MIGRATIONS CAME AFTERWARDS THAT MIXED IN WITH THE FIRST PALEOLITHIC BERBERS OF EURASIAN ORIGIN U6 mtDNA.  THERE WAS A NEOLITHIC MIGRATION FROM ANATOLIA WHICH CONFUSES THIS AUTHOR AS WELL AS PEOPLE FROM WEST AND SOUTH EUROPE, MIDDLE EAST, EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.  THIS AUTHOR IS IN TOTAL IGNORANCE CLAIMING THE BERBERS ARE OF AFRO ASIATIC LANGUAGE.  THE AFRO ASIATIC LANGUAGE IS NOT ORIGINAL BERBER.  AFRO ASIATIC LANGUAGE WAS FROM THE EASTERN NON-BERBER NEOLITHIC INVADERS.  AND TO SAY THE BERBERS HAVE NO SENSE OF NATIONHOOD IS A LITTLE DECEIVING.  AS FREEMEN THEY PROBABLY ARE NOT BOUND TO SLAVERY OF CIVILIZATIONS RATHER ARE LOYAL TO THEIR FAMILY, CLAN, AND TRIBE WHERE THEY FREELY LIVE IN THEIR INDIGENOUS LAND OF TAMAZGHA ...

Libya : a country study   Library of Congress

https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/li/libyacountrystud00metz_0/libyacountrystud00metz_0.pdf

    UNTIL LIBYA ACHIEVED independence in 1951, its history was essentially that of tribes, regions, and cities, and of the empires of which it was a part. Derived from the name by which a single Berber tribe was known to the ancient Egyptians, the name Libya was subsequently applied by the Greeks to most of North Africa and the term Libyan to all of its Berber inhabitants. Although ancient in origin, these names were not used to designate the specific territory of modern Libya and its people until the twentieth century, nor indeed was the whole area formed into a coherent political unit until then. Hence, despite the long and distinct histories of its regions, modern Libya must be viewed as a new country still developing national consciousness and institutions.  Geography was the principal determinant in the separate historical development of Libya's three traditional regions—Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan. Cut off from each other by formidable deserts, each retained its separate identity into the 1960s.  At the heart of Tripolitania was its metropolis, Tripoli, for centuries a terminal for caravans plying the Saharan trade routes and a port sheltering pirates and slave traders. Tripolitania' s cultural ties were with the Maghrib...

    In contrast to Tripolitania, Cyrenaica historically was oriented toward Egypt and the Mashriq. With the exception of some of its coastal towns, Cyrenaica was left relatively untouched by the political influence of the regimes that claimed it...

    Fezzan was less involved with either the Maghrib or the Mashriq.  Its nomads traditionally looked for leadership to tribal dynasties that controlled the oases astride the desert trade routes. Throughout its history, Fezzan maintained close relations with sub-Saharan Africa as well as with the coast...

    Early History:

    Archaeological evidence indicates that from at least the eighth millennium B.C. Libya's coastal plain shared in a Neolithic culture, skilled in the domestication of cattle and cultivation of crops, that was common to the whole Mediterranean littoral. To the south, in what is now the Sahara Desert, nomadic hunters and herders roamed a vast, well-watered savanna that abounded in game and provided pastures for their stock. Their culture flourished until the region began to desiccate after 2000 B.C. Scattering before the encroaching desert and invading horsemen, the savanna people migrated into the Sudan (see Glossary) or were absorbed by the Berbers.  The origin of the Berbers is a mystery, the investigation of which

has produced an abundance of educated speculation but no solution.  Archaeological and linguistic evidence strongly suggests southwestern Asia as the point from which the ancestors of the Berbers may have begun their migration into North Africa early in the third

millennium B.C. Over the succeeding centuries they extended their range from Egypt to the Niger Basin. Caucasians of predominantly Mediterranean stock, the Berbers present a broad range of physical types and speak a variety of mutually unintelligible dialects that belong to the Afro-Asiatic language family. They never developed a sense of nationhood and have historically identified themselves in terms of their tribe, clan, and family. Collectively, Berbers refer to themselves simply as imazighan, to which has been attributed the meaning "free men."  Inscriptions found in Egypt dating from the Old Kingdom (ca.2700-2200 B.C.) are the earliest known recorded testimony of the Berber migration and also the earliest written documentation of Libyan history. At least as early as this period, troublesome Berber

tribes, one of which was identified in Egyptian records as the Levu(or "Libyans"), were raiding eastward as far as the Nile Delta and attempting to settle there. During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2200-1700 B.C.) the Egyptian pharaohs succeeded in imposing their overlordship on these eastern Berbers and exacted tribute from them.  Many Berbers served in the army of the pharaohs, and some rose to positions of importance in the Egyptian state. One such Berber officer seized control of Egypt in about 950 B.C. and, as ShishonkI, ruled as pharaoh. His successors of the twenty-second and twentythird dynasties—the so-called Libyan dynasties (ca. 945-730 B.C.) are also believed to have been Berbers.

    Tripolitania and the Phoenicians:

    Enterprising Phoenician traders were active throughout the Mediterranean area before the twelfth century B.C. The depots that they set up at safe harbors on the African coast to service, supply, and shelter their ships were the links in a maritime chain reaching from the Levant to Spain. Many North African cities and towns originated as Phoenician trading posts, where the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) eventually developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials. By the fifth century B.C., Carthage, the greatest of the overseas Phoenician colonies, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (Tripoli), Labdah (later Leptis Magna), and Sabratah, in an area that came to be known collectively as Tripolis, or "Three Cities" (see fig. 2).  Governed by a mercantile oligarchy, Carthage and its dependencies cultivated good relations with the Berber tribes in the hinterland, but the city-state was essentially a maritime power whose expansion along the western Mediterranean coast drew it into a confrontation with Rome in the third century B.C. Defeated in the long Punic Wars (264-241 and 218-201 B.C.), Carthage was reduced by Rome to the status of a small and vulnerable African state at the mercy of the Berbers. Fear of a Carthaginian revival, however, led Rome to renew the war, and Carthage was destroyed in 146 B.C. Tripolitania was assigned to Rome's ally, the Berber king of Numidia. A century later, Julius Caesar deposed the reigning Numidian king, who had sided with Pompey (Roman general and statesman, rival of Julius Caesar) in the Roman civil wars, and annexed his extensive territory to Rome, organizing Tripolitania as a Roman province.

The influence of Punic civilization on North Africa remained deep-seated. The Berbers displayed a remarkable gift for cultural assimilation, readily synthesizing Punic cults with their folk religion.  The Punic language was still spoken in the towns of Tripolitania and by Berber farmers in the coastal countryside in the late Roman period....

Carthage: The Roman Holocaust - Part 1 of 2 (Ancient Rome Documentary)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6kI9sCEDvY

Carthage: The Roman Holocaust - Part 2 of 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DnXV6R0nh0

EGYPT DNA IS A BIT DIFFERENT FROM DNA TO ITS WESTERN NEIGHBORS.  EGYPT HAS MORE EASTERN INFLUENCES AND MORE FROM THE SOUTH ESPECIALLY POST ROMAN ERA.  EGYPT WAS MOSTLY WHITE DURING THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE.  EGYPT BECAME MORE NEGROID POST ROMAN ERA....

DNA discovery reveals genetic history of ancient Egyptians

https://www.cnn.com/2017/06/22/health/ancient-egypt-mummy-dna-genome-heritage/index.html

    Ancient Egyptians and their modern counterparts share less in common than you might think. That is, at least genetically, a team of scientists have found....Publishing its findings in Nature Communications https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms15694, the study concluded that preserved remains found in Abusir-el Meleq, Middle Egypt, were closest genetic relatives of Neolithic and Bronze Age populations from the Near East, Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean Europeans.  Modern Egyptians, by comparison, share much more DNA with sub-Saharan populations....

    "This is not just the DNA of one person. It's the DNA of the parents, grandparents, grandparents' parents, grand-grand-grandparents' parents and so forth.  "So if we don't find sub-Saharan African ancestry in those people, that is pretty representative, at least for Middle Egypt."  Krause hypothesizes that ancient Northern Egypt would be much the same, if not more, linked to the Near East. Ancient Southern Egypt might be a different matter, however, where populations lived closer to Nubia, home of the "Black Pharaohs" in what is now Sudan....

    This period covered the rule of Alexander the Great (332-323 B.C.), the Ptolemaic dynasty (323-30 B.C.) and part of Roman rule (30 B.C.-A.D. 641). Strict social structures and legal incentives to marry along ethnic lines within these communities may have played a part in the Egyptians' genetic stasis, the paper speculates.  "A lot of people has assumed foreign invaders ... brought a lot of genetic ancestry into the region," Krause said. "People expected that through time, Egypt would become more European, but we see the exact opposite."  Modern Egyptians were found to "inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors" than the mummies studied. The paper cites increased mobility along the Nile, increased long-distance commerce and the era of the trans-Saharan slave trade as potential reasons why.  The team's findings do come with one obvious caveat: "All our genetic data (was) obtained from a single site in Middle Egypt and may not be representative for all of ancient Egypt," the paper concedes.

Egyptian mummies have European and Turkish DNA

https://news.sky.com/story/egyptian-mummies-have-european-and-turkish-dna-scientists-10898867

    A detailed study of the DNA of mummies has found ancient Egyptians were more closely related to Europeans and Turks than Africans.  Researchers looked at the remains of several people from a site close to the Nile and found their closest ancient populations were from the eastern Mediterranean, Turkey and elsewhere in Europe.

They found that modern Egyptians share more ancestry with sub-Saharan Africans than their ancient compatriots....The study found that the ancient Egyptians were most closely related to ancient populations in the Levant - modern day Syria, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon.  They were also closely related to stone age populations from Europe and the Turkish mainland on the Asian side....The people whose mummified remains were studied died between 1400BC to 400AD...

DNA history of Egypt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_history_of_Egypt

    between 806 BCE and 124 CE, a timeframe corresponding with the Late Dynastic and Ptolemaic periods. The researchers observed that one of the mummified individuals likely belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup I2, a maternal clade that is believed to have originated in Western Asia....The affinity is strongest (in red) with ancient populations of the Near East and Neolithic farmers of Europe....

    A study published in 2017 described the extraction and analysis of DNA from 151 mummified ancient Egyptian individuals, whose remains were recovered from Abusir el-Meleq in Middle Egypt....The specimens were living in a period stretching from the late New Kingdom to the Roman era (1388 BCE–426 CE)....Modern Egyptians generally shared this maternal haplogroup pattern, but also carried more Sub-Saharan African clades. However, analysis of the mummies' mtDNA haplogroups found that they shared greater mitochondrial affinities with modern populations from the Near East and the Levant compared to modern Egyptians. Additionally, three of the ancient Egyptian individuals were analysed for Y-DNA, two were assigned to the Middle-Eastern haplogroup J and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 common in North Africa....A shared drift and mixture analysis of the DNA of these ancient Egyptian mummies shows that the connection is strongest with ancient populations from the Levant, the Near East and Anatolia, and to a lesser extent modern populations from the Near East and the Levant. In particular the study finds "that ancient Egyptians are most closely related to Neolithic and Bronze Age samples in the Levant, as well as to Neolithic Anatolian and European populations"....Overall the mummies studied were closer genetically to Near Eastern people than the modern Egyptian population, which has a greater proportion of genes coming from sub-Saharan Africa after the Roman period....

    DNA studies on modern Egyptians:

    Genetic analysis of modern Egyptians reveals that they have paternal lineages common to other indigenous Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Maghreb and Horn of Africa, and to Middle Eastern peoples, these lineages would have spread during the Neolithic and were maintained by the predynastic period....A study by Krings et al. (1999) on mitochondrial DNA clines along the Nile Valley found that a Eurasian cline runs from Northern Egypt to Southern Sudan and a Sub-Saharan cline from Southern Sudan to Northern Egypt.  Luis et al. (2004) found that the male haplogroups in a sample of 147 Egyptians were E1b1b (36.1%, predominantly E-M78), J (32.0%), G (8.8%), T(8.2%), and R (7.5%)....Other studies have shown that modern Egyptians have genetic affinities primarily with populations of North Africa, the Middle East and the Horn of Africa, and to a lesser extent European populations....

    Autosomal DNA:

    Genomic analysis has found that Berber and other Maghreb communities are defined by a shared ancestral component. This Maghrebi element peaks among Tunisian Berbers. It is related to the Coptic ancestral component (see Copts), having diverged from these and other West Eurasian-affiliated components prior to the Holocene.  North Moroccans as well as Libyans and Egyptians carry higher proportions of European and Middle Eastern ancestral components, respectively, whereas Tunisian Berbers and Saharawi are those populations with the highest autochthonous North African component....

DNA analysis proves that Egyptians are not Arabs

https://ww.egyptindependent.com/dna-analysis-proves-egyptians-are-not-arabs/

    After over 10 years of analyzing DNA samples from hundreds of people, the National Geographic Genographic Project (NGGP) surprisingly uncovered the fact that Egyptians are not Arabs as most of them believed. ...As the graph below shows, only 17 percent of Egyptians are Arabs, while 68 percent of the indigenous population is from North Africa, four percent are from Jewish ancestry, three percent are of East African origins, another three percent from Asia Minor and three percent are South European....

Ancient Egyptian Symbols

https://www.ancient.eu/article/1011/ancient-egyptian-symbols/

    Religion in ancient Egypt was fully integrated into the people's daily lives. The gods were present at one's birth, throughout one's life, in the transition from earthly life to the eternal, and continued their care for the soul in the afterlife of the Field of Reeds. The spiritual world was ever present in the physical world and this understanding was symbolized through images in art, architecture, in amulets, statuary, and the objects used by nobility and clergy in the performance of their duties....

    Symbols in a largely illiterate society serve the vital purpose of relaying the most important values of the culture to the people generation after generation, and so it was in ancient Egypt. The peasant farmer would not have been able to read the literature, poetry, or hymns which told the stories of his gods, kings, and history but could look at an obelisk or a relief on a temple wall and read them there through the symbols used....

    The Ankh:

    The ankh is a cross with a looped top which, besides the concept of life, also symbolized eternal life, the morning sun, the male and female principles, the heavens and the earth....The symbol was so potent, and so long-lived in Egyptian culture (dating from the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt, c. 3150-c. 2613 BCE), that it is no surprise it was appropriated by the Christian faith in the 4th century CE as a symbol for their god...

    The Djed:

    The djed is a column with a broad base narrowing as it rises to a capital and crossed by four parallel lines. It first appears in the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000-c. 3150 BCE)... the symbol served to remind one of the close presence of the gods as it also referenced the god Osiris and so was linked with resurrection and eternal life....The djed as the tamarisk tree speaks of rebirth and resurrection as, in the myth, the tree holds Osiris until he is freed and brought back to life by Isis....

    The Was Scepter:

    The was scepter is a staff topped with the head of a canine, possibly Anubis, by the time of the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) but earlier a totemic animal like a fox or dog. The was scepter evolved from the earliest scepters, a symbol of royal power, known as the hekat,...of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150-2613 BCE)... Hathor, associated with the cow, holds the scepter forked at the bottom in the shape of cow horns. Isis holds a similar object but with the traditional fork representing duality...sun god Ra was represented with a snake attached to it symbolizing rebirth, as the sun rose again each morning....

    The Crook & Flail:

    associated with Osiris and symbolized his early rule of the land. The symbols appear in the Early Dynastic Period during the reign of the first king, Narmer (c. 3150 BCE) and linked the king with the mythical first king of Egypt Osiris.  Osiris' kingdom was usurped by Set, who murdered him, but he was resurrected by his sister-wife Isis. She bore him a son, Horus, who defeated Set and restored order to the land. The king was associated with Horus (with some exceptions) during life and with Osiris in death. Once Horus avenged his father and defeated Set, he took the crook and flail of his father to represent the legitimacy of his reign, and so it was for the kings of Egypt who identified with these gods....

    The Shen:

    The shen is a circle of rope, knotted, to form an unbroken, circle symbolizing completeness, infinity, and serving as protection....The shen probably developed during the Old Kingdom or First Intermediate Period of Egypt but became popular during the Middle Kingdom...

    The Udjat Eye:

    The udjat is another well-known symbol from Egypt: the Eye of Ra....

    The Sesen:

    The sesen is the lotus flower which appears so often in Egyptian art and symbolizes life, creation, rebirth and, especially, the sun. The symbol dates to the Early Dynastic Period but became most popular from the Old Kingdom onwards....It was the symbol of Upper Egypt as the papyrus plant symbolized Lower Egypt and the flower is sometimes depicted with its stem entwined with that of the papyrus plant.

    The Ben-Ben:

    The ben-ben was the primordial mound upon which the god Atum stood at the beginning of creation....The pyramids of Egypt...from any age, represent the ben-ben as they rise from the earth toward the heavens.  According to one version of the Egyptian creation myth, in the beginning of time, there were only the dark waters of chaos in constant motion until the ben-ben rose as the first dry land. Atum (or in some stories Ptah or Ra) stood on the ben-ben to begin the work of creation. The pyramids and other similar structures symbolized both creation and eternity by invoking the imagery of this myth.  The ben-ben as a symbol dates from the Early Dynastic Period but became more widespread during the Old Kingdom....

    Other Symbols:

    The bennu bird,...phoenix, and symbolized resurrection. The white ostrich feather symbolized the goddess Ma'at... The Tree of Life stood for knowledge, purpose, and destiny. Snakes and serpents represented transformation and change. The cobra was a protective image, associated early with the goddess Wadjet, who drove off the enemies of Ra; with hood extended and rearing to strike, the cobra became the insignia of kings and was worn on the uraeus, the royal headdress...  winged solar disk known as the Horus Behdety or Horus of Behdet, symbolizing kingship, power, the flight of the soul, and divinity. The symbol is among the oldest in the world and variations of it are seen in many different cultures. In Egypt, it seems to have at first represented the syncretization of the god of the midday sun, Behdety (also given as Behedeti) and the sky god Horus. In time, it came to be associated with the supreme power of Horus and his representative on earth, the pharaoh....  The Red Crown (Deshret) symbolized Lower Egypt, the White Crown (Hedjet), Upper Egypt, and the red and white Double Crown (Pshent), a unified Egypt.... The god Osiris had his own crown, the Atef, a tall hedjet crown adorned on each side with ostrich feathers and topped by a gold sun disc....

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics

https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/ancient-egyptian-hieroglyphics.html

    The word hieroglyph means “god's words”. The ancient Egyptians believed hieroglyphs were sacred. For this reason, they carved hieroglyphs on sacred structures, like temples. Hieroglyphs were also used to write sacred books, like the Book of the Dead....  Scholars believe that Egyptian hieroglyphs developed around 3200 BC.... 

People needed specialized training to read and understand hieroglyphs.  Only elite Egyptians, like royals, nobles, priests and scribes, could read hieroglyphs. These people made up about 3% of the population. Scribes went to special schools and some began training at age 12.... 

Atlantis, the Antediluvian World by Ignatius Donnelly [1882]

CHAPTER VII. THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET

https://www.sacred-texts.com/atl/ataw/ataw307.htm

    No solution of the origin of our European alphabet has. yet been obtained: we can trace it back from nation to nation, and form to form, until we reach the Egyptians, and the archaic forms of the Phœnicians, Hebrews, and Cushites, but. beyond this the light fails us.  The Egyptians spoke of their hieroglyphic system of writing not as their own invention, but as "the language of the gods." (Lenormant and Cheval, "Anc. Hist. of the East," vol. ii., p. 208.) "The gods" were, doubtless, their highly civilized ancestors--the people of Atlantis--who, as we shall hereafter see, became the gods of many of the Mediterranean races....

    "According to the Phœnicians, the art of writing was invented by Taautus, or Taut, 'whom the Egyptians call Thouth,' and the Egyptians said it was invented by Thouth, or Thoth, otherwise called 'the first Hermes,' in which we clearly see that both the Phœnicians and Egyptians referred the invention to a period older than their own separate political existence, and to an older nation, from which both peoples received it." (Baldwin's "Prehistoric Nations," p. 91.)  The "first Hermes," here referred to (afterward called Mercury by the Romans), was a son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter of Atlas...

Atlantis, the Antediluvian World by Ignatius Donnelly [1882]

https://www.sacred-texts.com/atl/ataw/index.htm

The Mzora Stone Circle: A Megalithic Mystery in Morocco

https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-africa/mzora-stone-circle-0011778

    No matter what they were used for or who they were built by these stone circles all have one thing in common – they are a distinctly European phenomenon. It may therefore be surprising to learn that there is a megalithic stone circle in what is today northern Morocco. And it is just as mysterious and impressive as its European counterparts.

The site of the Mzora stone circle is 11 kilometers (7 miles) from the nearest town of Asilah and 27 kilometers (16.8 miles) from the overgrown ruins of the ancient Canaanite city Lixus....   The appraisal revealed that the structure was not built independently of the European megaliths, but remarkably that it was either built by the same culture or is evidence of significant interaction between the two regions....  Megalithic stone circles were constructed during the Neolithic period, when the adoption of agricultural practices made the monitoring of seasons crucial... Just as Stonehenge is famously attuned to the summer solstice , a number of the stones in the Mzora stone circle align with significant astronomical phenomena such as the summer and winter solstices and equinoctial sunrise and sunsets....

When Salt Was Traded for Gold: The Salt Trade of West Africa that Built Kingdoms and Spread Culture

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-ancient-traditions/salt-trade-0011802

In West Africa during the Medieval period, salt was traded for gold. ...Around the 5th century AD, the use of camels allowed Berber-speaking peoples to cross the Sahara Desert. By the 8th century AD, trade was flowing between the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of West Africa, as caravans traveled between the two on an annual basis. In sub-Saharan West Africa, gold was abundant, and this was exchanged for salt brought by caravans arriving from the north. ...This brought much wealth and led to the establishment of great empires including the Ghana , Mali, and Songhai Empires. Moreover, important cities were established along the routes.  One such city was Timbuktu, which not only served as an important trade post, but also gained fame as a center of Islamic culture . Incidentally, it was also thanks to the trade routes that Islam made its way into sub-Saharan West Africa. ....

Mysterious “Black Goo” Of Egyptian Burials Demystified

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/egyptian-burials-0013736

 it was applied at different points in the burial process, from the ritual preparation of the dead body to when it was poured onto the mummy cases and coffins. And the researchers suggest the color of the goo, black, represented the dead taking on a form of Osiris, the god death and rebirth known as “the black one.” What’s more, according to the museum scientists black is also the color associated with the alluvial silt deposited on the banks of the River Nile after the annual flood receded which was believed to be “inherently magical and regenerative.”

The scientists’ study also demonstrated that black goo was reserved for the burial of social elites which is apparent in that most of the earliest goo samples were found in royal burials, for example, Tutankhamun’s innermost gold coffin was cemented into the middle coffin with “bucketfulls of black goo”. Examples of the use of black goo are more common in the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069 BC–c. 664 BC), which the researchers think either relates to changes in funerary practices, or perhaps because more recovered coffins from this time are in good states of preservation.

U6 VERY STRONG PROBABILITY WERE FROM ATLANTIS, OR BECAME APART OF THE ATLANTIS CONTINENT. U mt-HG BRANCHED OFF OF EURASIAN N mt HG.  THESE U HG FEMALES MIGRATE MOST PROBABLY WITH THE MALE Y DNA R HG.  U DEVELOPS INTO U5 IN EUROPE, AND U6 TRAVEL INTO THE MAGREB.  PART OF THE U6 MIGRATE WEST AND SOME EAST BUT MOST REMAIN IN THE MAGREB.  AS THE ICE AGE RETREATS SOME U5 AND U6 MIGRATE INTO NORTHWEST EUROPE FROM THEIR IBERIAN AND/OR MAGREBIAN HOMELANDS...

The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents

http://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109

    U6d (16311), represented by its subgroups U6d1 (16261) and U6d3 (16174), both of western Mediterranean adscription.

    Table 1 U6d  Most probable geographic origins and their frequencies in the regions analyzed

Adscription region: Maghreb.

(Footnotes:  U6d=U6b'd with 16174 or 1626)

Azores Archipelago = 33.3

Madeira Islands = 20.0

Mainland Portugal = 13.3

Central Mediterranean = 13.3

Hispanic US Americans = 12.5

Spain =  10.9

West Africa = 3.9

Iberoamerica = 2.9

Morocco = 2.2

Canary Islands= 1.2

FIGURE 1:   https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109/figures/1

     U6d is the bottom most right graphic.  It shows a single concentration located on the north part of Iberia.  Second most being a more wider spread in Moracco but, nothing compared to North Iberia.  Then just a light spread throughout the lands.

    As secondary branch of the Eurasian macro-haplogroup N, phylogenetically, U6 is a non-African lineage and represents a back-migration to Africa. According to haplogroup U geographic radiation, it was suggested that the most probable origin of the U6 ancestor was in western Asia with a subsequent movement into Africa. ...

Ages ranged from 33.5 ky  to 45.1 ky , but with broad credibility boundaries that largely overlap. Our own estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for U6, using the current enlarged set of complete sequences, is 35.3 (24.6 - 46.4) ky. This period coincides with the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, but cold and dry enough to force a North African coastal route.

    With less accuracy, information from HVI sequences also provides a phylogeographic perspective of U6 in Europe (Table 1). The largest U6 Maghreb component in Europe is found in Portugal (69.9%), then in Spain (50.0%) and Italy (53.0%), and decreases sharply in the Eastern Mediterranean (25.0%). ...All four identified U6 HVI components have representatives in Atlantic Europe.

The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents

https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-14-109#Fig1

    As secondary branch of the Eurasian macro-haplogroup N, phylogenetically, U6 is a non-African lineage...  According to haplogroup U geographic radiation, it was suggested that the most probable origin of the U6 ancestor was in western Asia with a subsequent movement into Africa. ...   Our own estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for U6, using the current enlarged set of complete sequences, is 35.3 (24.6 - 46.4) ky. This period coincides with the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period, prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, but cold and dry enough to force a North African coastal route....  the place of origin of macrohaplogroup U within Eurasia....    U6 is predominant in the Maghreb and scarce in Egypt, while M1 shows the opposite trend...

    Several possible Y-chromosome counterparts of this backflow have been also described. Thus, in a phylogeographic analysis of Y-chromosome binary haplotypes, it was proposed that the Eurasian haplogroup R characterized by M173/M207 SNPs expanded from its origin, reaching Europe, the Middle East and India. Later it was found that a branch of this haplogroup also penetrated into Africa, strongly resembling the mtDNA U2, U5 and U6 trifurcation....

    The U branch of macro-haplogroup N spread radially from somewhere in western Asia around 39–52 kya. This reached Europe, signaled by haplogroup U5, North Africa by haplogroup U6, and India by haplogroup U2. Coalescence age for U5 correlates closely with the spread of Aurignac culture in Europe and, from an archaeological perspective, it has been argued that Central Asia, not the Levant, was the most probable origin of this migration. In absolute agreement with this vision, we propose that, in parallel, U6 reached the Levant with the intrusive Levantine Aurignacian around 35 kya, coinciding with the coalescence age for this haplogroup.

    U6 spreads into Africa:  This first African expansion of U6a in the Maghreb was suggested in a previous analysis. This radiation inside Africa occurred in Morocco around 26 kya (Table 2) and, ruling out the earlier Aterian, we suggested the Iberomaurusian as the most probable archaeological and anthropological correlate of this spread in the Maghreb....the Maghreb as the place with the oldest implantation of the Iberomaurusian culture, which is coincidental with the U6 radiation from this region proposed in this and previous studies....

U6 Hg:  The Phoenician Hypothesis: An mtDNA Note re the phylogeographic occurances of mtDNA Haplotype U6b as related to the Results found in Mitochondrial DNA testing by Family Tree DNA

http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~donegalstrongs/u6b.htm#Colonies

Atlantis, the Antediluvian World by Ignatius Donnelly [1882]  HILITES

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/ATLANTIS%20HILITES.rtf

    And the citizens have a deity who is their foundress: she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith...She founded your city a thousand years before ours, receiving from the Earth and Hephæstus the seed of your race, and then she founded ours, the constitution of which is set down in our sacred registers as 8000 years old. As touching the citizens of 9000 years ago,... and this the goddess taught first among you, and then in Asiatic countries, and we among the Asiatics first adopted....    these histories tell of a mighty power which was aggressing wantonly against the whole of Europe and Asia, and to which your city put an end. This power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean...

    "Let me begin by observing, first of all, that nine thousand was the sum of years which had elapsed since the war which was said to have taken place between all those who dwelt outside the Pillars of Heracles and those who dwelt within them...Poseidon, receiving for his lot the island of Atlantis..., begat children by a mortal woman...mountain there dwelt one of the earth-born primeval men of that country, whose name was Evenor, and he had a wife named Leucippe, and they had an only daughter, who was named Cleito. The maiden was growing up to womanhood when her father and mother died; Poseidon fell in love with her, and had intercourse with her...He also begat and brought up five pairs of male children, dividing the island of Atlantis into ten portions...the eldest, who was king, he named Atlas, and from him the whole island and the ocean received the name of Atlantic....

    Theopompus tells us that the people who inhabited Atlantis were the Meropes, the people of Merou...Atlas Mountains... most north-western corner of Africa...Herodotus there dwelt near this mountain-chain a people called the Atlantes, probably a remnant of a colony from Solon's island? How comes it that the people of the Barbary States were known to the Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians as the "Atlantes," ...

    "According to the Phœnicians, the art of writing was invented by Taautus, or Taut, 'whom the Egyptians call Thouth,' and the Egyptians said it was invented by Thouth, or Thoth, otherwise called 'the first Hermes,' in which we clearly see that both the Phœnicians and Egyptians referred the invention to a period older than their own separate political existence, and to an older nation, from which both peoples received it.  The "first Hermes," here referred to (afterward called Mercury by the Romans), was a son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter of Atlas...."Many of the oldest myths, relate to Spain, North-western Africa, and other regions on the Atlantic,...being far beyond or below sunset, were the "under-world" of the ancients; while Atlantis, the Canaries, etc., constituted the island division with Western Africa and Spain. The under-world of the dead was simply the world below the western horizon; "the home of the dead has to do with that far west region where the sun dies at night."...

     Poseidon, the first king of Atlantis, according to Plato, was, according to Greek mythology, a brother of Zeus, and a son of Chronos. In the division of the kingdom he fell heir to the ocean and its islands, and to the navigable rivers; in other words, he was king of a maritime and commercial people....

; "the ram with the golden fleece for which the Argonauts sailed was the offspring of Poseidon." He carried in his hand a three-pronged symbol, the trident, doubtless an emblem of the three continents that were embraced in the empire of Atlantis. He founded many colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean; "he helped to build the walls of Troy;" the tradition thus tracing the Trojan civilization to an Atlantean source. He settled Attica and founded Athens...

    ...."Chronos visits the different regions of the habitable world."  He gave Egypt as a kingdom to the god Taaut,...This not only connects the Phœnicians with Atlantis, but shows the relations of Egyptian civilization to both Atlantis and the Phœnicians....  Sanchoniathon tells us, after narrating all the discoveries by which the people advanced to civilization, that the Cabiri set down their records of the past by the command of the god Taaut, "and they delivered them to their successors and to foreigners, of whom one was Isiris (Osiris), the inventor of the three letters, the brother of Chua, who is called the first Phœnician."  This would show that the first Phœnician came long after this line of the kings or gods, and that he was a foreigner, as compared with them; and, therefore, that it could not have been the Phœnicians proper who made the several inventions narrated by Sanchoniathon, but some other race, from whom the Phœnicians might have been descended.... 

    The extent of country covered by the commerce of the Phœnicians represents to some degree the area of the old Atlantean Empire. Their colonies and trading-posts extended east and west from the shores of the Black Sea, through the Mediterranean to the west coast of Africa and of Spain, and around to Ireland and England; while from north to south they ranged from the Baltic to the Persian Gulf. They touched every point where civilization in later ages made its appearance...simply re-opened the path of commerce and colonization which had been closed when Plato's island sunk in the sea....Sanchoniathon claims that the learning of Egypt, Greece, and Judæa was derived from the Phœnicians. It would appear probable that, while other races represent the conquests or colonizations of Atlantis, the Phœnicians succeeded to their arts, sciences, and especially their commercial supremacy; and hence the close resemblances which we have found to exist between the Hebrews, a branch of the Phœnician stock, and the people of America....

    PART 5  CHAPTER II. 

    THE EGYPTIAN COLONY.

    WHAT proofs have we that the Egyptians were a colony from Atlantis?

They claimed descent from "the twelve great gods,"...  Egypt derived its civilization from the same country to which the Phœnicians owed their own origin. The Phœnician legends show that Misor, from whom, the Egyptians were descended, was the child of the Phœnician gods Amynus and Magus. Misor gave birth to Taaut, the god of letters, the inventor of the alphabet, and Taaut became Thoth, the god of history of the Egyptians. Sanchoniathon tells us that "Chronos (king of Atlantis) visited the South, and gave all Egypt to the god Taaut, that it might be his kingdom." "Misor" is probably the king "Mestor" named by Plato....  The great similarity between the Egyptian civilization and that of the American nations....  The Egyptians were the only people of antiquity who were well-informed as to the history of Atlantis. The Egyptians were never a maritime people, and the Atlanteans must have brought that knowledge to them....

    the "under-world." This land of the dead was situated in the West...This under-world was beyond the water,...

    PART 5    CHAPTER VI.

    THE AFRICAN COLONIES.

    Atlas--anciently Atlantis, now the Barbary States. ...The real name of the Berbers is Mazirgh, with the article prefixed or suffixed--T-amazirgh or Amazirgh-T--meaning free, dominant, or 'noble race.' . . . We have every reason to believe the Berbers existed in the remotest times, with all their essential moral and physical peculiarities. . . . They existed in the time of Menes in the same condition in which they were discovered by Phœnician navigators previously to the foundation of Carthage. ..."Their figure and stature are nearly the same as those of the southern Europeans, and their complexion, if darker, is only so in proportion to the higher temperature of the country. It displays great varieties."...  "The Tuarycks are a white people, of the Berber race; the Mozabiaks are a remarkably white people, and mixed with the Bedouin Arabs. ...Their features and skulls were cast in the European mould. They have a tradition that their ancestors were whites, and certain tribes call themselves white men. They came from Timbuctoo, which lies to the north of their present location....    The Tuaregs of the present day may be regarded as the best representatives of the Tamahus. They are of lofty stature, have blue eyes, and cling to the custom of bearing long swords, to be wielded by both hands. In Soudan, on the banks of the Niger, dwells a negro tribe ruled by a royal family (Masas), who are of rather fair complexion, and claim descent from white men. Masas is perhaps the same as Mashash, which occurs in the Egyptian documents applied to the Tamahus....

    The Atlanteans were, as Plato tells us, a maritime, commercial people, trading up the Mediterranean as far as Egypt and Syria, and across the Atlantic to "the whole opposite continent that surrounds the sea;" the Phœnicians, as their successors and descendants, and colonized on the shores of the Mediterranean, inherited their civilization and their maritime habits, and with these that invention without which their great voyages were impossible....

What’s Hidden Under the Sand of Sahara?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bB4B3vwku74

Canary Islands cruises around the world (Documentary, Discovery, History)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cNNek2E7qE

Pelasgians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelasgians

    refer either to the ancestors or forerunners of the Greeks, or to all inhabitants of Greece before the emergence or arrival of Greeks aware of their Greekness. In general, "Pelasgian" has come to mean more broadly all the indigenous inhabitants of the Aegean Sea region and their cultures, "a hold-all term for any ancient, primitive and presumably indigenous people in the Greek world"....  An ancient etymology based on mere similarity of sounds linked pelasgos to pelargos ("stork") and postulates that the Pelasgians were migrants like storks, possibly from Egypt, where they nest.... the ancient Greek word for "sea", pelagos and the Doric word plagos, "side" (which is flat) shared the same root, *plāk-, and that *pelag-skoi therefore meant "the sea men", where the sea is flat. This could be connected to the maritime marauders referred to as the Sea People in Egyptian records.... 

    The Pelasgians first appear in the poems of Homer: those who are stated to be Pelasgians in the Iliad are among the allies of Troy. In the section known as the Catalogue of Trojans, they are mentioned between mentions of the Hellespontine cities and the Thracians of south-eastern Europe (i.e., on the Hellespontine border of Thrace)....  In the Odyssey, Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians among the tribes in the ninety cities of Crete, "language mixing with language side by side". Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper", Achaeans, Cydonians (of the city of Cydonia/modern Chania), Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians".  The Iliad also refers to "Pelasgic Argos", which is most likely to be the plain of Thessaly, and to "Pelasgic Zeus", living in and ruling over Dodona... According to the Iliad, Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the following tribes, Towards the sea lie the Carians and the Paeonians, with curved bows, and the Leleges and Caucones, and the goodly Pelasgi....

    Poets after Homer

    One of the first was Hesiod; he calls Dodona, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians", thus explaining why Homer, in referring to Zeus as he ruled over Dodona, did not style him "Dodonic" but Pelasgic Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus (Greek: Πελασγός, the eponymous ancestor of the Pelasgians) was the father of King Lycaon of Arcadia.  Asius of Samos (Ancient Greek: Ἄσιος ὁ Σάμιος) describes Pelasgus as the first man, born of the earth.  In Aeschylus's play, The Suppliants, the Danaids fleeing from Egypt seek asylum from King Pelasgus of Argos...He claims to rule the Pelasgians and to be the "child of Palaichthon (or 'ancient earth') whom the earth brought forth".  The Danaids call the country the "Apian hills" and claim that it understands the karbana audan (accusative case, and in the Dorian dialect), which many translate as "barbarian speech" but Karba (where the Karbanoi live) is in fact a non-Greek word. They claim to descend from ancestors in ancient Argos even though they are of a "dark race" (melanthes ... genos). Pelasgus admits that the land was once called Apia but compares them to the women of Libya and Egypt and wants to know how they can be from Argos on which they cite descent from Io.  In a lost play by Aeschylus, Danaan Women, he defines the original homeland of the Pelasgians as the region around Mycenae.

    Sophocles presents Inachus as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, ..."Tyrsenians-Pelasgians".... 

    Euripides calls the inhabitants of Argos "Pelasgians" in his Orestes and The Phoenician Women. In a lost play entitled Archelaus, he says that Danaus, on coming to reside in the city of Inachus (Argos), formulated a law whereby the Pelasgians were now to be called Danaans.

    The Roman poet Ovid describes the Greeks of the Trojan War as Pelasgians in his Metamorphoses....

    Hecataeus of Miletus in a fragment from Genealogiai states that the genos ("clan") descending from Deucalion ruled Thessaly and that it was called "Pelasgia" from king Pelasgus. A second fragment states that Pelasgus was the son of Zeus and Niobe and that his son Lycaon founded a dynasty of kings of Arcadia....

    Acusilaus asserts that the Peloponnesians were called "Pelasgians" after Pelasgus, a son of Zeus and Niobe.

     According to Hellanicus, from Pelasgus and his wife Menippe came a line of kings:... During Nanas's reign, the Pelasgians were driven out by the Greeks and departed for Italy. They landed at the mouth of the Po River, near the Etruscan city of Spina, then took the inland city "Crotona" (Κρότωνα), and from there colonized Tyrrhenia. The inference is that Hellanicus believed the Pelasgians of Thessaly (and indirectly of the Peloponnese) to have been the ancestors of the Etruscans.

    In the Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus...classified the Pelasgian language as "barbarian" and discussed various areas inhabited (or previously inhabited) by Pelasgians/Pelasgian-speakers along with their different neighbors/co-residents:... Pelasgians who still exist in settlements above Tyrrhenia in the city of Kreston, formerly neighbors to the Dorians who at that time lived in the land now called Thessaliotis; also the Pelasgians who once lived with the Athenians and then settled Plakia and Skylake in the Hellespont; and along with those who lived with all the other communities and were once Pelasgian but changed their names. If one can judge by this evidence, the Pelasgians spoke a barbarian language. And so, if the Pelasgian language was spoken in all these places, the people of Attica being originally Pelasgian, must have learned a new language when they became Hellenes....  Furthermore, Herodotus discussed the relationship between the Pelasgians and the Hellenes, which, according to Pericles Georges, reflected the "rivalry within Greece itself between [...] Dorian Sparta and Ionian Athens." Specifically, Herodotus stated that the Hellenes separated from the Pelasgians with the former group surpassing the latter group numerically:  As for the Hellenes, it seems obvious to me that ever since they came into existence they have always used the same language. They were weak at first, when they were separated from the Pelasgians, but they grew from a small group into a multitude,...

    In Book 2, Herodotus alluded to the Pelasgians as inhabitants of Samothrace, an island located just north of Troy, before coming to Attica. Moreover, Herodotus wrote that the Pelasgians simply called their gods theoi [Thor, or Thauth?] prior to naming them on the grounds that the gods established all affairs in their order (thentes); the author also stated that the gods of the Pelasgians were the Cabeiri. Later, Herodotus stated that the entire territory of Greece (i.e., Hellas) was initially called "Pelasgia".  In Book 5, Herodotus mentioned the Pelasgians as inhabitants of the islands of Lemnos and Imbros.

In Book 6, the Pelasgians of Lemnos were originally Hellespontine Pelasgians who had been living in Athens but whom the Athenians resettled on Lemnos and then found it necessary to reconquer the island. This expulsion of (non-Athenian) Pelasgians from Athens...

    In Book 7, Herodotus mentioned "the Pelasgian city of Antandrus" and wrote about the Ionian inhabitants of "the land now called Achaea" (i.e., northwestern Peloponnese) being "called, according to the Greek account, Aegialean Pelasgi, or Pelasgi of the Sea Shore"; afterwards, they were called Ionians. Moreover, Herodotus mentioned that the Aegean islanders "were a Pelasgian race, who in later times took the name Ionians" and that the Aeolians, according to the Hellenes, were known anciently as "Pelasgians."  In Book 8, Herodotus mentioned that the Pelasgians of Athens were previously called Cranai.

    In the History of the Peloponnesian War, the Greek historian Thucydides wrote about the Pelasgians stating that:    Before the time of Hellen, son of Deucalion [...] the country went by the names of the different tribes, in particular of the Pelasgian. It was not till Hellen and his sons grew strong in Phthiotis, and were invited as allies into the other cities, that one by one they gradually acquired from the connection the name of Hellenes; though a long time elapsed before that name could fasten itself upon all.  The author regards the Athenians as having lived in scattered independent settlements in Attica; but at some time after Theseus, they changed residence to Athens, which was already populated....

    In the Roman Antiquities, Dionysius of Halicarnassus...He goes on to add that the nation wandered a great deal. They were originally natives of "Achaean Argos" descended from Pelasgus, the son of Zeus and Niobe. They migrated from there to Haemonia (later called Thessaly), where they "drove out the barbarian inhabitants" and divided the country into Phthiotis, Achaia, and Pelasgiotis, named after Achaeus, Phthius and Pelasgus, "the sons of Larissa and Poseidon."...

    In his Description of Greece, Pausanias mentions the Arcadians who state that Pelasgus (along with his followers) was the first inhabitant of their land...When Arcas became king, Pelasgia was renamed "Arcadia" and its inhabitants (the Pelasgians) were renamed "Arcadians". Pausanias also mentions the Pelasgians as responsible for creating a wooden image of Orpheus in a sanctuary of Demeter at Therae...

    Strabo dedicates a section of his Geography...As for the Pelasgi, almost all agree, in the first place, that some ancient tribe of that name spread throughout the whole of Greece, and particularly among the Aeolians of Thessaly....

    Pelasgians spoke Greek based on the fact that areas traditionally inhabited by the "Pelasgi" (i.e. Arcadia and Attica) only spoke Greek and the few surviving Pelasgian words and inscriptions (i.e., Lamina Borgiana, Herodotus 2.52.1) betray Greek linguistic features despite the classical identification of Pelasgian as a barbaric language....

    In western Anatolia, many toponyms with the "-ss-" infix derive from the adjectival suffix also seen in cuneiform Luwian and some Palaic; the classic example is Bronze Age Tarhuntassa (loosely meaning "City of the Storm God Tarhunta"), and later Parnassus possibly related to the Hittite word parna- or "house". These elements have led to a second theory that Pelasgian was to some degree an Anatolian language, or that it had areal influences from Anatolian languages....  Pelasgians spoke an Indo-European language and were, more specifically, related to the Thracians...  Pelasgians were a sub-group of the Bronze Age Sea Peoples and identifiable in Egyptian inscriptions as the exonym PRŚT or PLŚT. However, this Egyptian name has more often been read as a cognate of a Hebrew exonym, פלשת Peleshet (Pəlešeth) – that is, the Biblical Philistines....

    Pelasgians had migrated from Asia Minor to the Aegean basin in the 4th millennium BC....  Certain mythological stories or deities that seem to have no parallels in the mythologies of other Indo-European peoples (e. g., the Olympians Athena, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite, whose origins seem Anatolian or Levantine).  Non-Greek inscriptions in the Mediterranean...   Robert Graves asserts that certain elements of that mythology originate with the native Pelasgian people (namely the parts related to his concept of the White Goddess, an archetypical Earth Goddess) drawing additional support for his conclusion from his interpretations of other ancient literature: Irish, Welsh, Greek, Biblical, Gnostic, and medieval writings....

    Pelasgians with the Ibero-Caucasian peoples of the prehistoric Caucasus, known to the Greeks as Colchians and Iberians....

    Attica revealed Neolithic dwellings...Athenians as the descendants of the Pelasgians, who appear to descend continuously from the Neolithic inhabitants in Thessaly. Overall, the archaeological evidence indicates that the site of the Acropolis was inhabited by farmers as early as the 6th millennium BC....

    Lemnos....Hephaisteia (i.e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades of Athens. There, a necropolis (c. 9th-8th centuries BC) was discovered revealing bronze objects, pots, and more than 130 ossuaries.... Early Iron Age inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek ra-mi-ni-ja, "Lemnian woman", written in Linear B syllabic script.

    Boeotia...These fortified mountain settlements were...inhabited by Pelasgians up until the end of the Bronze Age....Pelasgian inhabitants sought to distinguish themselves "ethnically" and economically from the Mycenaean Greeks who controlled the Skourta Plain....

LYBIA AND POSEIDON HAD 3 SONS:  BELUS, AGENOR, AND LELEX.  LYBIA WAS SYBIL, DAUGHTER OF AN IMMORTAL NYMPH BUT HER FATHER WAS A MORTAL.  (LYBIA IS SAME AS BERBA PEOPLE THE NATIVE EARTH BORN OF NORTH AFRICA PREVIOUSLY CALLED LYBIA.)  POSEIDON WAS RULER OF ATLANTIS.  THEIR CHILDREN WERE:  BELUS, KING OF EGYPT OF WHICH DANAUS IS FROM.  AGENOR, KING OF CANAAN OF WHICH THE PHOENICIANS DESCEND.  LELEX WAS THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF LACONIA.  FROM THERE THEY CONTINUE AN EAST MIGRATION TO EGYPT, CANAAN, ANATOLIA, GREECE, ITALY, ETC.,...  THUS BELUS, AGENOR,AND LELEX ARE PATERNALLY HALF GOD FROM ATLANTIS ATLANTEANS (R1b ?), AND HALF IMMORTAL NYMPH/HALF MORTAL MATERNALLY BERBA (U6 ?)...

Danaus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaus

    In Greek mythology, Danaus (; Ancient Greek: Δαναός Danaós) was the king of Libya. His myth is a foundation legend (or re-foundation legend) of Argos, one of the foremost Mycenaean cities of the Peloponnesus. In Homer's Iliad, "Danaans" ("tribe of Danaus") and "Argives" commonly designate the Greek forces opposed to the Trojans.

    Family:  Danaus, was the son of King Belus of Egypt and the naiad Achiroe, daughter of the river god Nilus. He was the twin brother of Aegyptus, king of Arabia while Euripides adds two others, Cepheus, king of Ethiopia and Phineus, betrothed of Andromeda.

    Danaus had fifty daughters, the Danaides, 12 of whom were born to the naiad Polyxo; six to Pieria; two to Elephantis; four to queen Europe; 10 to the hamadryad nymphs Atlanteia and Phoebe; seven to an Ethiopian woman; three to Memphis; two to Herse and lastly four to Crino. According to Hippostratus, Danaus had all these progeny begotten by Europa, the daughter of Nilus. In some accounts, Danaus married Melia while Aegyptus consorted with Isaie, these two women were daughters of their uncle Agenor, king of Tyre, and their possible sister, Damno who was described as the daughter of Belus.

    Mythology:  Flight from Aegyptus:  After Aegyptus commanded that his fifty sons should marry the Danaides, Danaus elected to flee instead, and to that purpose, he built a ship, the first ship that ever was. In it, he fled to Argos, to which he was connected by his descent from Io, a priestess of Hera at Argos, who was wooed by Zeus and turned into a heifer and pursued by Hera until she found asylum in Egypt. Argos at the time was ruled by King Pelasgus, the eponym of all autochthonous [indigenous] inhabitants who had lived in Greece since the beginning, also called Gelanor ("he who laughs"). The Danaides asked Pelasgus for protection when they arrived, the event portrayed in The Suppliants by Aeschylus. Protection was granted after a vote by the Argives....

New Tech Reveals Origin Of Egyptian Mummies’ Skin Color

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/egyptian-mummies-0014687

    many Egyptian mummies’ deep black skin color not only comes from tar but we now know where that tar came from.... mummification was practiced in ancient Egypt for more than 3000 years...   organic balms was a later introduction into burial customs, necessitated by more humid burial environments, especially in underground tombs....

Using mass spectrometry, the French team analyzed 39 mummies dating from 3200 BC to 395 AD and their study showed how petroleum bitumen (or natural asphalt) caused the dark Egyptian skin color of many mummies. In their study they state that “bitumen was used in 50% of New Kingdom to Late Period mummies, rising to 87% of Ptolemaic Roman Period mummies.” And they concluded that the application of black/dark brown balms to bodies “was deliberate after the New Kingdom reflecting changing funerary beliefs and shifts in religious ideology .”...  embalming materials used by ancient Egyptians was a complex mixture of natural compounds such as “sugar gum, beeswax, fats, coniferous resins, and variable amounts of bitumen.” Better known as asphalt, or more generally as tar, bitumen is a highly viscous form of black petroleum that is made from fossilized plants and algae....

Mysterious Cocaine Mummies: Do They Prove Ancient Voyages Between Egypt and Americas?

https://www.ancient-origins.net/unexplained-phenomena/egyptian-mummies-0011354

    Evidence which shows that ancient Egyptians had already crossed the Atlantic 3,000 years ago, long before Columbus in 1492, comes not only from the mimicking of cultural traditions as seen in Peru and the Canary Islands where evidence of trepanning and mummification has been found, but from the actual Egyptian mummies themselves....

samples of intestinal tissue from deep inside Ramses, rather than the external layers of skin and cloth, and much to her amazement she discovered traces of cannabis, coca and tobacco laid down in his body cells ‘like rings on a tree’....  a priestess who lived sometime during the reign of the 21st Dynasty of ancient Egypt around 1000 BC. Each individual revealed the presence of nicotine and cocaine...

    Pitcairn Island , an isolated volcanic formation which lies 1,350 miles (2172.6 km) south-east of Tahiti in the Pacific Ocean,...In 1820, a rock inscription written in the Libyan dialect of ancient Egyptian was reportedly discovered on Pitcairn Island that read:  Our crew, wrecked in a storm, made land thank God.  "We are people from the Manu region. We worship Ra in accordance with the scripture. We behold the sun and give voice."

Manu is a highland area of Libya....

Craniums and Controversies of the Chachapoya Cloud Warriors

https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/chachapoya-0014682

    Over a thousand years ago, in the mists of the cloud forests of northern  Peru, near the source of the mighty Amazon River, the Cloud Warriors reigned supreme. Long before the emergence of the  Inca State , these mysterious, shamanic warlords ruled a vast swath of the Andes before being defeated by the Inca, abandoning their great citadel, and vanishing into history. In recent decades, additional archaeological evidence has come to light from two primary sources, the fortress city known as Kuelap, and the cliff face necropolis at the Lagoon of the Condors.... 

    Giffhorn found strong evidence linking the sudden, aboriginal emergence of Chachapoya Culture to Old World Cultures that matched the previously mentioned criteria. Specifically, he reasoned that these practices mirrored Galacian, Celtiberian, and Balearic traditions. Even the casual observer can make the obvious connection between the Celtic Castros Ruins of the Spanish Islands to these ruins in Northern Peru; furthermore, the principal weapon of both cultures was the  sling and stone sphere projectile.

    According to mainstream archaeologists, the sling first emerged in South America at this time and in this region, and the pattern runs much deeper, circular stone dwellings, towers, trepanation,  elongated skulls , these aspects can be traced across islands of the Mediterranean and far into prehistory. But possibly the most intriguing link is the unique practice of wearing these slings tied around the head, which is practiced even today by the Majorcans (modern descendants of Celtiberians), and was found to be practiced by the  Cloud Warriors  who were mummified with their slings tied around their heads.... 

    Who were these Mediterranean island dwellers with such similar culture? Ancient Greek historians like Strabo and Diodorus Siculus in his  Bibliotheca Historica  (volume eighteen, book six, chapter five), have some interesting reports about the Balearic Island inhabitants.... They also tell of how they used to live in artificial caves and hollow rocks...

    If the conventional narrative were accurate, the genes of ancient South Americans should be relatively monolithic and so should their blood types (meaning haplogroups A-D, mostly B, and blood type O). However, Forester has discovered the strong presence of haplogroups H, U, and R along with several other discoveries that challenge the narrative and strongly suggest a migration from another part of the world....  pale skinned, red haired people were, the  Incareplied that they were the last descendants of  Viracocha (a fair skinned, bearded Incan deity/demi-god).... A similar instance allegedly occurred between the Aztecs, Hernan Cortes, and their belief that hey was Quetzalcoatl (another or possibly the same fair skinned, bearded Mesoamerican deity) returning from across the sea.... 

Ancient Race of White Giants Described in Native Legends From Many Tribes

https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/ancient-race-white-giants-described-native-legends-many-tribes-005774

Several Native American tribes have passed down legends of a race of white giants who were wiped out. We’ll take a look at a few such legends, including those among the Choctaw and the Comanches of the United States down to the Manta of Peru. ...

GENETICS FROM 175 CURRENT DAY (2013CE) MALES FROM TRIPOLI ARE 34% E-M81, 27% J-M304, 8% E-M78, AND OF THE OTHER 18 Y HG'S PRESENT ARE MUCH LOWER FREQUENCY. THE J HG IS FROM MID EAST ARABIC NEOLITHIC, AND E-M81 IS FROM NW AFRICA BERBER SPEAKING PEOPLE. E-M81 IS A RECENT MALE GROUP FROM 2 TO 3 KYA. THEY MAY BE THE MIX OF PUNIC SEMITES, BERBERS, AND PHOENICIAN FROM ABOUT 1000BC REPRESENTING A NEAR EAST EXPANSION. E-M78 IS FROM EAST AFRICA ARRIVING IN NORTH AFRICA MIXING IN WITH THE ACTUAL BERBERS DURING THE IBERO MAURISIAN ABOUT 14 KYA. THE BERBERS ARE THE FIRST PEOPLE IN NORTH AFRICA FROM ABOUT 45KYA WHO SETTLE INTO THE ATERIAN. mtDNA DEFINES U6 AS THE ACTUAL FIRST BERBER BUT, NO STUDIES YET HAVE DEFINED HER MALE COMPANION 45 KYA IN ATERIAN NORTH AFRICA. IT COULD NOT HAVE BEEN EITHER E NOR J SINCE THEY DID NOT ARRIVE IN NORTH AFRICA UNTIL MUCH MORE RECENTLY 14KYA AND 5,500YA, RESPECTIVELY. 7% R1-M173 IS FOUND IN LYBIA WHICH IS A PALEOLITHIC AURIGANCIAN HAPLOGROUP THAT ACCOMPANIED OTHER U mt HG'S. mtDNA DISCONTINUITY DIVIDE AT EGYPT/LYBIA BORDER SUGGEST FEMALES DID NOT ALWAYS ACCOMPANY THE INVADING FOREIGN MALES INTO NORTH AFRICA. THIS CAN EXPLAIN A REPLACEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL FIRST BERBER MALES BY THE INVADING FOREIGN MALES COMING FROM EAST AFRICA, AND FROM THE NEAR EAST. IN ALL PROBABILITY U6 BERBER MAY HAVE BEEN ACCOMPANIED BY THE R1 LINEAGE MALE OF C, K2, P, OR R1. THEN HE WAS UNABLE TO HOLD HIS DOMINANCE EITHER BY WARFARE, DISEASE, OR OUTBRED AND BECAME REPLACED BY THE MORE RECENT MIGRATIONS OF FOREIGNERS. OR IT IS POSSIBLE U6 MAY HAVE MIXED WITH AN EARLIER E HG AS SHE CAME INTO ATERIAN NORTH AFRICA BUT, IT SEEMS UNLIKELY BASED ON CURRENT SCIENCE I HAVE GATHERED THUS FAR. THE 24KYA E-MALES DID HAVE A COMMON ANCESTOR WITH THE BERBERS IN THE LEVANT BUT NOT IN NORTH AFRICA WHICH INDICATES THE BERBER MIGRATES FROM ATERIAN NW AFRICA EASTWARD AND MIX WITH NEAR EAST PEOPLE IN THE LEVANT DURING EPIPALEOLITHIC NATUFIAN AND PREPOTTERY NEOLITHIC ....

Paternal Lineages in Libya Inferred From Y-Chromosome Haplogroups

https://www.academia.edu/36664560/Paternal_Lineages_in_Libya_Inferred_From_Y_Chromosome_Haplogroups

    Libya, a North African country, was first inhabited by Berbers and then colonized by a variety of ethnic groups like Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and, in recent times, Italians. In this study, we contribute to clarify the genetic variation of Libya and consequently, of North African modern populations, by the study of Libyan male lineages.

A total of 22 Y chromosome-specific SNPs were genotyped in a sample of 175 Libyan males, allowing the characterization of 18 Y-chromosomal haplogroups... Northwest African component represented by haplogroup E-M81 (33.7%) followed by J(xJ1a,J2)-M304 (27.4%), which is postulated to have a Middle Eastern origin.... Berber-speaking people (E-M81), the autochthonous inhabitants, whereas the second is (J(xJ1a,J2)-M304), originating from Arabic populations.  This is in agreement with the hypothesis of an Arabic expansion from the Middle East.

    Several studies based on uniparental markers (mtDNA and Y-chromosome) have provided evidence that the North African gene pool has been shaped by the back-migration of Eurasian lineages in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times, and highlighted more recent influences from sub-Saharan Africa, and Mediterranean Europe...  Berbers are commonly considered as in situ descendants of local Paleolithic and/or Mesolithic populations. Moreover, archaeological data points to a human occupation of North Africa since at least 45,000 years ago, as attested by the Aterian industry, and subsequent cultures until the Neolithic, which began around 5,500 years ago in the region.  By the 5th century B.C.E., Carthage, had extended its hegemony across North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. The Punics were a group of Western Semitic-speaking peoples who traced their origins to a group of Phoenician settlers, but also to North African Berbers....  After the destruction of Carthage, in 146 B.C.E. Tripolitania became a Roman province. On the other hand, Greek settlements in Libya began in the 7th century B.C.E. in the East of Libya....period of Punic and Greek colonization of the coastal plain, the area known as Fezzan was dominated by the Garamantes, a tribal people who entered the region sometime before 1,000 B.C.E. They established a powerful kingdom in the desert.

    By the end of the 7th century C.E., Arab armies migrated to expand the Islamic religion and Arabic language into North Africa. In the 11th century C.E., the Fatimid caliph, in Cairo, invited the Bani Hilal and Bani Salim, Bedouin tribes from Arabia known collectively as the Hilalians, to migrate to the Maghreb. The number of Hilalians who moved westward out of Egypt has been estimated as high as 200,000 families, leading to the Arabization of the region by imposing their social organization, values, and language. In the 16th century C.E., the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople expanded into North Africa. And later, after the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912 C.E.), Italy turned Libya into colony. However, in 1951 C.E., Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya.  Because of this rich mix of ethnic groups which super imposed over the indigenous Berber tribes...  migratory movements have played in the North African gene pool, at least since the Neolithic period leading to an admixture between the original Berber inhabitants and neighboring and more distant populations, even though a strong Berber genetic substratum remains....  Thus, we report here, for the first time, Y-haplogroup genetic data obtained through the high-resolution investigation of 22 Y-SNPs in a sample of 175 Libyans from Tripoli....

    The haplogroup with the highest frequency observed in Tripoli was E-M81 (33.7%) followed by J-M304 (27.4%) and E-M78 (8%). The remaining haplogroups occurred with much lower frequencies representing in some cases only one individual....  North African populations have a genetic history largely distinct from both Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, over the time scales needed for the Y-chromosomal differentiation to develop....

According to ESM_2a, including Tripoli and Tuaregs, Libyan E-M81 lineages from Tripoli are clearly separated from those from Libyan Tuaregs.  When adding data from Tunisia (ESM_1b), we obtained that the most frequent haplotypes inside E-M81 are shared by individuals from the three analyzed populations.  In addition to the common E-M81 lineage, E-M78 is also frequent in Tripoli (17.7 %). This haplogroup is widespread in Somalia (77.6%), Sudan (25.6%), and Ethiopia (22.7%). In fact, it has been reported that North eastern Africa seems to be the place from where E-M78 chromosomes started to disperse into other African regions and outside Africa...

    J-M304, the second most important haplogroup in Tripoli, is 34.3%, of which 7% are M172. Haplogroup J has been considered to represent the signature of the Neolithic demic diffusion associated with the spread of agriculture. It has been postulated to have a Middle Eastern origin and its presence in North Africa attests for a gene flow from the Middle East. Previous studies on haplogroup J1-M267 have revealed a decreasing frequency moving from Southern Arabia northwards:  Yemen (72.6%), Qatar (58.3%), Iraq (56.4%), Oman (38%), Egypt (20%), Lebanon (12.5%), and Turkey (9%). J2-M172 lineages display a decreasing frequency gradient from the Near East toward Western Europe and strongly contribute to the overall gradient of haplogroup J.  Alternatively, J(xJ1a,J2) chromosomes are believed to be probably spread by the Arab people. In fact, Zalloua et al. (2008) has suggested that many J(xJ1a,J2) chromosomes were introduced into Lebanese Muslims by the Muslim expansion from the Arabian Peninsula. Furthermore, a review of the frequency data concerning Europe, the Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, and Northern Africa reveals that, in the Mediterranean, this haplogroup is mainly confined to coastal areas....This result is in agreement with historical data such as the migration, during the 11th Century of Arabic tribes like the Hilalians, estimated as high as 200.000 families, leading to the Arabization of the region by imposing their social organization, values, and language.

    Hence, two main genetic components characterize the population of Libya. The first one is originated from the Berbers, the autochthonous inhabitants of the region, whereas the second is derived from the Arab-speaking populations....

    About 7% of the Libyan Y chromosomes belonged to the R1-M173. The origin of R1-M173 is believed to predate the Last Glacial Maximum. This haplogroup is thought as dispersed from East to West, possibly 30 kya, along with the Aurignacian culture. It is likely that M173 arose initially in Central Asia, and those subpopulations carrying M173 migrated westward into Europe soon thereafter. The extremely high frequency of this haplotype in Western Europe is probably the result of drift, consistent with an inferred population bottleneck during the Last Glacial Maximum.  The sub-haplogroup R-P25 was found in 2.5% of the Libyan chromosomes. Phylogenetic evidence and coalescence time estimates suggest that R-P25* chromosomes may have been carried to Africa by an Asia-to-Africa mid-Holocene back migrations....

    based on both Y-haplogroups (FST) (present work) and Y-haplotype (RST) distances, these populations were not significantly different, whereas a genetic discontinuity was found in the Libyan/Egyptian border, based on mtDNA lineages suggesting, probably, different patterns of gene flows between males and females during the past. Such contrast between Y-chromosomes and mtDNA genetics was also reported by Badro et al. (2013) suggesting that females did not always accompany male migrants, especially into North Africa.  Nevertheless, significant differences were obtained between Tripoli and other neighboring populations like Tunisia and Sudan... the dissimilarity between Libya and Tunisia could be due to sampling, as 60% of the Tunisian samples are Berbers. Indeed, a significant genetic distance was found between Tripoli and Libyan Tuaregs... It is noteworthy that the pairwise FST genetic distances between the Tuaregs of Libya on the one hand and the populations of both Kenya and Tanzania on the other hand were nonsignificant. This could be due to a south-Saharan paternal contribution to the Libyan Tuaregs that may have been recently introduced through slavery practices....

    In the MDS, a fairly clear geographic structure can be detected with three clusters corresponding to North Africa, Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa.  It showed that Tripoli population belongs to the North African cluster,...  African descent populations are separated by PC 1, having high frequencies of E haplogroup. PC 2 separates two groups: European descent populations characterized by high frequencies of R haplogroup and Middle East populations, characterized by high frequencies of J haplogroup....

    In conclusion, our results show that the Y-haplogroup diversity in Libya, consistent with the genetic landscape in North Africa in general, is characterized by two genetic components, a typical Northwest African one shared with Berber-speaking people, the autochthonous inhabitants of the region, and a second signature which is likely linked to Arabic populations, in agreement with the hypothesis of an expansion from the Middle East, such as the migration of Bani Hilal and Bani Salim during the 11th century, shaping the North African Y chromosomal landscape.

TUTANKHAMUN WAS R1b YDNA / K mtDNA BOTH HG LINEAGES ORIGINATED IN PALEOLITHIC WEST EUROPE. AND THE CANAANITE NOBLEMAN WAS R1b.   DNA TEST REVEALS THE EXACT SAME DNA SEQUENCE FOR ALL THE 3300'sYA EGYPT SAMPLES.  DURING THIS TIME  OSIRIS, AUSIR, OSS, OR ODIN WAS THE GOD OF THE WESTERNERS LAND OF THE DEAD, GOD OF THE UNDERWORLD WHICH WAS THE WEST OR ATLANTIS.  TUTANKHAMUN mt LINEAGE WAS FOUND IN THE 5300YA OTZI THE ICEMAN FROM AUSTRIA, AND IN 3400YA QUEEN TIYE OF EGYPT.  SINCE THE KINGSHIP REMAINS IN THE PATERNAL LINEAGE IT SEEMS REASONABLE TO CONCLUDE THAT FROM FROM KING TUT BACK TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 18TH DYNASTY AT LEAST WAS ENTIRELY R1b YDNA HAPLOGROUP.  AND IF THE EARLIER DYNASTIES WERE RELATED WOULD ALSO BE R1b.  I WONDER IF THIS R1b IS FROM THE ATLANTIS WEST ATLANTEAN R1b SEA TRADERS PRE-PHOENICAN R1b;  OR ARE THEY FROM ASIATIC R1b FROM ANATOLIA, ASSYRIAN, KASSITES, IRONIAN, ELAMITES, ALTAI, TURS, CENTRAL ASIAN, ETC. R1b;  OR ARE THEY REMNANT FIRST PEOPLE R1b TRIBES OF NORTH AFRICA WHO MAY BE THE ORIGINAL BERBER PEOPLE COMPANION TO THE U6 BERBER 45KYA; OR FROM LGM IBERIAN MIGRATION WITH U5 AND V; OR THE R1b WHO CAME IN ABOUT 10KYA. ...?

List of DNA-tested mummies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DNA-tested_mummies

mtDNA Test

NAME            LOCATION        DATE LIVED YA    mtDNA            YDNA

Paglicci 23        Italy                 28,000                        H   

Paglicci 25         Italy                23,000                      HV    

Cheddar Man     England         >9,000                     U5b1         I2-L38 (I2a2)

Ötzi the Iceman  Austria/Italy     5,300                         K             G2a2b

Nakht-Ankh         Egypt             4,000                     M1a1    

Khnum-Nakht      Egypt             4,000                     M1a1    

Djehutynakht       Egypt             4,000                     U5b2b5    

Queen Tiye         Egypt             3,390                         K    

JK2134                Egypt             2,776                        J1d                  J

JK2911                Egypt             2,769                        M1a1               J

JK2888                Egypt             2,097                        U6a2        E1b1b1a1b2

JK2887                Egypt            3,388                        J2a1a1

Tel Shadud

Canaanite     

Nobelman             Israel             3,300                                              R1b

Tel ShadudL126     Israel             3,300                     I5a1                    J

Tutankhamun       Egypt             3,342                     K                     R1b

Ramesses III         Egypt             3,200                                             E1b1a

Pentawer               Egypt             3,200                                             E1b1a

Takabuti                 Egypt             2,600                     H4a1    

OM:KMM A 64       Egypt             2,320                   T2c1a

YM:KMM A 63        Egypt            2,300                    HV

The Norwich

Anglo-Saxon         England          1,000                      X   

Juanita the

Ice Maiden             Peru                 500                        A   

Young Man

of Byrsa             Tunisia         late 6th c. BCE             U5b2c1    

500-year-old

Inca child         Argentina                500                         C1b    

DNA TEST

Name         Location    Date Lived YA     DNA sequence

Thuya         Egypt         3,390             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

Yuya            Egypt         3,390             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

Tiye (Elder

Lady KV35)     Egypt         3,370             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

Amenhotep III     Egypt      3,370             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

KV55 mummy     Egypt      3,350             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

KV35 Younger

Lady                     Egypt         3,390             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

Tutankhamun         Egypt         3,340             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

KV21 MummyA     Egypt         3,340             D13S317, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

KV21 MummyB     Egypt         3,340             D13S317, D2S1338, D16S539, CSF1PO

KV62 Fetus 1     Egypt         3,340             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

KV62 Fetus 2     Egypt         3,340             D13S317, D7S820, D2S1338, D21S11, D16S539, D18S51, CSF1PO, FGA

SIWA OASIS BERBERS ARE HIGHEST IN R1b COMPARED TO OTHER GROUPS IN THIS ARTICLE? ....

DNA history of Egypt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_history_of_Egypt#Ancient_DNA

    DNA from the heads of five Egyptian mummies...dated to between 806 BCE and 124 CE, a timeframe corresponding with the Late Dynastic and Ptolemaic periods....one of the mummified individuals likely belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup I2, a maternal clade that is believed to have originated in Western Asia....

    Y-DNA haplogroups:  A study using the Y-chromosome of modern Egyptian males found similar results, namely that North East African haplogroups are predominant in the South but the predominant haplogroups in the North are characteristic of North African and West Eurasian populations.

    Dugoujon et al. (2009):  Berbers from Siwa Oasis (Western Desert)

Nb 93  A/B 28.0%    E1b1a 6.5%   E1b1b1(M35) 2.2%   E1b1b1a(M78) 6.5% E1b1b1b(M81) 1.1%      E1b1b1c(M123) 2.2%   G 3.2%      J1 7.5%    J2 6.5%    R1b 28.0%    Other  8.3%

KING TUT TAKES THE THRONE AT 8 OR 9 YEARS OLD. RESTORES AMUN AND DENOUNCES HIS FATHERS ATENIST BELIEF AND MOVES CAPITAL BACK TO THEBES.  HE WAS BORN AS TUTANKH ATEN BUT CHANGED HIS NAME TO TUTANKH AMUN AND RESTORES THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.  HE PUT RAMS HEADS ON THE SPHYNXS FOR AMUN RA.  HE DIED AT AGE 18 OR 19 OF MALARIA AND OTHER HEALTH ISSUES.  HIS 2 DAUGHTERS DIED AS INFANTS LEAVING HIM NO HEIRS TO THE DYNASTY.  KING TUT IS R1b YDNA HAPLOGROUP AND K mtDNA HAPLOGROUP....

Tutankhamun

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun

    "King Tut"...  Pharaoh...  New Kingdom (18th Dynasty).

Consort:  Ankhesenamun (half-sister).  Children:  Two stillborn daughters, 317a and 317b

Father:  KV55 mummy, identified as most likely Akhenaten.  Mother:  The Younger Lady

Born:  c. 1342 BC.  Died:  c. 1325 BC (aged 18–19).

    Tutankhamen (c. 1342 – c. 1325 BC), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who was the last of his royal family to rule during the end of the 18th Dynasty (ruled c. 1334 – 1325 BC in the conventional chronology) during the New Kingdom of Egyptian history. His father was the pharaoh Akhenaten, believed to be the mummy found in the tomb KV55. His mother is his father's sister, identified through DNA testing as an unknown mummy referred to as "The Younger Lady" who was found in KV35.

    Tutankhamun took the throne at eight or nine years of age under the unprecedented viziership of his eventual successor, Ay, to whom he may have been related. He married his half sister Ankhesenamun. During their marriage they lost two daughters, one at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other shortly after birth at full-term. His names—Tutankhaten and Tutankhamun—are thought to mean "Living image of Aten" and "Living image of Amun", with Aten replaced by Amun after Akhenaten's death....

    Tutankhamun restored the Ancient Egyptian religion after its dissolution by his father, enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults and began restoring old monuments damaged during the previous Amarna period. He moved his father's remains to the Valley of the Kings as well as moving the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. Tutankhamun was physically disabled with a deformity of his left foot along with bone necrosis that required the use of a cane, several of which were found in his tomb. He had other health issues including scoliosis and had contracted several strains of malaria....

    Family:  Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (originally named Amenhotep IV,) who is believed to be the mummy found in tomb KV55. His mother is one of Akhenaten's sisters. At birth he was named Tutankhaten, a name reflecting the Atenist beliefs of his father....  When Tutankhamun became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun....They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy....Tutankhamun's death marked the end of the royal line of the 18th Dynasty....

    Reign:  He reigned for about nine years. During Tutankhamun's reign the position of Vizier had been split between Upper and Lower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt was Usermontu....Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime. A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin....   Once crowned and after "Taking council" with the god Amun, Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun and Ptah....

    Tutankhamun's second year as pharaoh began the return to the old Egyptian order. Both he and his queen removed 'Aten' from their names, replacing it with Amun and moved the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. He renounced the god Aten, relegating it to obscurity and returned Egyptian religion to its polytheistic form. His first act as a pharaoh was to remove his father's mummy from his tomb at Akhetaten and rebury it in the Valley of the Kings. This helped strengthen his reign. Tutankhamun rebuilt the stelae, shrines and buildings at Karnak. He added works to Luxor as well as beginning the restoration of other temples throughout Egypt that were pillaged by Akhenaten....

    Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes....In his third regnal year Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten was abandoned. As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he laid out the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king. At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III. Monuments defaced under Akhenaten were restored, and new cult images of the god Amun were created. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again,...

    he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock. The CT scan also showed that he had suffered a compound left leg fracture.... There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun's death...his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, a leg fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.... observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial. His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity,...

    Almost 80% of Tutankhamun's burial equipment originated from the female pharaoh Neferneferuaten's funerary goods, including the Mask of Tutankhamun. In 2015, English Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves published evidence showing that an earlier cartouche on Tutankhamun's famous gold mask read "Ankhkheperure mery-Neferkheperure" (Ankhkheperure beloved of Akhenaten); therefore, the mask was originally made for Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief queen, who used the royal name Ankhkheperure when she most likely assumed the throne after her husband's death. Neferneferuaten may have been deposed in a struggle for power and possibly deprived of a royal burial, or she was buried with a different set of Akhenaten's funerary equipment by Tutankhamun's officials, since Tutankhamun succeeded her as king. Neferneferuaten was likely succeeded by Tutankhamun based on the presence of her funerary goods in his tomb....

THIS IS MOTHER OF TUT AND A MINOR WIFE OR CONCUBINE OF AKHEN ATEN AND DAUGHTER OF AMENHOTEP III BY HIS WIFE QUEEN TIYE.  SHE DIED BFORE HER SON TUT BECAME PHARAOH....

The Younger Lady

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Younger_Lady

    Through recent DNA tests, this mummy has been identified as the mother of the pharaoh Tutankhamun and a daughter of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his Great Royal Wife Tiye. Early speculation that this mummy was the remains of Nefertiti was proven to be incorrect....  major damage done by ancient tomb robbers, who had smashed the chest, and had torn the right arm off just below the shoulder... The Younger Lady has a gaping wound in the left side of her mouth and cheek....a more recent re-examination of the mummy while it was undergoing genetic tests and CT scans determined that the wound had happened prior to death and that the injury had been lethal...the wound was likely the result of an axe blow. Another researcher suggests the wound could have been inflicted by a horse kick during a chariot crash.   Below her left breast there is another wound, likely a puncture or stab wound....the face wound could have been a premortem wound, rather than a postmortem wound as previously presumed. Instead of the Younger Lady's remains simply being mutilated after her death by tomb robbers motivated by malice, it seemed likely the woman had been injured while still alive.... Selim viewed the wound as too violent to be the result of an accident. In his opinion, the Lady had been injured in an act of deliberate violence.... the woman's face had been damaged before the embalming process, and likely prior to her death. Indeed, the face wound was determined to be a probable cause of death for the woman...the woman was between 25 and 35 years old at the time of her death....

    the apparent absence of Tutankhamun/Tutankhaten's mother from the available historical record of Ancient Egypt during consideration of the Younger Lady...nobody has been able to find an inscription, a relief, or a statue dedicated to this young pharaoh's mother...Tutankhamun/Tutankhaten never had a king's mother (mwt nswt) during his reign, indicating that she had died before his rise to the throne. This lends credence to the Younger Lady, determined to be his mother by DNA, being a minor wife of Akhenaten who died before Tutankhamun became king. No son is recorded for Nefertiti.... Despite the Younger Lady being daughter to a pharaoh (Amenhotep III), full sister and probable wife to a second pharaoh (Akhenaten), and mother to a third pharaoh (Tutankhamun/Tutankhaten), she does not appear to have been a prominent figure in her lifetime. Willeke Wendrich, an Egyptologist, considers it likely that she was a minor wife or a concubine to Akhenaten, rather than his royal wife, Nefertiti. Wendrich notes that the pharaohs of Egypt typically had multiple wives. ...

18TH DYNASTY BEGAN IN 1570BC BY AHMOSE I EXPELLING THE HYKSOS RULERS.  THE 18TH DYNASTY WAS THE FIRST OF THE NEW KINGDOM OF EGYPT AND MOST POWERFUL.  AMENHOTEP 4 CHANGES HIS NAME TO AKHEN ATEN AND MOVES CAPITAL TO ARMANA WHICH HE RENAMES AKHENATEN.  ATEN BECOMES THE PROMINENT DEITY.  HIS SON AS KING TUT REVERSES HIS FATHERS DOINGS.  THIS 250 YEAR OLD DYNASTY ENDS WHEN KING TUT DIES LEAVING NO HEIRS AND AFTER A  COUPLE SUCCESSORS FROM THE RANKS BEGINS THE 19TH DYNASTY.  IF KING TUTANKH AMUN IS R1b YDNA HAPLOGROUP THEN ALL HIS MALE ANCESTORS AND THEIR BROTHERS ARE BEFORE AND AFTER HIM WERE ALSO R1b LINEAGE WHICH MAKES THE ENTIRE 18TH DYNASTY ALL R1b MALE PHARAOHS FROM THE SAME FAMILY LINE.  THE ENTIRE 17TH DYNASTY WAS ALSO FROM THE SAME FAMILY LINE AS THE 18TH DYNASTY.  UNLESS A PHARAOH HAD NO SON OR BROTHER, AND KINGSHIP PASSED TO A MARRIAGE FAMILY MEMBER OF A DIFFERENT HAPLOGROUP WHICH SEEMS UNLIKELY IN A ROYAL FAMILY LINE TO KEEP THE MALE LINEAGE PURE.  I HAVE NOT YET CHECKED THE 16TH DYNASTY AS OF YET BUT WHEN I DO WILL POST IT ON THE PHAROAHS SUBPAGE FOUND AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE...

Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt

    1549/1550 BC–1292 BC.  classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power.... This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty for the four pharaohs named Thutmose.... 

     Dynasty XVIII was founded by Ahmose I, the brother or son of Kamose, the last ruler of the 17th Dynasty. Ahmose finished the campaign to expel the Hyksos rulers. His reign is seen as the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the start of the New Kingdom. Ahmose's consort, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari was "arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history, and the grandmother of the 18th Dynasty." She was deified after she died. Ahmose was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I, whose reign was relatively uneventful.  Amenhotep I probably left no male heir and the next pharaoh, Thutmose I, seems to have been related to the royal family through marriage. During his reign the borders of Egypt's empire reached their greatest expanse, extending in the north to Carchemish on the Euphrates and in the south up to Kurgus beyond the fourth cataract of the Nile.... Amenhotep III's consort was the Great Royal wife Tiye...

    In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten (ꜣḫ-n-jtn, "Effective for the Aten") and moved his capital to Amarna, which he named Akhetaten. During the reign, of Akhenaten, the Aten (jtn, the sun disk) became, first, the most prominent deity, and eventually came to be considered the only god.  Whether this amounted to true monotheism continues to be the subject of debate...  Neferneferuaten was likely Akhetaten's Great Royal Wife Nefertiti's regnal name as pharaoh. Tutankhamun eventually took the throne but died young. His infant daughters, 317a and 317b mummies, represent the final genetically-related generation of the Eighteenth Dynasty....

    The last two members of the Eighteenth Dynasty—Ay and Horemheb—became rulers from the ranks of officials in the royal court...Ay's reign was short. His successor was Horemheb, a general during Tutankhamun's reign... Horemheb also died without surviving children, having appointed his vizier, Pa-ra-mes-su, as his heir. This vizier ascended the throne in 1292 BC as Ramesses I, and was the first pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty....

    The Eighteenth Dynasty empire conquered all of Lower Nubia under Thutmose I. By the reign of Thutmose III, the Egyptians controlled Nubia to the Nile river, 4th cataract (rapids). The Egyptians referred to the area as Kush...   After the end of the Hyksos period of foreign rule, the Eighteenth Dynasty engaged in a vigorous phase of expansionism, conquering vast areas of the Near-East, with especially Pharaoh Thutmose III submitting the "Shasu" Bedouins of northern Canaan, and the land of Retjenu, as far as Syria and Mittani in numerous military campaigns circa 1450 BC...

    The pharaohs of Dynasty XVIII ruled for approximately 250 years (c. 1550–1298 BC).... Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes....

WAS ATENISM THE PRELUDE TO MOSES MONOTHEISM AND OR CHRISTIANITY?  THEN FADES AWAY BY THE RETURN OF ATUM-RA, ONLY TO REAPPEAR AS CHRISTIANITY?  AKHEN ATEN WAS KING TUT'S FATHER.  AKHENATEN DECLARES ATEN AS ONLY GOD TO OBSERVE AND ONLY THRU HIMSELF.  ATEN SYMBOL IS THE SUN DISK WITH RAYS.  AFTER HIS DEATH ATEN IS REVERSED BACK TO AMUN AND AKHEN ATEN AND HIS HEIRS ARE STRICKEN FROM RECORDS UNTIL 19TH CENTURY DISCOVERY REVEALS THE TRUTH.  KIYA, MOTHER OF KING TUT MAY BE A MITANNI PRINCESS GIVEN TO AKHENATEN TO SEAL A PEACE DEAL BETWEEN EGYPT AND MITANNI.  THE ARMANA LETTERS ARE A COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE OF AKHENATENS REIGN.  HIS CORRESPONDENCE WITH AMENNHOTEPIII, TUTANKH AMUN, AND BABYLON, ASSYRIA, SYRIA, CANAN, HITTITES, MITANNI, ETC..  REIGNAL YEAR 12 A PLAQUE BREAKS OUT.  AFTER HIS DEATH AFTER 17 YEAR RULE HIS POLICIES ARE REVERSED AS UNPOPULAR.  THE NEXT DYNASTY AFTER KING TUT DIES DESTROYS ALL MEMORY OF AKHENATEN, ALL TEMPLES, INSCRIPTIONS, RECORDS, ETC. THE CAPITAL IS MOVED AGAIN BACK TO THEBES....

Akhenaten

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten

Reign:  1353–1336 BC OR 1351–1334 BC.  (18th Dynasty of Egypt)

Predecessor:  Amenhotep III.  Successor:  Smenkhkare

Consort:  Nefertiti, Kiya, An unidentified sister-wife (most likely), Tadukhi-RA AND pa.

Children:  Smenkhkare?, Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenamun, Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure, Setepenre, Tutankhamun (most likely), Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit?, Meritaten Tasherit?

Father:  Amenhotep III.  Mother:  Tiye.

Died:  1336 or 1334 BC

    tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Before the fifth year of his reign, he was known as Amenhotep IV (Ancient Egyptian: jmn-ḥtp, meaning "Amun is satisfied)...  Akhenaten is noted for abandoning Egypt's traditional polytheistic religion and introducing Atenism, worship centered on Aten. The views of Egyptologists differ whether Atenism should be considered as absolute monotheism, or whether it was monolatry, syncretism, or henotheism. This culture shift away from traditional religion was not widely accepted.  After his death, Akhenaten's monuments were dismantled and hidden, his statues were destroyed, and his name excluded from lists of rulers compiled by later pharaohs. Traditional religious practice was gradually restored, notably under his close successor Tutankhamun,... When some dozen years later rulers without clear rights of succession from the Eighteenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty, they discredited Akhenaten and his immediate successors, referring to Akhenaten himself as "the enemy" or "that criminal" in archival records.

    Akhenaten was all but lost to history until the late 19th century discovery of Amarna, or Akhetaten, the new capital city he built for the worship of Aten. Furthermore, in 1907, a mummy that could be Akhenaten's was unearthed from the tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings by Edward R. Ayrton. Genetic testing has determined that the man buried in KV55 was Tutankhamun's father, but its identification as Akhenaten has since been questioned....

    The future Akhenaten was born Amenhotep, a younger son of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his principal wife Tiye....Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife... A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is also known from inscriptions. Some have theorized that she gained her importance as the mother of Tutankhamun...  [PROPOSED THEORY] Kiya is a colloqial name of the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa, daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta, widow of Amenhotep III, and later wife of Akhenaten. Akhenaten's other attested consorts are the daughter of Šatiya, ruler of Enišasi, and a daughter of Burna-Buriash II, king of Babylonia.  Akhenaten could have had seven or eight children based on inscriptions.... Akhenaten's elder brother Thutmose, shown in his role as High Priest of Ptah. Akhenaten became heir to the throne after Thutmose died during their father's reign....

    The beginning of Amenhotep IV's reign followed established pharaonic traditions. He did not immediately start redirecting worship toward the Aten...surving inscriptions show Amenhotep IV worshipping several different gods, including Atum, Osiris, Anubis, Nekhbet, Hathor, and the Eye of Ra, and texts from this era refer to "the gods" and "every god and every goddess." Moreover, the High Priest of Amun was still active in the fourth year of Amenhotep IV's reign....   In regnal year five, Amenhotep IV decided to show his devotion to the Aten by changing his royal titulary. No longer would he be known as Amenhotep IV and be associated with the god Amun, but rather he would completely shift his focus to the Aten....Akhenaten decreed that a new capital city be built: Akhetaten (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫt-jtn, meaning "Horizon of the Aten"), better known today as Amarna....The great temples of Amun, such as Karnak, were all located in Thebes and the priests there achieved significant power earlier in the Eighteenth Dynasty...

    The Amarna letters have provided important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy. The letters are a cache of 382 diplomatic texts and literary and educational materials discovered between 1887 and 1979 and named after Amarna, the modern name for Akhenaten's capital Akhetaten. The diplomatic correspondence comprises clay tablet messages between Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun, various subjects through Egyptian military outposts, rulers of vassal states, and the foreign rulers of Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, Alashiya, Arzawa, Mitanni, and the Hittites....

    Egypt's power reached new heights under Thutmose III, who ruled approximately 100 years before Akhenaten and led several successful military campaigns into Nubia and Syria. Egypt's expansion led to confrontation with the Mitanni... Egypt was unable or unwilling to oppose the rise of the Hittites around Syria....the Hittites, a confrontational state, overtook the Mitanni in influence.... This letter shows that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of his vassals in Canaan and Syria.... the Hittites "seized all the countries that were vassals of the king of Mitanni." Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over the core of her Near Eastern Empire (which consisted of present-day Israel as well as the Phoenician coast) while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful Hittite Empire of Suppiluliuma I....

    Akhenaten's reign was a royal reception in regnal year twelve, in which the pharaoh and the royal family received tributes and offerings from allied countries and vassal states at Akhetaten. Inscriptions show tributes from Nubia, the Land of Punt, Syria, the Kingdom of Hattusa, the islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and Libya....

    Following year twelve, Donald B. Redford and other Egyptologists proposed that Egypt was struck by an epidemic, most likely a plague. Contemporary evidence suggests that a plague ravaged through the Middle East around this time, and historians suggested that ambassadors and delegations arriving to Akhenaten's year twelve reception might have brought the disease to Egypt. Alternatively, letters from the Hattians suggested that the epidemic originated in Egypt and was carried throughout the Middle East by Egyptian prisoners of war. Regardless of its origin, the epidemic might account for several deaths in the royal family that occurred in the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, including those of his daughters Meketaten, Neferneferure, and Setepenre....

    Akhenaten died after seventeen years of rule and was initially buried in a tomb in the Royal Wadi east of Akhetaten....Akhenaten's mummy was removed from the royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten and returned to Thebes. It was most likely moved to tomb KV55 in Valley of the Kings near Thebes. This tomb was later desecrated, likely during the Ramesside period....  With Akhenaten's death, the Aten cult he had founded fell out of favor: at first gradually, and then with decisive finality. Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign (c. 1332 BC) and abandoned the city of Akhetaten. Their successors then attempted to erase Akhenaten and his family from the historical record. During the reign of Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the first pharaoh after Akhenaten who was not related to Akhenaten's family, Egyptians started to destroy temples to the Aten... Seti I restored monuments to Amun and had the god's name re-carved on inscriptions where it was removed by Akhenaten. Seti I also ordered that Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay be excised from official lists of pharaohs to make it appear that Amenhotep III was immediately succeeded by Horemheb. Under the Ramessides, who succeeded Seti I, Akhetaten was gradually destroyed and the building material reused across the country, such as in constructions at Hermopolis. The negative attitudes toward Akhenaten were illustrated by, for example, inscriptions in the tomb of scribe Mose (or Mes), where Akhenaten's reign is referred to as "the time of the enemy of Akhet-Aten."...

    Akhenaten, however, banned the worship of gods beside the Aten, including through festivals. He also declared himself to be the only one who could worship the Aten...After the Amarna period The worship of all gods returned...The gods replaced the pharaoh as their own representatives on Earth. The god Amun once again became king among all gods.... "the king was no longer a god, but god himself had become king. Once Amun had been recognized as the true king, the political power of the earthly rulers could be reduced to a minimum."...Egyptians worshipped a sun god under several names, and solar worship had been growing in popularity even before Akhenaten, especially during the Eighteenth Dynasty...depictions of the sun disc, though the disc is still seen resting on the head of the falcon-headed sun god Ra-Horakhty...Aten represented as a sun disc with sunrays like long arms terminating in human hands...

    The new Aten temples had no roof and the god was thus worshipped in the sunlight, under the open sky, rather than in dark temple enclosures as had been the previous custom....By Year Nine of his reign, Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only worshipable god. He ordered the defacing of Amun's temples throughout Egypt and, in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods' were also removed. This emphasized the changes encouraged by the new regime, which included a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god, but rather a universal deity.... In one passage, the hymn declares: "O Sole God beside whom there is none! You made the earth as you wished, you alone." The hymn also states that Akhenaten is the only intermediary between the god and Egyptians, and the only one who can understand the Aten: "You are in my heart, and there is none who knows you except your son."...  Yet, even at Amarna itself, some courtiers kept such names as Ahmose ("child of the moon god", the owner of tomb 3), and the sculptor's workshop where the famous Nefertiti Bust and other works of royal portraiture were found is associated with an artist known to have been called Thutmose ("child of Thoth")....Akhenaten's successors, starting with Tutankhaten, took steps to distance themselves from Atenism.... Amun was restored as the supreme deity....

    Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest who was forced to leave Egypt with his followers after Akhenaten's death. Freud argued that Akhenaten was striving to promote monotheism, something that the biblical Moses was able to achieve....Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis...Jan Assmann's opinion is that 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not linguistically related.  There are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104;...Akhenaten described himself as being "thy son who came forth from thy limbs", "thy child", "the eternal son that came forth from the Sun-Disc", and "thine only son that came forth from thy body"....some have viewed Akhenaten as a harbinger of Jesus....a failed precursor of Christ ...

THIS LINK CONTAINS ALL THE LATEST RULERS OF EGYPT.

I HAVE TRACED KING TUTS R1b PATERNAL FAMILY LINE THROUGH THE ENTIRE 18TH DYNASTY, AND ALSO THROUGH THE ENTIRE 17TH DYNASTY WITH THE EXCEPTION OF RAHOTEP WHO APPEARS UNCLEAR AND HE MAY BE MISDATED.

THE ENTIRE 17TH AND 18TH DYNASTY ARE A PURE PATERNAL FAMILY LINE OF R1b HAPLOGROUP PASSING DOWN PHAROAH TO THE SON, OR BROTHER. ...

THE PHAROAHS

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/list-of-pharoahs

 Formation: c. 3100 BC.  Abolition: 343 BC (last native pharaoh).  30 BC (last Greek pharaohs).  314 AD (last Roman Emperor to be called Pharaoh).

Egyptian History   earliest times

https://www.nemo.nu/ibisportal/0egyptintro/2aegypt/index.htm

Ankh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankh

    represent the word for "life" and, by extension, as a symbol of life itself....The ankh has a cross shape but with a teardrop-shaped loop in place of an upper bar. The origins of the symbol are not known...It was especially commonly held in the hands of ancient Egyptian deities, or being given by them to the pharaoh, to represent their power to sustain life and to revive human souls in the afterlife....

    First Dynasty stone dish in the shape of an ankh embraced by a pair of arms representing the ka...Ankh-shaped amulets first appeared late in the Old Kingdom (c. 2700 to 2200 BC) and continued to be used into the late first millennium BC, yet they were rare, despite the importance of the symbol. Amulets shaped like a composite sign that incorporated the ankh, was, and djed were more widespread....

    The people of Syria and Canaan adopted many Egyptian artistic motifs during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1950–1500 BC), including hieroglyphs, of which the ankh was by far the most common.... the sign was incorporated into Anatolian hieroglyphs to represent the word for "life", and the sign was used in the artwork of the Minoan civilization centered on Crete....

Rome’s African Emperor: Septimius Severus and the Scottish Invasion

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/septimius-severus-0015062

    The Libyan-born Septimius Severus has gone down in history as the first African Emperor of Rome . With a thirst for power, he ruled the Roman Empire almost 2,000 years ago, declaring himself Emperor after the definitive Battle of Lugdunum in 197 AD. Obsessed with the dream of establishing a Severn Dynasty, at the end of his life he led a harrowing invasion of Caledonia (modern-day Scotland), marching north of the famed Hadrian’s Wall with an enormous army in his attempt to unify the British island under Rome. He finally died in York, having failed to achieve his objective and betrayed by his own son Caracalla....

Ready for the Afterlife: The Mummification Process in Ancient Egypt

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-ancient-traditions/mummification-process-0015025

Forbearers of the Aryan Legacy: The Gurjars  (HILITES) ***

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscellaneous3/The%20Gurjars%20Aryans.rtf

    As per the written dynastic history of Sumer, Gusur was the first king of Ksh the dynasty of (Kush). It is claimed that he reigned in Sumer as the first post-flood king.  His approximate period was around 2800BC when the flood ended and water started receding.  Goser was also the name of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh and founder of the 3rd dynasty (during the old Kingdom). The dates of the 3rd dynasty of Egypt were approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC.  Apart from this, Gasur (original word ‘GSR’, wrongly interpreted as ‘Gasur’ on the lines of ‘Asur’) and Girsu (GRJ) were two most important cities along with Eridu and Kish in world’s most ancient civilization of Mesopotamia (Sumer)....  Suryavanshi Aryans, under Dashrath, ruled almost the entire known world from Caucasus to Egypt.... 

Pg 183  Chapter 13: Egypt

    Djoser (Goser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. The dates of the 3rd dynasty of Egypt were approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC....

    The mention of Cushites or Kushites started in the Egyptian records since 21st Century BC. Mentuhotep II (21st century BC) is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush.  But the period of early Kush people was not definite. Dates are definite and accurate for the Kushite rulers of the twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt (750BC to 350AD), when Egypt was invaded and absorbed by the Kushite Empire. Alara was a King of Kush who was generally regarded as the founder of the Napatan royal dynasty by his 25th Dynasty Nubian successors and was the first recorded prince of Nubia... These people were a part of the Luvian tribe and were hence known by the name Nubian (‘N/L’uvian)....

    After ‘Kashta’ (the Kushite) invaded Egypt in the 8th century BC, the monarchs of Kush were also considered the pharaohs of the twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt. In the New Kingdom of Egypt, Nubia (Kush) was an Egyptian colony governed by an Egyptian Viceroy of Kush since the 16th century BC. With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around1070 BC, Kush became an independent kingdom centered at Napata in modern northern Sudan. At the end of the Second Intermediate Period (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the Hyksos in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of Amenhotep I (1514-1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as archers, ‘Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to Upper Nubia to destroy the Nubian bowmen.’  The tomb writings include two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush.  Before the 4th century, and throughout classical antiquity, Nubia was known as Kush, or, in classical Greek usage, Ethiopia (Aithiopia which roughly translates to ‘country of burnt faces’. The burnt face meant the comparison of people of light skin with the native people with darker skin. This again suggests the Caucasian origin of the Kush people....

    the biblical Cush might be linked to the Kassites of the Zagros Mountains (modern Iran).  The name Kush since at least the time of Josephus, has been connected with the biblical character Cush, in the Hebrew Bible son of Ham. 

    The Kingdom of Kush with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion. The seat was eventually captured and burnt to the ground by the Kingdom of Aksum...  The dates of disintegration of the Kingdom of these Kushites exactly coincide with that of the Kushans of the Indian subcontinent. They were also known as Cushan or Kushan.  The existence of pyramids and the culture of mummies in the Tarim Basin (original base of Kushan Empire) and use of the names of Egyptian Gods in Kushan Coins and several other factors clearly indicate a direct relationship between these two kingdoms which were both located on the Silk Route.  The Greek Historians also called the Kushites ‘Indians.’

    The Central region of modern day Ethiopia is Gojjam, south of this region is the region of Gudur and south of Gudur is Gurage. These names still carry the original name of their tribe...The Gurage people have a striking resemblance to the Caucasian features.... Gurage people look very similar to Indian populations which are an inter-mix of Aryans and Dravidians.  These Ethiopian groups are typically classified as a Caucasoid sub-race.  Considering paternal lineages, 25.4% of the Ethiopian Y chromosomes have a clear Caucasoid origin... Greco-Roman historian Eusebius notes that the Ethiopians had immigrated into the Red Sea area from the Indus Valley and that there were no other people in the region by that name prior to their arrival.

A QUICK CONDENSED OVERVIEW OF SOME INTERESTING HILITES OF THIS BOOK...

Adoration of the Ram: Five Hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple (HI-LITES):

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/ADORATION%20OF%20THE%20RAM%20HILITES.rtf

Adoration of the Ram: Five Hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple:  (FULL BOOK)

https://www.academia.edu/240044/Adoration_of_the_Ram_Five_Hymns_to_Amun_Re_from_Hibis_Temple_2006_

    Ogdoad is labeled as The first primeval ones, The sons and daughters of Iri-ta, The males and females who created light, Who were fashioned in Opet by their father, Tatenen, in his workshop of the first moment.  (…) The Ogdoad, they give praise to Re when he illumines earth for them....    Thus Amun-Re is the father of those who created him...      The Ogdoad (…) who swam <to> their hometown, the Island of Flames, who created Light within the primeval mound (q3y.t), who made their throne in Hermopolis (Wnw) before their father, Shepsi....

    the Ammonians, who follow the worship of the Zeus of Thebes; for, as I have said before, the image of Zeus at Thebes has the head of a ram.”  Most scholars agree that Herodotus describes Siwa Oasis...

    The resurrection/rebirth par excellence for the Egyptians was that of the sun god who died at the end of the previous day. ... these texts were recited to invoke the sun god to come back to life, to resurrect or even recreate himself...

    all creator gods (beginning with Atum) come forth initially from the primordial waters (Nun),... Amun himself creates the primordial chaos (Hibis: the Nun-waters; Ptolemaic: the Ogdoad), which in turn gives birth to the sun, which in both cases is Amun himself....

    As Amun inherited solar aspects as the syncretistic Amun-Re, so could he adopt a deceased manifestation, such as Kematef. While it is true that Amun assumed the “positive,” Res-wedja resurrected-god aspect of Osiris, this particular Ba of Amun shows us that he could take on the decomposing corpse aspect of Osiris as well....

        the mehen-serpent that surrounds the Ba of Re as he travels through the underworld (particularly in the Amduat and Book of Gates)........ In the papyrus vignette, the serpent is unlabeled, but the caption before the god reads: “Osiris Res-wedja, foremost of the westerners, within the netherworld.” The location of the Solar-Osirian unity in the Sixth Hour of the Amduat is within a five-headed serpent, while in the Seventh Hour, the flesh of Osiris is encircled within a serpent (iwf) with the label “Osiris, who is in the mHn-serpent.” ... In the Book of Caverns, the ithyphallic Osiris rests within a coiled serpent in the Third Section. In the Fifth Hour of the Book of Gates, the Akh-spirits  stationed at “the sacred place (bw dsr)” praise Re as follows... Jubilation unto you, when you enter the sacredness within the mhn-serpent.... 

    a hymn to the Mendesian Ram (the b3-ram form of Re-Osiris), at the conclusion of which the speaker identifies himself with this deity, and says to his enemies: “Distance yourself from me! I am the one who is in the mhn.t-serpent.  The parallel to the Mendesian ram is interesting, because he is precisely the b3-ram form of Re-Osiris, famously depicted in the tomb of Nefertari.      The mhn-serpent can protect Re throughout his entire netherworldly journey, but it can be used specifically to ensure the sanctity (dsr) and safety of the Solar-Osirian unity.... 

    in a chapel of Osiris at Dendera, where an image of a phoenix is labeled as “the great Ba of Osiris Res-wedja.”...

    The “living royal Ka” is the divine aspect of the king. The association of Amun with the royal Ka is rather complicated. Primarily, Amun impregnates the King’s mother with the Ka, and in that sense the Ka-nature of the Pharaoh is a manifestation of Amun....

    The solar god appears with a b3-ram head in the Netherworld Books, referring perhaps to his physical, animal manifestation; to his powerful, respected position (associating the b3-ram with the sfi-ram); or to the elderly ram-headed form the sun god assumes in the final hours of the day, and hence the association with Atum. Based on this understanding, one might translate this passage “most ram-formed of the rams,” or “Ram of rams.” ...

    Given the possible “Nubian” origin of the Invocation Hymn (since it first appears in the Edifice of Taharqa)...“

    The Roman-period “Book of the Ba” mentions “the srq-waters in the House of Natron inside the Netherworld” together with “the sea of the West (s-imnt.t)” as the water sources from which a Ba lives....

    The flying scarab represents the morning form of Re, who has been reborn and thus ascends from the Netherworld into the sky.  The Heh-gods are the eight deities who, along with Shu, support the Heavenly Cow (Nut).  Since the Heavenly Cow is actually the sky, it makes sense that Re (as the scarab Khepri) flies up to travel upon her. 

    Nehebkau, literally “He who grants Kas,” is a serpent deity known primarily from early Egyptian religious texts...Nehebkau is primarily a beneficial serpent god, involved with the provisioning of food for the deceased. ...

    the Invocation Hymn explicitly identifies a serpent as one of the Ba’s (and hence possibly “manifestations”) of Amun....Atum describes his original snake form in BD 175 and elsewhere; while at Edfu, Atum of Pithom is called “the living ancestor-serpent (qrh-nh) of ‘Weary-of-Heart’ (=Osiris)”...  Serpentine forms of Amun in Thebes may go back much earlier, as Nehebkau is named as the agathos-daimon “who came forth from Thebes"...

Herodotus (II, 74) are also worth noting: “There are also about Thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to men, which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top of the head: these they bury when they die in the temple of Zeus, for to this god they say that they are sacred.”... this might also be compared to the sportive of writing of the Ogdoad with four intertwined wr.t-HkAw emblems (ram-headed vipers), for which cf. Sethe, Amun, §84....

    Amun-Re entering the netherworld to give breath to Osiris (and to the rest of the blessed dead) is rather common in Solar Hymns and Netherworld Books, but is perhaps best expressed in the First Hour of the Amduat:...

    In the following Ptolemaic text from the Second Pylon at Karnak Temple, the Ogdoad is labeled as The first primeval ones, The sons and daughters of Iri-ta, The males and females who created light, Who were fashioned in Opet by their father, Tatenen, in his workshop of the first moment.  (…)  The Ogdoad, they give praise to Re when he illumines earth for them....   Thus Amun-Re is the father of those who created him,...

    "The Ogdoad is in adoration of his (Khnum-Re’s) beautiful face, he having begun (his) work in the initial moment (…) He is an august, transfigured Ba, with the head of a ram, his bones being silver, his flesh gold, and his hair true lapis-lazuli.  The Ogdoad which came about in the crypt of Nun in the Great Green, It was Re who sat in his own body, he having become old.  His bones were silver, his body gold, his hair lapis-lazuli."...

    The Ogdoad, in addition to other gods, are often said to “recognize him as their lord,” ...

    Manu is the designation of the Western mountain into which the sun sets when it enters the Netherworld...

    Wenti is one of the forms of Apopis who threatens to devour the sun every night.  However, he also appears as the crocodile who eats the solar disk, only to vomit or ejaculate it back out. ...The context of Horus/Seth using a harpoon may have influenced the decision to mention this particular hypostasis of Apopis, as Horus-Wenti was one of the names for Horus the Harpooner...The Papyrus Harris version writes Nwbty “the Ombite” (= Seth) instead of Horus.  While some have understood the change at Hibis to be the result of the Late Period demonization of Seth.....As several scholars have noted, the image of Seth helping the sun god against the ultimate enemy, Apopis, appears at least as early as the Middle Kingdom.  As such, Seth appears on the solar bark in many mortuary vignettes, and in Coffin Text Spell160, he is the only member of the crew who can stand up to Apopis.  The duality of Seth/Horus appears very early in Egyptian history....Horus or Seth were both just as likely to appear in the role mentioned in the Hibis hymn: “The spear of Horus goes forth against thee, the lance of Seth is thrust into thy brow.”...Seth often appears, through his association with Ba’al, as a god of storms....

    The Lake of Two-Knives can refer to several netherworldly locales: the place where the enemies of Re are punished, the location from which Re first rises, or the Necropolis itself.  In this passage, it is perhaps best to understand it as referring to the Underworld or Necropolis in general.....

    Anpet was located in the Mendesian nome, the traditional center of the Mendesian

Ram.  This b3-ram was traditionally associated with Mendes, but from the New Kingdom on became specifically the criocephalic Re-Osiris, sometimes called the “Two Ba’s of Mendes.”  One common, onomatopoetic word for ram was “ba,” and thus the word for the Ba-soul could be written with this ram. Therefore, the Book of the Heavenly Cow tells us: “The Ram (b3) of Mendes is the Ba-soul of Osiris.”  As a result, the sun god becomes more and more “ram-like” as he ages and approaches the union with Osiris.  This form of the Mendesian Ram is most famously illustrated in the Tomb of Nefertari, where the mummified, ram-headed solar deity stands between Isis and Nephthys with the following label: “This is Re resting within Osiris, this is Osiris resting within Re.”...

    In the Late Ramesside period, this divine solarized Osiris developed into a cosmic deity, incorporating all the elements. The Mendesian Ram then appeared with four ram heads, identified in the Mendes Stela as the Ba’s of Re, Osiris, Shu, and Geb.  While these happen to be the male progenitors of the Heliopolitan cosmogony (Re-Atum begat Shu, Shu begat Geb, Geb begat Osiris), the later correspondence with the elements is clear: Re is the god of fire, Shu is the god of wind, Geb is the god of earth, and Osiris is the god of water...

    Harsaphes is the chief, ram-headed deity at Herakleopolis Magna; the greek designation of this city apparently derives from the interpretatio graeca of Harsaphes as Herakles.  The Ancient Egyptians gave him epithets of Amun, Khnum, and the Mendesian Ram most likely because of his criocephalous appearance...  It is interesting to note that Somtutefnakht twice identifies Harsaphes with Atum: “(Harsaphes), effective ram in Herakleopolis, Atum within the twenty-first Upper Egyptian nome.”  This statement that the Ba/ram of Amun/Harsaphes dwells in uncountable deities closely mirrors a similar statement from the Mendes Stela:  It is he who stays within all the gods in their sanctuaries, for he is the Ba/ram of all of them!...  Just as in the CoffinTexts, Atum does not actually create all the gods, just Shu and Tefnut.  Shu is the god who “makes/births the Ogdoad,” and the rest of creation....

    In Book of the Dead Chapter 15 BIII, the st3.w-s.wt praise Re together with the Western Gods and the Great Ones.  Through these examples, it is clear that the st3.w-s.wt are a certain class of blessed dead, akin to stars and the Great Ones. During the New Kingdom, the term st3-s.(w)t “mysterious of place(s)” came to be a designation of Osiris; only in the Third Intermediate Period was the word determined with a tree, leading to puns on st3-s.t and the Ished-tree (isd).  The significance of this late pun is that the st3-s.t necropolis of the Ennead was seen to be a funerary mound covered by the Ished-tree, a tree associated closely with Heliopolis throughout Egyptian history...that is, as a sort of blessed dead, the Great Ones of the Divine Assembly so often described residing in the Netherworld...

    the Graeco-Roman correspondences of Egyptian deities (Amun = Zeus, Osiris-Ptah =Hades, Re = Helios) one should compare the following Orphic statement quoted by both Macrobius and Julian: “Zeus, Hades, Helios Serapis: three gods in one godhead!”...

    Horus Behedeti is actually the winged sun disk that presides over almost every tomb and temple scene...

    This phrase, “sole god who made himself into millions/HH-gods,” simultaneously identifies Amun with Atum (“sole god”) and Shu (“who made the HH-gods”). If we understand the HH-gods to be the Ogdoad, then Amun is here the initial deity (Atum) from whom emerges Amun (Ba of Shu) who in turn creates the Ogdoad... Thus, the Coffin Texts theology provides the following sequence: Atum > Shu > Ogdoad; while the later Medinet Habu cosmogony proceeds as follows: Kematef (Amun) > Iri-ta (Amun) > Ogdoad. Therefore one might deduce the logical correspondence: Atum/Kematef (Amun) > Shu/Iri-ta (Amun) > Ogdoad. ...

    The Ogdoad are often referred to as the “primeval ones,” or “first of the primeval ones,” and thus Amenope/Tatenen/Iri-ta is called “eldest of the primeval ones.” .. As the HH-gods correspond to the Ogdoad, this could once again be a reference to Amun as the creator of the Ogdoad....  

    Although this passage could be read “Khnum who made the Khnums,” it more likely refers to other “creator gods.” These creator gods appear at Edfu as seven ram-headed deities, who assisted in the building of the temple. However, they were also the children of Ptah-Tatenen, and thus can be associated with the Ogdoad created by Amun (Amenope/Iri-ta/Kematef)....

    In earlier texts, Amun was simply a member of the Ogdoad or one who emerged from their primeval chaos. However, in the Graeco-Roman period, Amun as Kematef or Iri-ta actually fathers or builds the Ogdoad....

    The Djed-pillar, often the “august Djed-pillar,” is closely associated both with the separation of heaven and earth and the subsequent creation of the world. ...

    The equation made in the Hibis Creator Hymn between the surrounding wings and the fire of Amun-Re’s breath belongs to the topos of “Amun hiding himself within his iris.” Here the eye goddesses Isis and Nephthys are evoked, surrounding their lord with their wings/fire, except that Amun performs this action himself. A similar epithet applies to the newborn Horus, who is “‘lord of the course’ within the mhn.t serpent” (nb Hp.t Xn mHn.t)...

    The association of the right eye with the sun disk and the left eye with the moon is fundamental to Egyptian religious texts....

    Amun is technically hiding himself within his solar eye/iris...

    The four-headed deity has many connotations.  The main four-headed deity was the Mendesian Ram, thus the great “United Ba” of Re and Osiris. ...

the Mendesian Ram (= Re-Osiris) also connects the four-headed deity with the newly reborn solar deity in the morning. Closely related are the depictions of the four-headed deity surrounded by eight baboons, which we know refer to the Ogdoad... “Ba of Ba’s, most ram of rams, the Ogdoad praises his face.”  The Ogdoad worships Amun-Re precisely in the morning, at his birth, and thus the four-headed deity is once again specified as the morning deity....

    the second interpretation of the Mendesian Ram: the four elements combined in one entity: Re = fire, Shu = air, Geb = earth, Osiris = water.  In addition, the number four signifies dominion over the cardinal directions....

    “the face of a ram, four heads on one [n]eck” and being “open of ears.”  Elsewhere at Hibis, the (four-headed) Ram of Mendes is addressed as the “Great Listener.”...  that Plutarch and other Greek authors interpreted the name Osiris as meaning “many-eyed,” perhaps because of the sportive writing of the w3s-sceptre and the eye to write Wsir....

    Amun hiding himself in his iris is a perfect expression of the differences between Amarna and Ramesside solar theology. Whereas Akhenaten worshipped the sun disk (Aten) itself, the later theology stresses the hidden and imperceivable aspect of Amun-Re.  Amun-Re is not the physical sun that one perceives, but the “hidden Ba,” who travels within the sun disk, radiating his divine power throughout the universe. The luminous objects one sees is not Amun-Re, but rather his fiery uraeus goddesses who are equivalent to the feminine eyes of Amun. As the Great Amun Hymn tells us, he “hides himself within his iris,” while he “illumines by means of his marvelous wedjat-eyes” (col. 6). ...

    Book of the Dead 162: For Egyptian deities riding/dwelling within the solar disk, compare the comments of Plutarch:  “They (the Egyptians) tell a tale that Heracles, making his seat in the sun, goes round with it, and that Hermes does the same with the moon.”...

    This appears in fact to have been almost a canonical iconic image of the transcendent “Amun within the eye/iris” in the Late Period, as it appears in the Kushite Book of the Dead corpus, the Nectanebid naoi, and countless magical papyri and stelae...

    It is the goddesses of the solar eye that make Amun-Re’s light-power manifest in the physical world, and thus it is these goddesses enveloping Amun-Re that one sees when looking at the sun. ...

    “hiding within the iris” theme: Amun-Re can be hidden by the fire of his uraeus goddesses. This is only natural, as in the constellation of Egyptian solar theology, dwelling within the physical sun disk, thus hiding within the light of the eye goddesses, is equivalent to being surrounded by the uraeus-fire, or the mhn-serpent itself. ... “god (hidden) within the eye” would share traits of the “god within the circle of fire.” ..

    Although the eye goddesses of Amun-Re allow mankind to see, their fiery nature surrounds and clothes him, rendering his true form invisible to the world. In another sense, Amun-Re himself inhabits the eyes, and it is through this Einwohnung that they obtain the light-power they distribute to the mundane realm; thus, the sun disk is only the visible and material representation of the purely spiritual Amun, as expressed eloquently in the Creator Hymn...

    Thus, the supreme deity with whom the deceased wished to identify with was the four-ram-headed deity, the “iris of the wedjat,” or the deity within the flames. As also mentioned above, the composite deities within the flame were closely connected with the ten Ba’s of Amun worshipped in the Invocation Hymn. The final detail of the hypocephali, namely the worshipping baboons, brings us back to the Hibis hymns, where even the name of the Ogdoad is written with baboons. This image of the simian Ogdoad worshipping Amun, the mysterious ram with four heads, parallel to Amun who hides himself within his iris, is precisely what features prominently in the center of the hypocephali, over the head on Late Period sarcophagi and coffins, and on countless magical objects (e.g., the Metternich Stela).....

Anubis and Xolotl: The Remarkable Resemblance of the Death Dog Gods

https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-americas/dog-gods-anubis-and-xolotl-0015394

    Few ancient cultures have captured the modern imagination like the Egyptian and Maya civilizations, with their elaborate belief structures.... resemblance between two dog-headed gods associated with the ritualistic voyage to the afterlife: Anubis of ancient Egypt and Xolotl of Mexico....both civilizations seem to have emerged around 7,000 years ago,... Both of these mysterious cultures adamantly believed that they would face a dangerous odyssey upon death, an odyssey filled with monsters, gods, and gatekeepers. But the most striking parallel lies in the fact that both cultures most closely associated this descent into the underworld with an anthropomorphic dog god. ...

    The ancient Egyptians associated the constellation we call Orion with the god Osiris. If we liken the Orion constellation to a man firing a bow, then the star Sirius seems to follow this celestial man, like a small companion. The Egyptians linked this star with Isis and Anubis...

    The Saqqara temple to Anubis at the ancient city of Memphis was a coveted destination for devotees to make offerings...including wolves and jackals. However, over ninety percent of the mummified animals were dogs...  The Mexican hairless dog , also known as the Xolo, has been found in Maya and Toltec burial sites dating back to ancient times. There was ritualistic sacrifice and burial of the animals in what has been interpreted as enabling the ancients interred to have the canine serve as guide and companion on the descent into the underworld. Conquistador chronicles report that large numbers of this species linked to the god were served as food at what the Spanish described as a “banquet.” When the genes of the Xolo were sequenced by scientists in 1999, their DNA was identical to canine species of the Old World....  Xolo species and Mediterranean species look very much like the depictions of Anubis... the Mediterranean species is known as the Pharaoh Hound, who got its English name due to their resemblance to dog icons of ancient Egyptian tombs - Anubis....

Ten Stunning Yet Little Known Ancient Treasures Across Africa

https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/ten-stunning-yet-little-known-ancient-treasures-across-africa-004427

ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE ON THE SEA PEOPLE BUT, THESE ARE ONLY THOSE RECORDED IN AN EGYPTIAN RECORD WHO WERE AT WAR WITH THE EGYPTIANS AT THE TIME.  CERTAINLY THERE WERE FAR MORE SEA PEOPLE BUT, NOT ALL SEA PEOPLE WERE AT WAR WITH EGYPT....

The Sea Peoples & The Late Bronze Age Collapse (1200-1150 BC)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xl9RaHE9ZpI

Meshwesh Berbers takeover Egypt 19th and 20th Dynasties.  Osorkon the Elder Pharoah 992-986BC Meshwesh origin. 1207 BC Merneptah.  1177BC sea people attack Egypt. Tenehu, and Danuna may be Greeks. Elamites sack Babylon 1155BC.  

 The Sherdan: 1274bc Syria Kadesh battle. Sherden fight for Nubian, Egypt mercenaries. Sardinian?  Meshwesh from Lybia.  Shekelesh: Sicilian Southeast Italians?

Lukka: Luwians. fought with Hittiite in Kadesh, and against Egypt.  Lycian.  Ally of Troy.

Pirates.  Carcisa:  fight for Hittite at Kadesh. Ekwesh: Troy is Wilusa (Torusia in their own name).  Hittite empire collapse 1180BC.  Possible link to Greece.  Teresh:?

 Peleset:  Philistines.  Fights with Sherdan some fight with Lybians against Egypt.  Origins in Greece?  Crete?  feathered head dress.  Tjekker:  Dor Canaan. Mycenaen Greece, Trojans.  1100 BC in philistia.  Danuna:  Danoii, Danoids, Danaans. Greeks.  Guard coast of Canaan for Egypt.  Weshesh:  Anatolia. Asser.  Wilusa became Weshesh?  

Urnfield Culture.    

THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES A COMPLEX MIX OF SOME PALEOLITHIC BERBERS WHO WERE THE FIRST MODERN PEOPLE IN NORTH AFRICA ABOUT 60-45KYA.  SOME OF THESE BERBERS WHO HAD MIGRATED TO THE LEVANT THEN MIX BACK IN NORTH AFRICA DURING ANOTHER BACK MIGRATION EARLY NEOLITHIC 9000BCE.  ALSO DESCRIBED IS A NEOLITHIC FARMER FROM MEDITERANEAN WHO MIGRATED TO IBERIA AND THEN MIGATE TO MAGRHEB IN EARLY NEOLITHIC 6500BCE.  AROUND 5500BCE ANDALUSIAN ARE IN MAGRHEB.

BETWEEN 5000-3000BCE A POPULATION REPLACEMENT OCCURS IN MOROCCO REPLACING THE PALEOLITHIC BERBER WITH NEOLITHIC PEOPLE.  ABOUT 3000BCE IBERIAN EXPANDS AGAIN INTO MAGRHEB....

Neolithization of North Africa involved the migration of people from both the Levant and Europe

http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/191569

the Neolithic transition in North Africa, including the Maghreb, remains largely uncharacterized. Archaeological evidence suggests this process may have happened through an in situ development from Epipaleolithic communities or by demic diffusion from the Eastern Mediterranean shores or Iberia.  Neolithic pottery in North Africa strongly resembles that of European cultures like Cardial and Andalusian Early Neolithic, the southern-most early farmer culture from Iberia. Here, we present the first analysis of individuals’ genome sequences from early and late Neolithic sites in Morocco, as well as Andalusian Early Neolithic individuals. We show that Early Neolithic Moroccans are distinct from any other reported ancient individuals and possess an endemic element retained in present day Maghrebi populations, indicating long-term genetic continuity in the region.

Among ancient populations, early Neolithic Moroccans share affinities with Levantine Natufian hunter-gatherers (~9,000 BCE) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic farmers (~6,500 BCE). Late Neolithic (~3,000 BCE) Moroccan remains, in comparison, share an Iberian component of a prominent European-wide demic expansion, supporting theories of trans-Gibraltar gene flow. 

Finally, the Andalusian Early Neolithic samples share the same genetic composition as the Cardial Mediterranean Neolithic culture that reached Iberia ~5,500 BCE. The cultural and genetic similarities of the Iberian Neolithic cultures with that of North African Neolithic sites further reinforce the model of an Iberian intrusion into the Maghreb....

Here, we perform genome-wide analysis of remains from the Early Neolithic site of Ifri n'Amr or Moussa (IAM; ~5,000 BCE, n=7) and the Late Neolithic site of Kelif el Boroud (KEB; ~3,000 BCE; n=8). To test possible migrations through the Strait of Gibraltar, we also analyse samples from Early Neolithic sites in southern Iberia: El Toro (TOR; ~5,000 BCE; n=12) and Los Botijos (BOT; n=1). This Andalusian Early Neolithic culture is thought to have arrived prior to Cardial technology, and bears similarities with early Maghrebi farming traditions....

28 individuals...  Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups obtained for IAM (Moroccan Early Neolithic) and KEB (Moroccan Late Neolithic) indicate either a population replacement or an important genetic influx into Morocco between 5,000–3,000 BCE.  IAM samples belong to the mtDNA haplogroups U6a and M1—both of which are associated with back migration to Africa—while KEB samples belong to haplogroups K1, T2 and X2, prominently found in Anatolian and European Neolithic samples. Regarding the paternal lineages, IAM individuals carry Y chromosomes distantly related to the typically North African E-M81 haplogroup, while the Y chromosome from KEB belongs to the T-M184 haplogroup; though scarce and broadly distributed today, this haplogroup has also been observed in European Neolithic individuals. Both mtDNA and Y-chromosome lineages (K1, J2 and T2 haplogroups, and G-M201 haplogroup, respectively) for samples from TOR/BOT (Iberian Early Neolithic) are similar to those observed in Europe during Neolithic times.  West Eurasian populations can be modelled as admixture of four different ancestral components:  Eastern and Western European hunter-gatherers, Iranian and Levant Neolithic....

Principal Components Analysis (PCA) reveals that IAM individuals are different from any aDNA sample studied to date. When projected, IAM samples are close to modern

North Africans, in the Levantine corner of the PCA space. Southern Iberian Neolithic individuals from TOR and BOT cluster with Sardinians and with other Anatolian and European Neolithic samples. Moreover, KEB samples are placed halfway between the IAM and Anatolian/European farmer clusters, in close proximity to Levant aDNA samples....  At lower K values, IAM samples possess ~100% of a component partially shared by aDNA samples from the Middle East and Levant. At K=6, this IAM-like component is observed mainly in modern North Africa, following a west to-east cline. TOR and other Early Neolithic samples from Iberia cluster together with farmers from Anatolia, the Aegean area and Europe. At K=8 the Early Neolithic individuals from Iberia differentiate from the Anatolian, Aegean and European Early Neolithic samples, and share their main component (purple) with Middle Neolithic/Chalcolitic samples. Finally, at low K values, KEB can be explained as having both IAM-like and European Neolithic components, suggesting an admixture process between IAM-like people and early farmers. Nevertheless, at K=8, the European component in KEB is predominantly "purple,” with some “green” component. This “green” component is also present, at a low frequency, in Natufians and other ancient Levantine populations. The substantially larger contribution of the “purple” component, when compared with the “green”, suggests a significant genetic contribution of ancient Iberians in Morocco....

To compare our samples directly to the genomes of ancient and modern populations... FST values indicate that the IAM samples are as differentiated from all other populations as Yoruba are from non-Africans, with the sole exception of KEB and, to a lesser extent, modern North African populations. Given the relatively low heterozygosity and high identity-by-descent (~37%) proportions observed in IAM, this differentiation could be related to isolation and genetic drift. Although IAM is clearly more similar to KEB than any other population, the converse is not true....  In the modern DNA reference panel, KEB is similar to North African, European and Middle Eastern populations. Among the ancient populations, TOR is more similar to Middle Neolithic/Chalcolithic Europeans, and, among modern populations, to populations from Spain, North Italy and Sardinia....

when KEB is excluded, IAM shares more drift with ancient Levantine populations, such as Natufians and Levant Neolithic, than with any other ancient population....  KEB shares ancestry with IAM, but also more genetic drift with Neolithic and Chalcolithic populations from Anatolia and Europe, with the highest shared genetic drift appearing in Iberian Early

Neolithic samples... suggests the KEB population can be modelled as a mixture of IAM and Anatolian/European Neolithic. These results also parallel archaeological findings in the region: Late Neolithic sites in North Africa contain pottery resembling that of the Andalusian Early Neolithic and Cardial cultures, and ivory tools distinctly associated with those of Iberian Neolithic sites.  

TOR has more shared ancestry with Iberian Early Neolithic samples and other Neolithic and Chalcolithic populations from Europe. Archaeological work in southern Iberia, especially in the Nerja site, has pointed out that the Andalusian Early Neolithic culture, previous to the Cardial expansion, may have had connections to farmer traditions in the Maghreb.  However, we observe that TOR samples have a similar genetic composition to that of Cardial individuals from Iberia, evidencing a common origin....

IAM people do not possess any of the European SNPs associated with light pigmentation, and most likely had dark skin and eyes....  KEB individuals exhibit some European- derived alleles that predispose individuals to lighter skin and eye colour,...

Genetic analyses have revealed that the population history of modern North Africans is quite complex. Based on our aDNA analysis, we identify an Early Neolithic Moroccan component that is restricted to North Africa in present-day populations, which is the sole ancestry in IAM samples. We hypothesize that this component represents the autochthonous Maghrebi ancestry associated with Berber populations. This Maghrebi component was related to that of Epipaleolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic people from the Levant.  By 3,000 BCE, a European Neolithic expansion brought Mediterranean-like ancestry to the Maghreb, most likely from Iberia. Our analyses demonstrate that at least some of the European ancestry observed today in North Africa is related to prehistoric migrations, and local Berber populations were already admixed with Europeans before the Roman conquest. Furthermore, additional European/Iberian ancestry could have reached the Maghreb after KEB people; this scenario is supported by the presence of Iberian-like Bell-Beaker pottery in more recent stratigraphic layers of IAM and KEB caves....

An example of Demic diffusion: ancient European Neolithic farmers were genetically closest to modern Near-Eastern/Anatolian populations

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Genetic_matrilineal_distances_between_European_Neolithic_Linear_Pottery_Culture_populations_%285%2C500%E2%80%934%2C900_calibrated_BC%29_and_modern_Western_Eurasian_populations.jpg/495px-thumbnail.jpg

Figure 1. Isochrone map. The spread of the Neolithic transition, obtained by interpolating the dates in calibrated years before present (BP) of 918 Early Neolithic sites (circles) in Europe and the Near East 

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/cms/asset/23d0e9e3-e32a-4303-883d-1f9c18f5aceb/rsif20150166f01.jpg

THE FIRST ORIGINAL KUSH, AND NUBIAN WERE NON-NEGROID PEOPLE.  MIGRATE INTO AFRICA MIXING WITH BERBERS, AND AFRICAN PEOPLE.  CUSH MAY ALSO BE THE FIRST AETHIOPIANS, AND MORS.  MAYBE THE FOMORIANS?  KUSH MAYBE FROM SAME TRIBE AS THE KASI, KASSI, KAS, COSSI,...  LATER MIGRATIONS OF MID EAST AND AFRICAN PEOPLES PUSH OUT, AND ADMIX IN WITH THE FIRST KUSH PEOPLE WHICH THEN DARKEN THE GENETICS OF THE FIRST KUSH IN AFRICA.  POST ROMAN DRAMATICALLY DARKENED THE REGION.

THE FIRST ORIGINAL NUBIANS MAY BEEN THE LUVIANS (LEVITES, LEVANT, LOEWE,...).  THRU THE AGES MAN HAS MATED WITH APES, GORILLAS AND MONKEYS, AND THE MONKEY MAN HYBRIDS THEY CREATED WHICH CONTINUED INTO RECENT TIMES....

Kingdom of Kush

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush

• Established c. 1000 BC • Disestablished  c. 350 AD...

The Kingdom of Kush (; Egyptian: 𓎡𓄿𓈙𓈉 kꜣš, Assyrian: Rassam cylinder Ku-u-si.jpg Ku-u-si, in LXX Ancient Greek: Κυς and Κυσι; Coptic: ⲉϭⲱϣ; Hebrew: כּוּשׁ‎)...

Though Kush had developed many cultural affinities with Egypt, such as the veneration of Amun, and the royal families of both kingdoms often intermarried, Kushite culture was distinct; Egyptian art distinguished the people of Kush by their dress, appearance, and even method of transportation....  The native name of the Kingdom was recorded in Egyptian as k3š, likely pronounced [kuɫuʃ] or [kuʔuʃ] in Middle Egyptian, when the term was first used for Nubia, based on the New Kingdom-era Akkadian transliteration of the genitive kūsi.  It is also an ethnic term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons, such as King Kashta (a transcription of k3š-t3 "(one from) the land of Kush")....

The name Kush, since at least the time of Josephus, has been connected with the biblical character Cush, in the Hebrew Bible (Hebrew: כּוּשׁ‎), son of Ham (Genesis 10:6). Ham had four sons named: Cush, Put, Canaan, and Mizraim (Hebrew name for Egypt). According to the Bible, Nimrod, a son of Cush, was the founder and king of Babylon, Erech, Akkad and Calneh, in Shinar (Gen 10:10). The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a Benjamite (Psalms 7:1, KJV).  In Greek sources Kush was known as Kous (ֺןץע) or Aethiopia (ֱἰטיןנב).

Northern Kush seems to have been more productive and wealthier than the Southern area.  Dental trait analysis of fossils dating from the Meroitic period in Semna, in northern Nubia near Egypt, found that they displayed traits similar to those of populations inhabiting the Nile, Horn of Africa, and Maghreb. Traits from mesolithic and southern Nubia around Meroe however indicated a closer affinity with other sub-Saharan dental records. It is indicative of a north-south gradient along the Nile river....

the Victory Stele of Piye at Jebel Barkal, which states that "Amun of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country," and "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land (Kmt)"....

Piye's successor, Shabataka, defeated the Saite kings of northern Egypt between 711–710 BC and installed himself as king in Memphis. He then established ties with Sargon II.: 120  Piye's son, Taharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions. Imperial ambitions of the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9). There are various theories (Taharqa's army, disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city and withdrew to Assyria. Torok mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem and "retreated to Assyria.

The power of the 25th Dynasty reached a climax under Taharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. New prosperity revived Egyptian culture. Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms....  Taharqa initially defeated the Assyrians when war broke out in 674 BC. Yet, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King Esarhaddon started the Assyrian conquest of Egypt, took Memphis... 

Meroitic period (542 BC–4th century AD):  Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. According to Welsby, "throughout the Saite, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods, the Kushite rulers—the descendants of the XXVth Dynasty pharaohs, and the guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal—could have pressed their 'legitimate' claim for control of Egypt and they thus posed a potential threat to the rulers of Egypt."...

Kushite control of that area (as far north as Philae) for part of the 3rd century AD. 71  Thereafter, it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion. In the mid-4th century, Kush attacked Axum, perhaps in a dispute over the region's ivory trade. Axum responded with a large force, sacking Meroe and leading to the collapse of the civilization.  Christianity began to gain over the old pharaonic religion and by the mid-sixth century AD the Kingdom of Kush was dissolved....

Cush (Bible)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cush_(Bible)

Cush or Kush ( Hebrew: כּוּשׁ‎ Hebrew pronunciation: [ˈkuʃ], Kush; Ge'ez: ኩሽ) was the oldest son of Ham and a grandson of Noah. He was the brother of Canaan, Mizraim and Phut. Cush was the father of Nimrod... Cush is identified in the Bible with the Kingdom of Kush or ancient Ethiopia. The Cushitic languages are named after Cush....  Cush is a Hebrew name that is possibly derived from Kash, the Egyptian name of Lower Nubia and later of the Nubian kingdom at Napata, known as the Kingdom of Kush.  The form Kush appears in Egyptian records as early as the reign of Mentuhotep II (21st century BC)...

A page from Elia Levita's 16th-century Yiddish–Hebrew–Latin–German dictionary contains a list of nations, including the word "כושי" Cushite or Cushi, translated to Latin as "Aethiops" and into German as "Mor".  Cush's sons were Nimrod, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabtechah.  Moses married a Cushite woman named Zipporah....

Josephus gives an account of the nation of Cush, son of Ham and grandson of Noah: "For of the four sons of Ham, time has not at all hurt the name of Cush; for the Ethiopians, over whom he reigned, are even at this day, both by themselves and by all men in Asia, called Cushites" (Antiquities of the Jews 1.6).

The Book of Numbers 12:1 calls a wife of Moses "a Cushite woman", whereas Moses's wife Zipporah is usually described as hailing from Midian. Ezekiel the Tragedian's Exagoge 60-65 (fragments reproduced in Eusebius) has Zipporah describe herself as a stranger in Midian, and proceeds to describe the inhabitants of her ancestral lands in North Africa:  "Stranger, this land is called Libya. It is inhabited by tribes of various peoples, Ethiopians, dark men. One man is the ruler of the land: he is both king and general. He rules the state, judges the people, and is priest. This man is my father and theirs."

During the 5th century AD, Syrian writers described the Himyarites of South Arabia as Cushaeans and Ethiopians.

The Persian historian al-Tabari (c. 915) recounts a tradition that the wife of Cush was named Qarnabil, daughter of Batawil, son of Tiras, and that she bore him the "Abyssinians, Sindis and Indians".

Nubians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubians

Nubians () are an ethno-linguistic group of people who are indigenous to the region which is now present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt. They originate from the early inhabitants of the central Nile valley...  Early Neolithic settlements have been found in the central Nubian region dating back to 7000 BC, with Wadi Halfa believed to be the oldest settlement in the central Nile valley....

Throughout history various parts of Nubia were known by different names, including Ancient Egyptian: tꜣ stj "Land of the Bow", tꜣ nḥsj, jꜣm "Kerma", jrṯt, sṯjw, wꜣwꜣt, Meroitic: akin(e) «Lower "Nubia"» and qes(a), qos(a) "Kush", and Greek Aethiopia....

Genetics: 

Y-DNA:  Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008) on a sample of 39 Nubians found that:  Around 17 of his Nubian samples from Sudan carried haplogroup J, 9 belonged to the haplogroup E1b1b clade.  Both of these paternal lineages are also common among local Afroasiatic-speaking populations. The next most frequent haplogroups borne by Nubians were:  4 haplogroup R1b, 4 haplogroup F, 3 haplogroup B, 2 haplogroup I.

M-DNA:  Regarding the M-DNA lineages, Hassan (2009) found that approximately 83% of their Nubian samples carried various subclades of the Africa-centered macrohaplogroup L. Of these, the most frequent were:  30.8% L3, 20.6% L0a, 10.3% L2, 6.9% L1, 6.9% L4, 6.9% L5.  The remaining 17% of Nubians belonged to sublineages of Eurasian macrohaplogroups:  6.8% haplogroup M (3.4% M/D, 3.4% M1), 3.4% haplogroup N1a, 3.4% haplogroup R0, 3.4% haplogroup R/haplogroup U6a1).

However, analysing a different group of Nubian individuals in Sudan, Non (2010) found a significantly higher frequency of around 48% of the Eurasian macrohaplogroups M and N:

16% belonged to the M clade (around 9% to M1), with the rest bearing N subhaplogroups:  approximately 8% haplogroup R0, 3% haplogroup T1a, 1% haplogroup H.  The remaining 52% of Nubians carried various Africa-centered macrohaplogroup L(xM,N) derivatives, with about 11% of individuals belonging to the L2a1 subclade. 

Autosomal DNA:

Dobon et al. (2015) found that modern Nubians...may be explained as a mixture of an ancestral North African population (similar to Copts) and an ancestral South-West population. Also, according to the authors, "Nubians were influenced by Arabs as a direct result of the penetration of large numbers of Arabs into the Nile Valley over long periods of time following the arrival of Islam around 651 A.D."...  identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Sudanese Arabs, Nubians and Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the Nile Valley. Known as the Coptic component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. The scientists associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians....

Sirak et al. (2015) analysed the ancient DNA of a Christian-period inhabitant of Kulubnarti in northern Nubia near the Egyptian border. They found that this individual was most closely related to Middle Eastern populations. Further excavations of two Early Christian period (AD 550-800) cemeteries at Kulubnarti, one located on the mainland and the other on an island, revealed the existence of two ancestrally and socioeconomically distinct local populations. Preliminary results, including mitochondrial haplogroup analysis, suggests there may be substantial differences in the genetic composition between the two communities, with 70% of individuals from the island cemetery demonstrating African-based haplogroups (L2, L1, and L5), compared to only 36.4% of mainlanders, who instead show an increased prevalence of European and Near Eastern haplogroups (including K1, H, I5, and U1). 

Analysis of Naqada Predynastic crania: a brief report

https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/180/180-30-76280-1-10-20161130.pdf

This paper examines the affinity of southern Predynastic crania from earlier Naqada levels, in the context of Nile Valley human variability. Naqada I (3900 B.C.) and II (3600 B.C.) cultures succeeded Badari (4400-4000 B.C.) in southern Egypt, and preceded the Dynasty O and I periods...  Currently, major continuity between Badari, Naqada I, Naqada II, and Dynastic cultures is stressed, although there was an increase in trade with the Middle East in later periods. Internal exogamy is postulated...

Coon (1939) described Naqada crania as "Caucasoid" and less “Negroid” than the earlier Badari group. Stoessiger (1927) thought Naqada period crania to be more homogeneous then the Badari. Naqada crania have been interpreted by a rigid typological analysis to be trihybrid in origin, of the “Black”, “Yellow” and “White” varieties, with the latter predominating (Wiercinski 1966, 1973). Strouhal (1971) questions the “Yellow” element.... 

Morphological or morphotypological studies and comments on the morphology of Naqada crania are not consistent in their conclusions. They have been described as “Negroid-Caucasoid” hybrids and/or a composite “Caucasoid” and “Negroid” population... or as “Mediterranean”, ultimately not of “Black” or “White” origin...  late Predynastic (Naqada) crania morphologically resembled A-group Nubian remains, and that earlier Predynastic (Naqada) crania resembled those of “Middle” (C-group) Nubians. The Naqada crania have been interpreted as non-”Caucasian” indigenous tropical Africans, but non-”Negro” and designated Ethiopian or Erythraen; however descriptions in Giuffrida-Ruggeri’s work would generally be designated “Negroid”, although not as extreme as forest belt groups....  a mixture (composite) of two “races” (“Mediterranean” and Negroid”). Pearson (1905) denied this on statistical grounds (based on metrics), but stated that the series may have been a Blumischung, a population of hybrid origin (versus a mixture of distinct “races”).Studies using the discredited Coefficient of Racial Likeness (C.R.L.), placed all of the Naqada crania with the “Upper Egyptian type”...  

The unknown analyses show a change from Badari to Naqada periods. The Badari crania classify into upper Egyptian-southern series at a rate 90-100%; the Naqada series distributes across the north-south boundary more evenly, with 61- 64% classifying into southern series...  The change observed from Badari to Naqada periods probably reflects increased migration or gene flow via exogamy in the Naqada periods as postu-lated by Hassan (1988). This probably represents exchange between local groups along the Nile corridor and not with the Near East, although trade increased with the latter at this time.... The change from Badari to Naqada times probably reflects the breakdown of the isolation of southern Egypt from the north, and increasing social complex- ity before the First Dynasty. Increasing genetic variation is a corollary of increasing social complexity. Wildung (1984) presents evidence in  some northern Delta groups participating in Naqada II, III, and Dynasty I culture; this suggests a socio-cultural basis for north-south migration or genetic exchange, given this early cultural and perhaps political unity....  It is clear that Naqada material and “symbolic” culture replace the “Predynastic” culture of the north. The Badari-Naqada continuum formed the cultural core of later Egyptian civilization....

The southern Egyptian population diversified from the Badari through Naqada periods. This parallels a well documented increase in social complexity in southern Egypt. The diversification is possibly secondary to northerners being integrated into the Naqada culture, being attracted to the locale of emerging centralization.... 

The results confirm that there was diversification over time. However the Naqada 

III series was more similar to earlier and more southern material than to DynastyI.  The comparative material included Bronze Age Italian and recent Greek series, as well as Kerma Kushites and recent Somali. None of the southern Predynastic Egyptian series (or Dynasty I) were similar to the Italian or Greek series which always clustered together and apart from Egyptians, Kushites and Somali series. ...

Non-metric studies have shown the Naqada of all periods to usually be more related to other Egyptian series, although inexplicable inconsistencies in their data are present. For example, greatest relationships are often not between known geographically and diachronically successive series. This could suggest gene flow in intervening periods, other population processes or problems with the method. Early Naqada crania were found to be more similar to various temporally and geographically removed dynastic Egyptian groups than to late Naqada! The early Naqada series was also more similar to a Kerma (Kushite) and central Sudanese senes than to the late Naqada series, although these were not the closest relationships. In another study a greater similarity for several Egyptian periods was noted to central Nile Valley Sudanese (upper Nubians) than to Palestinian or Byzantine groups, though greatest similarity was to North Indians; this latter relationship can be discounted as being spurious since there is little supporting data in language, archaeology or history unless a radical diffusionist perspective is entertained. (A West African series was also suggested to have the same genetic origin as the Indian series! West Africans and Indians probably do not have a recent common ancestry). In summary, data from physical anthropology, archaeology and linguistics do not suggest a primary origin external to Africa for the early Nile Valley peoples...

Ancient Egyptians were closer to Armenians than to Africans; a new genetics study reveals 

https://www.peopleofar.com/2017/06/05/ancient-egyptians-were-closer-to-armenians-than-to-africans-a-new-genetics-study-reveals/

DNA of 93 Egyptian mummies dating from approximately 1400 BCE to 400 CE....

    Our analyses reveal that ancient Egyptians shared more ancestry with Near Easterners than present-day Egyptians, who received additional sub-Saharan admixture in more recent times.  We find that ancient Egyptians are most closely related to Neolithic and Bronze Age samples in the Levant, as well as to Neolithic Anatolian and European populations....  The sub-Saharan African genetic influx seems to have only started after the Roman period... 

Is Ancient Ethiopia older than ancient Egypt and ancient Nubia?

https://www.quora.com/Is-Ancient-Ethiopia-older-than-ancient-Egypt-and-ancient-Nubia

In Greek mythology, Aethiopia or “land of the burnt-faced people” meant generically the remote regions of the known world (e.g. the world whom the ancient Greeks were most familiar or lest heard from the telling of local or foreign mariners & traditions afar as early-to-mid 1st millenium BCE) lying south of Egypt; in other words the geo-historical polity of the same name - best known as Nubia by late Roman and European scientific literature, Cush for the Hebrews, Kasi (Kush) and Ta-Seti (“Land of the Bow”) most interchangeably for ancient Egypt, then what modern scientific literature acknowledge now as respectively the historical A-Group Culture or “Second Nubian Culture” 3900 or 3800–3100BCE) and its impoverished successor period the so-called “B-Group Culture” (prior 2500BCE) , the C-Group Culture (2400 – ca. 1550BCE) , the Kerma Culture or Kerma Kingdom or Kush Kingdom prior its military annexation by the New Kingdom of Egypt (2500 – ca. 1550BCE) , the Egyptian-occupied Napatan period (ca. 1550–1069BCE) , the more-Egyptianized secessioned Kingdom of Kush or Kuluš in Meroitic language (1069BCE- ca. 350CE) from which originate the Egypto-Kushite forefathers of the short-lasting yet powerful XXVth Dynasty of Egypt or Kushite Empire (744-671BCE) and subdivize itself into two periods, so to speak a contuinity of the Napatan period (1069 to ca. 700–270BCE) followed by the Meroitic period (270BCE- ca. IInd-IIIrd centuries CE to ca. 350CE) , latter followed by the succession of various foreign occupations alike Christenized then latter Moslemized smaller local polities within medieval Nubia (ca. 400–1500CE) and its X-Group Culture period (ca. 300–600CE) - as well as subsaharian Africa under its mote vague geographical coining (by distinction to respectively Egypt or the Nile up north from the First Cataract, Lybia westward Egypt or Asia eastward the latter region) ...

that region has been lately during its history populated by an massive afflux of Nilotic-speaking Nubas or Nobatae / Nobatians in Late Antiquity, who progressively drove away and/or assimilated the earlier Cushitic-speaking Kushites populating this area over several millenia.  These ethnic Nubians, of Nilo-Sudanian stock (with some account of kinship to the mixed Berber-speaking Tehemu of Lower Nubia and Upper Lybia) and much darker complexion than their predecessors of mostly Cushitic stock, alike their mixed Nilo-Cushitic descendants, formed a major part of the latter Nilo-Saharian speaking and even a fewer Chadic speaking populations over subsaharian Africa...

(Poseidon and Hephaistos/Vulcan are often assumed to be the forefathers of the Aethiopians. The Lybians, a sister-kindred of the Aethiopians and Egyptians, have most oftentimes either a Giant bred from Gaea, Poseidon, Apollo, Artemis or Ares for forefather/s, whilst the Atlanteans or “people of Atlas” in Plato’s Timaea, an another sister-kindred to the Aethiopians who possess a lot of commonality with respectively the Lybians, Egyptians and Pelasgians/Peoples of the Sea...

the Colchidians of present-day Georgia claimed Egyptian and Aethiopian ancestry according Herodotus, whilst the vague matriarchal tribes in Minor Asia, the Danube and North Asia related to the Moschoi and the Sarmatians then assumed to be the legendary Amazons according the same Greek author, were assumed to be initially of Lybico-Egyptian ancestry as well) , could make sense about Bronze Age Western Europe and the Canary Islands, but Far Scythia?? Unless the ancient Greeks assumed the swarthy complexioned Euromongoloid and/or Paleo-Asian non-Iranic tribes who dwells in the toundra and Eurasian plains (or Hyperboreans for the connoiseurs) were “Burnt-faced” as well.

Historically speaking, a plethora of scientific evidence attests that Proto-Dynastic Egypt (4000 to 3400 - 3100BCE) , more especially the Princes of Abydos or “Dynasty 0” or Shemsu Hor “Followers of Horus” from which the founding ruler of Egypt Narmer/Menes hailed from, has been heavily influenced by the A-Group Culture as well as by the massive migrations of Saharian agropastoralists, the neighboring Berber-speaking populations west to the Nile and a migration of cattle-and-farm breeding Neolithic Afro-Asiatic speakers from the Near East (themselves descending back from earlier Proto-Afro-Asiatic speakers coming from Northeast Africa) . Studies led on the embalmed bodies of the A-Group culture natives were physically akin to the ancient Egyptians, who themselves and their modern descendants (the modern Fellahin, Saidis, Baladis and Copts) were (and still are) genetically akin to the Cushitic Proto-Somalis and of “Hamitic” (a taxonym to cautiously tackle) or “Ethiopid” stock (same as the Cushites, Berbers, Chadic-speaking populations, the ancient Canaanites/Phoenicians, the mixed Semitic/Canaanite - latter part Berber - Carthaginians, plausibly the earliest generations of Chaldeans then the Hymiarites/ancient Yemenis) , yet the Princes of Abydos alike the Dynastic then Old Kingdom period pharaohs were phenotypically closer to the Nilotic populations yet a mix of both Egyptian and Nilotic ancestry, genetically speaking. The B-Group and C-Group culture natives were from Cushitic stock (with minor Berber admixtures for the latter culture) while the X-Group natives were strongly admixtured with “Negroid” (an another taxonym to tackle cautiously) elements. Whom to the Proto-Dynastic Princes of Lower-Egypt, they were equally of Egyptian stock but strongly admixtured with Berber and Neolithic Asiatic (the famous cattle/farm breeding migrants) elements....

Still, regardless the age of Kush as a polity, both the Egyptians and Kushites long assumed that the formers were the descendants of colonists sent up north of the First Cataract by the latter ones and other akin ethnic Aethiopian ethnos from the very Sources of the Nile, claiming that of all the ruler-gods of Nile nobility from being the descendants of a semi-mythical tribe native from the foothills of the Mountains of the Moon (Mounts Rwenzori, in Middle Africa) called the Anu, who might have migrated north of the ancestral homeland about 10,000+ years before our days. In any case, the Egyptians assumed their state was a successor state to some protohistorical polity or culture rooted back from the South. In one way, Kush was somehow older than the Egyptian state....

Forbearers of the Aryan Legacy: The Gurjars

https://www.academia.edu/41672490/Forebearers_of_the_Aryan_Legacy

    As per the written dynastic history of Sumer, Gusur was the first king of Ksh the dynasty of (Kush). It is claimed that he reigned in Sumer as the first post-flood king.  His approximate period was around 2800BC when the flood ended and water started receding.  Goser was also the name of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh and founder of the 3rd dynasty (during the old Kingdom). The dates of the 3rd dynasty of Egypt were approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC.  Apart from this, Gasur (original word ‘GSR’, wrongly interpreted as ‘Gasur’ on the lines of ‘Asur’) and Girsu (GRJ) were two most important cities along with Eridu and Kish in world’s most ancient civilization of Mesopotamia (Sumer)....  Suryavanshi Aryans, under Dashrath, ruled almost the entire known world from Caucasus to Egypt.... 

Pg 183  Chapter 13: Egypt

    Djoser (Goser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. The dates of the 3rd dynasty of Egypt were approximately from 2686 to 2613 BC....

    The mention of Cushites or Kushites started in the Egyptian records since 21st Century BC. Mentuhotep II (21st century BC) is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush.  But the period of early Kush people was not definite. Dates are definite and accurate for the Kushite rulers of the twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt (750BC to 350AD), when Egypt was invaded and absorbed by the Kushite Empire. Alara was a King of Kush who was generally regarded as the founder of the Napatan royal dynasty by his 25th Dynasty Nubian successors and was the first recorded prince of Nubia... These people were a part of the Luvian tribe and were hence known by the name Nubian (‘N/L’uvian)....

    After ‘Kashta’ (the Kushite) invaded Egypt in the 8th century BC, the monarchs of Kush were also considered the pharaohs of the twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt. In the New Kingdom of Egypt, Nubia (Kush) was an Egyptian colony governed by an Egyptian Viceroy of Kush since the 16th century BC. With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around1070 BC, Kush became an independent kingdom centered at Napata in modern northern Sudan. At the end of the Second Intermediate Period (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the Hyksos in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of Amenhotep I (1514-1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as archers, ‘Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to Upper Nubia to destroy the Nubian bowmen.’  The tomb writings include two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush.  Before the 4th century, and throughout classical antiquity, Nubia was known as Kush, or, in classical Greek usage, Ethiopia (Aithiopia which roughly translates to ‘country of burnt faces’. The burnt face meant the comparison of people of light skin with the native people with darker skin. This again suggests the Caucasian origin of the Kush people....

    the biblical Cush might be linked to the Kassites of the Zagros Mountains (modern Iran).  The name Kush since at least the time of Josephus, has been connected with the biblical character Cush, in the Hebrew Bible son of Ham. 

    The Kingdom of Kush with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion. The seat was eventually captured and burnt to the ground by the Kingdom of Aksum...  The dates of disintegration of the Kingdom of these Kushites exactly coincide with that of the Kushans of the Indian subcontinent. They were also known as Cushan or Kushan.  The existence of pyramids and the culture of mummies in the Tarim Basin (original base of Kushan Empire) and use of the names of Egyptian Gods in Kushan Coins and several other factors clearly indicate a direct relationship between these two kingdoms which were both located on the Silk Route.  The Greek Historians also called the Kushites ‘Indians.’

    The Central region of modern day Ethiopia is Gojjam, south of this region is the region of Gudur and south of Gudur is Gurage. These names still carry the original name of their tribe...The Gurage people have a striking resemblance to the Caucasian features.... Gurage people look very similar to Indian populations which are an inter-mix of Aryans and Dravidians.  These Ethiopian groups are typically classified as a Caucasoid sub-race.  Considering paternal lineages, 25.4% of the Ethiopian Y chromosomes have a clear Caucasoid origin... Greco-Roman historian Eusebius notes that the Ethiopians had immigrated into the Red Sea area from the Indus Valley and that there were no other people in the region by that name prior to their arrival.

KUSHITES EXPRESSING ‘EGYPTIAN’ KINGSHIP: NUBIAN DYNASTIES IN HIEROGLYPHIC TEXTS AND A PHANTOM KUSHITE KING

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26664987 

"Son of Re, ruler of Kush" of 2nd intermediate period from Elephantine... Another instance is Nedjeh a Kerma ruler ...  Ka's stele at Buhen... Egytian elite render services to Kush ... 2nd intermediate Kush did not sack rather co-opted with the Egyptian-Nubian elites.  The elites were an expatriate community all descendants of Sobekemhab... Kamose's reconquista of Nubia... shifting politcal boundaries and allegiances during this 2nd intermediate period... racially mixed society... a seal with "Son of Re, ruler of Kush" found at Elephantine dating to the 17th or 18th dynasty. ..  Connections between Canaanite originating Hyksos state and the Kerma polity... military aristocracy?... Sobekemhab's family mixed ethnic origins based on names?  Wife and grand children name are of Nubian/Semitic/or New Kingdom? ... Kush and lower Egypt connects in 14th dynasty seals found in Kerma and Nubian sites.  Trade Hyksos and Nubians in late middle Kingdom... Kush as a large multi ethnic polity... 

WAS TAHARQA WHITE, OR MIXED?...

Taharqa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taharqa

was a pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and qore (king) of the Kingdom of Kush (present day Sudan), from 690 to 664 BC. He was one of the "Kushite Pharaohs" who ruled over Egypt for nearly a century.... Taharqa's reign can be dated from 690 BC to 664 BC....  In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians ...  Taharqa was buried at Nuri, in North Sudan... Mainstream scholars agree that Taharqa is the Biblical "Tirhakah", king of Ethiopia (Kush), who waged war against Sennacherib during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah...  

Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5459999/

first millennium BCE Egypt endured foreign domination leading to growing numbers of foreigners living within its borders possibly contributing genetically to the local population....amples recovered from Middle Egypt span around 1,300 years of ancient Egyptian history from the New Kingdom to the Roman Period. Our analyses reveal that ancient Egyptians shared more ancestry with Near Easterners than present-day Egyptians, who received additional sub-Saharan admixture in more recent times.... 

Especially from the first millennium BCE onwards, Egypt saw a growing number of foreigners living and working within its borders and was subjected to an almost continuous sequence of foreign domination by continuous sequence of foreign domination by Libyans, Assyrians, Kushites, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Turks and Brits....   modern Egyptian DNA, such as recent admixture from populations with sub-Saharan16 and non-African ancestries17, attributed to trans-Saharan slave trade and the Islamic expansion, respectively.... the samples can be grouped into three time periods: Pre-Ptolemaic (New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and Late Period), Ptolemaic and Roman Period....

We observe highly similar haplogroup profiles between the three ancient for the continuity test. Modern Egyptians share this profile but in addition show a marked increase of African mtDNA lineages L0–L4 up to 20%...We find that all three ancient Egyptian groups cluster together (Fig. 3b), supporting genetic continuity across our 1,300-year transect. Both analyses reveal higher affinities with modern populations from the Near East and the Levant compared to modern Egyptians (Fig. 3b,c). The affinity to the Middle East finds further support by the Y-chromosome haplogroups of the three individuals for which genome-wide data was obtained, two of which could be assigned to the Middle-Eastern haplogroup J, and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 common in North Africa...  We found the ancient Egyptian samples falling distinct from modern Egyptians, and closer towards Near Eastern and European. In contrast, modern Egyptians are shifted towards sub-Saharan African populations....   We find that ancient Egyptians are most closely related to Neolithic and Bronze Age samples in the Levant, as well as to Neolithic Anatolian and European populations...  While this result by itself does not exclude the possibility of much older and continuous gene flow from African sources, the substantially lower African component in our ∼2,000-year-old ancient samples suggests that African gene flow in modern Egyptians occurred indeed predominantly within the last 2,000 years....  

The archaeological site Abusir el-Meleq was inhabited from at least 3250BCE until about 700CE and was of great religious significance because of its active cult to Osiris, the god of the dead, which made it an attractive burial site for centuries...

The first reported case of the rare mitochondrial haplotype H4a1 in ancient Egypt

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74114-9

Takabuti, was a female who lived in ancient Egypt during the 25th Dynasty, c.660 BCE.... 

Takabuti belonged to mitochondrial haplogroup H4a1.... The modern distribution of H4a1 is rare and sporadic and has been identified in areas including the Canary Islands, southern Iberia and the Lebanon. H4a1 has also been reported in ancient samples from Bell Beaker and Unetice contexts in Germany, as well as Bronze Age Bulgaria.... 

Takabuti lived in Thebes, Egypt, during the 25th Dynasty (c. 660 BCE)....

SEVERAL EURASIAN SOURCES FOUND IN NUBIANS FROM EARLIER THAN 6000YA.  NEOLITHIC ANATOLIANS, BRONZE AND IRON AGE LEVANT, AND IRANIANS.  FURTHER MIXING BY ARAB CONQUEST INCREASED THE MID EAST BLOODLINES AS WELL AS MASSIVE AMOUNTS OF SUBSAHARAN SLAVES.  NUBIA AND EGYPT ARE A CROSSROADS MEETING POINT SINCE THE PALEOLTHIC OF THE WEST & CENTRAL EURASIANS WITH  CENTRAL & EAST AFRICANS AND THE PALEOLTHIC NORTH AFRICAN.     

Social stratification without genetic differentiation at the site of Kulubnarti in Christian Period Nubia

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.02.17.431423v1.full

Nubia has been a corridor for the movement of goods, culture, and people between sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt, and West Eurasia since prehistory, but little is known about the genetic landscape of the region prior to the influence of the Islamic migrations that began in the late 1st millennium CE. We report genome-wide data for 66 individuals from the site of Kulubnarti (∼650–1000 CE)... We find that the Kulubnarti Nubians were admixed with ∼43% Nilotic-related ancestry on average (individual proportions varied between ∼36-54%) and the remaining ancestry reflecting a West Eurasian-related gene pool likely introduced into Nubia through Egypt, but ultimately deriving from an ancestry pool like that found in the Bronze and Iron Age Levant. The admixed ancestry at Kulubnarti reflects interactions between genetically-distinct people in northeast Africa spanning almost a millennium, with West Eurasian ancestry disproportionately associated with females, highlighting the impact of female mobility in this region.... Present-day Nubians are not directly descended from the Christian Period people from Kulubnarti without additional admixture, attesting to the dynamic history of interaction that continues to shape the cultural and genetic landscape of Nubia....

Archaeological and historical evidence attest to a particularly dynamic relationship between Nubia and Egypt established more than 6,000 years ago that increased in intensity over time...  Genetic studies of present-day Nubians reveal a mix of sub-Saharan African- and West Eurasian-related ancestry, but the mixture is largely a result of the Arab conquest of the late-1st and early-2nd millennia CE, a time during which people with West Eurasian-related ancestry spread southward along the Nile through Egypt and into Nubia. Because more recent admixture events obscure our understanding of the ancestry of people who predate these events, the analysis of paleogenomic data from Kulubnarti offers an opportunity to directly investigate the ancestry and biological relationships of a group of pre-Islamic Nubian people....

A first cline correlates to increasing proportions of West African-related ancestry, extending between Nilo-Saharan-speakers and West Africans. A second cline correlates to increasing proportions of West Eurasian-related ancestry, extending from Nilo-Saharan-speakers to West Eurasians. Sudanese Arab, Beja, and Nubian people from the northeastern and central regions of Sudan, along with Afro-Asiatic-speakers from Ethiopia and Somalia, fall intermediate along this cline....  West Eurasian-related ancestry has been present in northeastern Africa for at least 5,000 years and potentially far longer; however, the genetic structure of present-day Nubians has been influenced by a relatively recent spread of West Eurasian-related ancestry southward along the Nile and Blue Nile during the Arab conquest of the late-1st and 2nd millennia CE....  

Individuals from Kulubnarti fall along the Nilo-Saharan–West Eurasian cline, approximately overlapping present-day Sudanese Arabs, Beja, and Nubians, as well as Semitic and Cushitic-speaking Ethiopians, suggesting that they have both West Eurasian-related ancestry and ancestry related to Nilo-Saharan-speakers (in what follows, we use “Nilotic” to refer to the ancestry related to the people indigenous to parts of northeastern Africa, including the Nile Valley, who speak Nilo-Saharan languages). The Kulubnarti Nubians on average are shifted slightly toward present-day West Eurasians relative to present-day Nubians, who are estimated to have ∼40% West Eurasian-related ancestry. ...  Kulubnarti Nubians were admixed between these ancestry types, confirming that a significant West Eurasian-related ancestry component was present even in this part of Nubia prior to the later migrations that contributed to the present-day genetic landscape....

West Eurasian-related ancestry in the Kulubnarti Nubians is complex and itself admixed, plausibly requiring both Levantine- and/or Anatolian-related ancestry as well as a non-trivial amount of Iranian/Caucasus-related ancestry, which was spread into Anatolia and the Levant in the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. Complex and admixed West Eurasian-related ancestry at Kulubnarti is consistent with previous work showing that ancestry such as that found in Levant Neolithic-related populations made a critical contribution to the genetic landscape in parts of Africa several thousand years ago and that ancestry related to the Iranian Neolithic appeared in parts of Africa after the earlier gene flow related to Levant Neolithic populations, with Iranian Neolithic ancestry identified throughout the Levant during the Bronze Age and in Egypt by the Iron Age. Indeed, we find that Egypt_published also fits as a West Eurasian-related source, suggesting that a similar type of West Eurasian-related ancestry was present in Egypt as well as Kulubnarti, consistent with the geographically- and archaeologically-plausible scenarios that Egyptians could have been the more proximal source for the introduction of West Eurasian-related ancestry southward into ancient Nubia.  More than one two-way admixture model produced a valid fit with the O9 reference set....  admixture as recent as ∼100–500 years (95% CI) and as distant as ∼650–1900 years (95% CI)... the admixture did not all occur at a single time... 

Because females carry two-thirds of the X chromosomes in a population but only half of the autosomes, the X chromosome can be used to detect a signal of asymmetrical admixture between males and females...  West Eurasian-related ancestry at Kulubnarti disproportionately derived from female ancestors. Our point estimate of the proportion of West Eurasian-related ancestry deriving from females is 68%, with a 95% CI of 59–77%... 11 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups that originated and are presently distributed predominantly in West Eurasia, though the presence of such lineages for thousands of years also in northeastern Africa has been clearly established...   Thirteen individuals from both cemeteries belong to H2a...  Ten individuals from both cemeteries belong to mtDNA haplogroup U5b2b5,... One of these mutations was detected in a 4,000-year-old mummy from Deir el-Bersha, Egypt also assigned to this haplogroup65, raising the possibility that the presence of U5b2b5 at Kulubnarti reflects deep connections with Egypt; other mtDNA haplogroups, including J2a2e, R0a1, T1a7, U1a1, and U3b are also found both at Kulubnarti and in ancient Egyptians. U1a1, U3b, and N1b1a2 have also been identified in Bronze Age individuals from Israel and Jordan42,... only one individual belonging to an African-originating L mtDNA haplogroup, suggesting that female-specific African ancestry may have had a limited impact as far north as Egypt as late as the Roman Period. In contrast, 28 individuals from Kulubnarti belong to seven different L lineages, the most common being the eastern African sub-clade L2a1d1, supporting a deep matrilineal connection to this region. Four individuals from Kulubnarti belong to L5a1b, a lineage of the rare L5a haplogroup centered in East Africa. mtDNA haplogroup L5 has been observed only at low frequency in East and Central Africa and also in Egypt; the L5a1b lineage has previously been identified in a Pastoral Neolithic individual from Hyrax Hill in Kenya dating to ∼2,300 years BP....

Y chromosome ... Seventeen males (including two pairs of relatives with a shared patriline) belong to haplogroups on the E1b1b1 (E-M215) branch that originated in northeast Africa ∼25 kya and is commonly found in present-day Afro-Asiatic speaking groups. In this subset of males, E1b1b1a1a1c (E-Y125054) was the most common haplogroup...While 5 males from the S cemetery belonged to haplogroups on the E1b1b1 branch and another belonged to E2a (E-M41), nine belonged to Y haplogroups with likely West Eurasian origins – albeit also with distributions that include northeastern Africa...  

long-term interactions between Egypt and Nubia involving gene flow. We now provide further support for these interactions using ancient DNA.... Taken together, our results reveal a dynamic population history in Nubia that began thousands of years ago and has continued into the present day....

mtDNA Analysis of Nile River Valley Populations: A Genetic Corridor or a Barrier to Migration?

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707631826

At slowly evolving sites within HV1, northern-mtDNA diversity was highest in Egypt and lowest in the southern Sudan, and southern-mtDNA diversity was highest in the southern Sudan and lowest in Egypt, indicating that migrations had occurred bidirectionally along the Nile River Valley. Egypt and Nubia have low and similar amounts of divergence for both mtDNA types...  We conclude that these migrations probably occurred within the past few hundred to few thousand years and that the migration from north to south was either earlier or lesser in the extent of gene flow than the migration from south to north....

Thus, this evidence suggests that there was a barrier between the northern and southern portions of the Nile River Valley and that the latter was a cul-de-sac, rather than a corridor, for human migration....  large amount of existing data on human mtDNA variation enables us to confidently assign mtDNA types in Nile River Valley populations to northern (Eurasian) or southern (sub-Saharan African) affiliation and to use this information to infer migrations....

Our results, based on mtDNA analysis of 224 individuals, indicate that migrations have indeed occurred, both from north to south and from south to north....   However, although the mtDNA results indicate that migrations have occurred in both directions along the Nile River Valley, these migrations have not been extensive enough to genetically homogenize the mtDNA gene pools of Nile River Valley populations. Significant differences exist among Egyptian, Nubian, and southern Sudanese mtDNA types, with Nubians appearing to be more similar to Egyptians than to the southern Sudanese and with Egyptians and the southern Sudanese exhibiting the greatest differences. This is perhaps to be expected, given that, during the second millenium b.c., Pharaonic Egypt colonized part or most of Nubia and that Nubian kings conquered Egypt during the 8th and 7th centuries b.c.. Thus, there is historical evidence documenting much direct interaction between Egypt and Nubia.....

Nonetheless, we can infer that the migration of northern mtDNA types to the south is older than the migration of southern mtDNA types to the north (or that there has been less gene flow from north to south than from south to north along the Nile River Valley) and that Egypt and Nubia have had more genetic contact than either has had with the southern Sudan. Moreover, we can tentatively infer that these migrations occurred recently enough to fall within the period of the documented historical record of human populations in the Nile River Valley. Thus, it is tempting to try to relate these migrations to specific historical events (Shaw and Nicholson 1995). For example, the migration from north to south may coincide with the Pharaonic colonization of Nubia, which occurred initially during the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty, 1991–1785 b.c.) and more permanently during the New Kingdom, from the reign of Thotmosis III (1490–1437 b.c.). The migration from south to north may coincide with the 25th Dynasty (730–655 b.c.), when kings from Napata in Nubia conquered Egypt. Of course, additional migrations documented during the Ptolemeic, Roman, and Arabic times are also likely to have contributed to the current distribution of mtDNA types along the Nile River Valley....

Table 1. Genetic Diversity in Nile River Valley mtDNA Types

Proportion of mtDNA Types (%)

Sample Size No. of mtDNA Types Northern Southern

Egypt 68 58 74.6 25.4

Nubia 80 53 45.1 54.9

Southern- 

Sudan 76 65 19.7 80.3

Table 2. Genetic Diversity, in Nile River Valley, of Northern and Southern mtDNA Types

mtDNA Type  Sample Size  No. of mtDNA Types

Northern:

 Egypt 51 45

 Nubia 34 19

 Southern- 

Sudan 11 9

Southern:

 Egypt 17 13

 Nubia 46 34

 Southern- 

Sudan 65 56

Table 4. dA and Separation-Time Estimates among Nile River Valley Populations

Northern mtDNA Types Southern mtDNA Types

Time, for Rate of (years) Time, for Rate of (years)

Comparison 33%/myr 234%/myr 33%/myr 234%/myr

Egypt-Nubia 1,120 160 1,105 155

Nubia–southern 

Sudan 5,200 735 1,580 225

Egypt–southern 

Sudan 6,070 855 1,540 215

For example, the northern mtDNA types in the southern Sudan could reflect a small group of Egyptians that migrated very recently to the southern Sudan if, by chance, the migrant mtDNA types differed sufficiently from the overall composition of the Egyptian mtDNA to result in an apparent divergence time of 855–6,070 years....

ANY RELATION OF KERMA WITH KERMAN IRAN?  KERMANIA WITH GERMANIA? ...

Kerma culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerma_culture

The Kerma culture or Kerma kingdom was an early civilization centered in Kerma, Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient Nubia. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia,... Middle Kingdom of Egypt. ... Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the eleventh century BC, the more-Egyptianized Kingdom of Kush emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.... Unlike Egypt, Kerma seems to have been highly centralized. It controlled the 1st to 4th Cataracts, which meant its domain was as extensive as ancient Egypt....

During its zenith, Kerma formed a partnership with the Hyksos and tried to crush Egypt. Discoveries in 2003 at the Governor of El Kab's Tomb (near Thebes) show that Kerma invaded deep into Egypt between 1575 and 1550 BC. It is believed that this was one of Egypt's most humiliating defeats, which later pharaohs had erased from the official historic records. Many royal statues and monuments were looted from Egypt and removed to Kerma, apparently as a gesture of triumph by Kerma's ruler....Under Thutmose I, Egypt made several campaigns south,[13] destroying Kerma. This eventually resulted in the Egyptian annexation of Nubia (Kerma/ Kush) c.1504 BC... 

In 2003, archaeologist Charles Bonnet heading a team of Swiss archaeologists excavating near Kerma discovered a cache of monumental black granite statues of the Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt now exposed in the Kerma Museum. Among the sculptures were ones belonging to the dynasty's last two pharaohs, Taharqa and Tanoutamon, whose statues are described as "masterpieces that rank among the greatest in art history."

Craniometric analysis of Kerma fossils comparing them to various other early populations inhabiting the Nile Valley and Maghreb found that they were morphologically close to Predynastic Egyptians from Naqada (4000–3200 BC). The Kermans were also more distantly related to Dynastic Egyptians from Gizeh (323 BC– AD 330) and Predynastic Egyptian samples from Badari (4400–4000 BC), followed by the ancient Garamantes of Libya (900 BC- AD 500), who were found to be most closely related to Neolithic sub-Saharan African samples and Roman period Egyptians,[23] and secondary to modern Tunisians and Moroccans as well as early osteological series from Algeria (1500 BC), Carthage in Tunisia (751 BC– AD 435), Soleb in Nubia (1575–1380 BC), and Ptolemaic dynasty-era samples from Alexandria in Egypt (323 BC– AD 330).

Dental trait analysis of Kerma fossils found affinities with various populations inhabiting the Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, and Northeast Africa, especially to other ancient populations from the central and northern Sudan. Among the sampled populations, the Kerma people were overall nearest to the Kush populations in Upper Nubia, the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia, and to Ethiopians, followed by the Meroitic, X-Group and Christian period inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and then to the C-Group and Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia and ancient Egyptians (Naqada, Badari, Hierakonpolis, Abydos and Kharga in Upper Egypt; Hawara in Lower Egypt).

Claude Rilly, citing anthropologist Christian Simon, reports that the population of the Kingdom of Kerma was morphologically heterogeneous, with three main clusters in terms of morphological tendencies (A, B, C): Cluster A is similar to a sample of modern Kenyan skeletons. Cluster C is similar to a sample of Middle Empire skeletons from the region of Assuan, and Cluster B, which although distinct from Cluster C, shares many common features with it. He notes that clusters A and B were present in Early Kerma in ("Kerma ancien") but became the majority in the following Middle Kerma ("Kerma moyen"), and that Cluster C was mainly present in early Kerma and "possibly represents the descendency of the Pre-Kerma population that founded Kerma 4 km away from the original settlement, when the Nile riverbed shrunk..." Rilly continues: "However, the fact that their cemetery remained on the ancestral site might indicate cultural and ethnical continuity between Pre-Kerma and the new city. Cluster A and B were already present in Kerma ancien, but become majoritary in the following stage."

DNA from ancient Egyptian mummies reveals their ancestry

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/05/30/dna-from-ancient-egyptian-mummies-reveals-their-ancestry/

Researchers wrung genetic material from 151 Egyptian mummies,  radiocarbon dated between Egypt's New Kingdom (the oldest at 1388 B.C.) to the Roman Period (the youngest at 426 A.D.)... “for 1,300 years, we see complete genetic continuity.” Despite repeated conquests of Egypt, by Alexander the Great, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and Assyrians — the list goes on — ancient Egyptians showed little genetic change. “The other big surprise,” Krause said, “was we didn't find much sub-Saharan African ancestry.”... Ancient Egyptians were closely related to people who lived along the eastern Mediterranean, the analysis showed. They also shared genetic material with residents of the Turkish peninsula at the time and Europe.... 

The scientists compared these ancient genetics with those of 100 modern Egyptians and 125 modern Ethiopians that had been previously analyzed. If you ask Egyptians, they'll say that they have become more European recently, Krause said. “We see exactly the opposite,” he said.  It was not until relatively recently in Egypt's long history that sub-Saharan genetic influences became more pronounced. “In the last 1,500 years, Egypt became more African, if you want,” Krause said.  In their paper, the researchers acknowledged that “all our genetic data were obtained from a single site in Middle Egypt and may not be representative for all of ancient Egypt.” In the south of Egypt, the authors wrote, sub-Saharan influences may have been stronger.

DNA history of Egypt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_history_of_Egypt

DNA from 151 mummified ancient Egyptian individuals, whose remains were recovered from Abusir el-Meleq in Middle Egypt... The specimens were living in a period stretching from the late New Kingdom to the Roman era (1388 BCE–426 CE).... the ancient Egyptian individuals in their own dataset possessed highly similar mitochondrial profiles throughout the examined period (pre Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman) and cluster close to each other in their analyses, supporting genetic continuity across the 1,300-year transect. Modern Egyptians generally shared this maternal haplogroup pattern, but also carried more African clades than Ancient Egypyians. A wide range of mtDNA haplogroups were found including clades of J,U,H,HV,M,R0,R2,K,T,L,I,N,X,W. The mtDNA analyses revealed higher affinities with modern populations from the Near East compared to modern Egyptians, possibly due to the increase in African lineages....

Additionally, three of the ancient Egyptian mummified individuals were analysed for Y-DNA, two were assigned to West Asian J and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 both common in modern day Egyptians. The researchers cautioned that the affinities of the examined ancient Egyptian specimens may not be representative of those of all ancient Egyptians since they were from a single archaeological site. Autosomal DNA analyses of these ancient Egyptian mummies did not find significant differences between the three ancient samples, supporting continuity across time. The analyses revealed a high affinity to near eastern populations. Modern Egyptians in comparison are more shifted toward sub-Saharan African populations.  "Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out despite this more recent sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with modern Ethiopians is not supported".  Estimations of the sub-Saharan African ancestry reveal that modern Egyptians inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors than the three ancient Egyptians do....

WHEN GOD APPEARED BEFORE HERAKLES HE APPEARED CLOAKED AS A RAM.  THE POWER OF GOD APPEARS AS A RAM.  THE LORD OF ALL, AND CREATOR GOD APPEARS AS A RAM.  THE SPIRIT OF GOD APPEARS AS A RAM...  

Three Giant Criosphinxes Discovered On Egypt’s Cultic Avenue in Luxor

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/criosphinx-0015977

Luxor’s Avenue of Sphinxes in southern Egypt. At least one of the sphinx statues had a coiled cobra carved on top of its head. The three gigantic statue ram heads were discovered south of Karnak Temple in Luxor, on the east bank of the Nile River....  the age of the statues is still being investigated, however, one of them has a hieroglyphic inscription dating to the reign of Amenhotep III, King Tutankhamun grandfather. This means at least one of the three statues dates to between 1390 BC and 1352 BC.... 

Ram-headed sphinxes or criosphinxes, like the three just discovered, were also installed at the entrance to the temple of Amun , in Thebes....  Greek historian Herodotus recorded the ram-headed sphinxes of Egypt as “criosphinxes.” He said they represented the power of a pharaoh, who was in turn protected by Amun, who was most often depicted with powerful curved ram horns.... The coiled cobra was another important symbol of royal power in ancient Egypt. In academic circles this symbol is formally known as the “ Uraeus snake .” When this coiled cobra was depicted on the forehead, or head, it represented the ancestral serpent goddess “ Wadjet,”...

ORIGINALLY NUBIA WOULD HAVE BEEN A NON-NIGGER BECAUSE KUSH IS BROTHER TO CANAAN, MIZRAIM, AND PHUT.  OVER TIME GENE MIXING CHANGES THE GENETIC PROFILE OF NUBIA.  NUBIA IS SITE SPECIFIC GENE FLOW ADMIXTURES SINCE PALEOLITHIC, GENETIC DRIFT FROM SEPARATIST CLASS AND FAMILY CLANS AVOIDING BASTARDIZING THEMSELVES, AND POPULATION REPLACEMENTS MAY OR NOT OCCURRED BEFORE MESOLITHIC.  MULTIPLE MODERN HUMAN POPULATIONS LIVED IN NUBIA SINCE PALEOLITHIC.  FROM PALEOLITHIC TO MESOLITHIC CLIMATE CHANGE CAUSES MORE MIGRATIONS INTO THE NILE.  QADAN CULTURE IS PALEOLITHIC.  KHARTOUM CULTURE IS MESOLITHIC ABOUT 8000 BC LASTING 2-3000 YEARS.  KHARTOUM NEOLITHIC SPAN 6000-5500BC.  LATE NEOLITHIC THE A-GROUP APPEAR CAUSING REDUCTION IN CRANIOFACIAL COMPLEX.  DISCONTINUITY BETWEEN MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC NUBIAN GROUPS.   THE MIDDLE NUBIAN HORIZON IS 3 CULTURALLY DISTINCT GROUPS C-GROUP, KERMA, AND PAN-GRAVE.  C-GROUP MAY HAVE EVOLVED FROM A-GROUP HAS AFFINITY WITH KERMA.  PAN-GRAVE IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM C-GROUP AND KERMA.  KUSH AROSE AFTER DOWNFALL OF KERMA AND EGYPT OCCUPIES THE AREA.  KUSH PERIODS WERE NAPATAN AND MEROITIC.    

SKELETALLY LATER NUBIAN GROUPS MEROITIC, X-GROUP, CHRISTIAN AND MIDDLE NUBIAN KERMA SHOW BIOLOGIC AFFINITY.  KERMA SKELETONS WERE INTERPRETTED AS EGYPTIAN BUT LATER CATEGORIZED AS SEPARATE C-GROUP NUBIANS.  NO OUTSIDE CULTURAL INFLUENCE WITHIN PAN GRAVES.

THE SAMPLES CLUSTER BY SITE AND EXTRAREGIONAL GENE FLOW WAS SAME AMONG THESE GROUPS BECAUSE GENE FLOW WAS SIMILAR AT SOME POINT IN THEIR HISTORY.  A-GROUP DIFFUSED WITH UPPER EGYPT PREDYNASTIC NAQADA CULTURE.  SAMPLES NOT CLUSTERING BY SITE ISLAND KULUBNARTI, PAN-GRAVE, AND SAYALA C-GROUP WERE SOCIAL ISOLATES OF CLASS AND CLAN KINSHIPS AFFECTED WITH LESS GENE FLOW OR GENETIC DRIFT.   

OTHER STUDIES ARE CONTRADICTORY A RESULT OF DIFFERENT INFORMATION.  

A POPULATION REPLACEMENT MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE OCCURRED BEFORE THE MESOLITHIC AND LATE PALEOLITHIC BASED ON LIMB DATA LATE PALEOLITHIC ARE MORPHOLOGICALLY DISSIMILAR TO LATER NUBIAN GROUPS.    

SUPPORTS MULTIPLE POPULATIONS OF LATE PALEOLITHIC ANCESTRAL TO MODERN NUBIANS OR A NEW POPULATION MOVE IN AND BECAME ANCESTRAL.  

SESEBI IS SEVERAL NUBIAN GROUPS AT ONE SITE KERMA, MEROITIC, AND CHRISTIAN EXERTING A HOMOGENIZING EFFECT.... 

Evaluating Nubian Population Structure from Cranial Nonmetric Traits: 

Gene Flow, Genetic Drift, and Population History of the Nubian Nile Valley

https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1125&context=humbiol_preprints

Nubian samples were utilized, spanning the Mesolithic-Christian time periods, and

geographically, from just above the first through the third cataracts... Collectively, the archaeological, biological, and environmental evidence support the ideas of multiple populations living in Lower Nubia during the Paleolithic, and/or a new population entering the area and shaping Nubian population structure....  Migrations and population replacements in Nubia have been hypothesized based on archaeological and biological...Later Nubian biological material shows evidence of great heterogeneity, which supports the idea of increased gene flow over time through contact with other populations, among other hypotheses, but is a simplistic explanation for describing the source of heterogeneity....  

The earliest time period of modern human occupation along the Nile begins with the Paleolithic....they were part of the long-lasting Qadan culture...A climate shift occurred between the Paleolithic and Mesolithic... The Khartoum Mesolithic toolkit was pervasive, expanding across the Sahara around 8,000 B.C and lasting 2-3,000 years.  Pottery and artifacts primarily define two Neolithic Nubian groups (Khartoum Neolithic Variant and Abkan). The pottery of the Khartoum Variant is interpreted as demonstrating a logical evolution from the Khartoum Mesolithic. Further support of this transition comes from the continuous occupation at el-Barga (east of Kerma), spanning 6000-5500 BC, which extends from the late Mesolithic into the Neolithic and demonstrates continuity across these times. Later in the Neolithic, the A-Group appeared in the Lower Nubian archaeological record and probably arose from the indigenous people already in the area.  The A-Group, a complex stratified chiefdom, was wealthy possibly due to exportation of raw materials and control of trade into Egypt from further south.  With time, the A-Group wealth waned, probably as a result of Egyptian economic changes...  While nothing from the archaeological record suggests a new population definitively migrated to Nubia after the Mesolithic and became the A-Group, studies have found a reduction in the craniofacial complex over time...  a discontinuity between Mesolithic and Neolithic Nubian groups derived from geometric morphometric analyses...

The Middle Nubian Horizon is represented by three culturally distinct, but roughly contemporary, groups spread across Nubia: the C-Group, Kerma, and Pan-Grave people. The C Group is a more northern population, occupying the area of the Nile above the second cataract. The C-Group pottery appears to represent a natural evolution from the A-Group and overlaps with ceramics from Kerma and the Pan-Grave cultures.  Most recently, several lines of archaeological evidence (including pottery and burial superstructures) at Kerma demonstrated an overlap or close affinity between the C-Group and Kerma peoples....  Biologically, a straightforward relationship of the A- and C-groups has been difficult to model. When cranial nonmetrics are considered, the A-Group shows biological continuity with the post-Neolithic C-Group, which is also Supported by dental nonmetrics...C-Group sample utilized in Prowse and Lovell was more biologically related to a Mesolithic Nubian sample than to the A-Group also examined in these earlier studies, a finding that on the surface appears contradictory to the results of Galland et al.  

The Pan-Grave culture, which appears very different than either the C-Group or Kerma culture, has been found in Egypt, C-Group occupations, and in the desert near the C-Group. The Pan-Grave people dug unique, oval shaped, shallow burial pits at the

perimeter of C-Group cemeteries, as well as in the desert. It is suggested they were Medjay, stationed by Egypt to keep track of the C-Group, but this may not have been the sole purpose of their presence. Adams cites literature that identifies the Medjay/Pan-Grave people as another cultural group of nomadic Nubians that lived in the Eastern Desert.

The Kerma culture was found further south, below the third cataract.  Kerma was a state civilization and massive trade center along the Nile, overseeing the importation of goods from areas south to more northern areas and providing the conditions needed for interaction with other peoples. The downfall of Kerma likely came during the New Kingdom with a conquest by Thutmosis III. The necropolis was abandoned and the people moved south. The C-Group likely disappeared as a result of Egyptianization...

Later Time Periods: The Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian:  Kush can be divided into two chronological time periods: the Napatan and Meroitic. Kush represents a state-level society that arose after the downfall of Kerma and subsequent Egyptian occupation of the area...  Archaeologically, it appears the Meroitic culture smoothly transitioned to the X-Group and later to the Christian Nubians, although foreign influences have also been noted. The name X-Group derives from original interpretations of the X-Group as a foreign population spreading across Nubia after the Meriotic period. Because later interpretations debunked this hypothesis, Adams (1977) refers to the X-Group as Ballana, following the suggestion by Trigger (1965) . We use X-Group and Ballana interchangeably here as many of the studies cited utilize X-Group or Ballana to refer to the Ballana culture. The conversion to Christianity marks the Christian time period. During this time period, there was an immigration of northern peoples to areas in Lower Nubia. Skeletally, later Nubian groups (Meroitic, X-Group, Christian) and a Middle Nubian Horizon group (Kerma) cluster together, showing biological affinity.

As is demonstrated above, Nubian history shows regular contact with other peoples, providing opportunity for extraregional gene flow, but the environmental, archaeological, mortuary, and skeletal evidence do not suggest population replacement after the Paleolithic.... While the Christian time period is quite broad (500-1100 AD), this site has been dated as early within the time period, overlapping with the X Group.

Kerma....Originally, the skeletons found at this site were interpreted as Egyptian, but later conclusions regarding the skeletal material categorized the individuals as a culturally separate C-group of Nubians....   Kulubnarti....contained Christian, Islamic and X-Group burials, although the Christian remains are the focus of this investigation....   Sayala....Both C-Group and Pan-Grave burials were excavated on the eastern bank of the Nile at Sayala. The Pan-Grave burials were located further inland than the C-Group the pan graves did not exhibit influences from other cultures,...a resistance to Egyptian acculturation during Egyptian occupation of Lower Nubia in the Middle Kingdom...  At Semna South, remains from the Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian time periods were excavated...the graves were distinct in structure, orientation, and grave goods culture to which each burial belongs....   Sesebi...recent research identifies Sesebi as an Egyptian colonial town built during Akhenaten’s reign (as Amenhotep IV) with evidence of Egyptian occupation dating to the early New Kingdom...   Wadi Halfa....a sedentary group of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers...  

the Nubian groups do not cluster by observer in the PCO plots on either the X or Y axis, which would be expected if the observers scored the cranial discrete traits differently...However, population history indicates these samples should cluster together, and thus the pattern is not likely due to interobserver bias...   Sex differences were negligible among these samples...  the samples appear to mostly cluster by site and in some cases by temporal distances....  no sample experienced higher or lower extraregional gene flow in relation to other groups in this study...

An examination into the Middle Nubian Horizon relationships is complex; the C-Group at Wadi-Halfa is biologically similar to Kerma. However, the C-Group at Sayala is depicted as an outlier to all of the Nubian groups...and the Sayala C-Group was an outlier on the Harpending and Ward (1982) plot,... the biodistances roughly cluster by site, irrespective of geographic distance....  the sites of Hesa-Biga and Wadi Halfa cluster together on PC1, creating a northern group (Sayala C-Group and Pan-Grave people are not included in this cluster, a finding which is consistent with the archaeological record and explained in the Discussion). Moreover, Kulubnarti roughly clustered with their neighbors at Semna South on PC1.

Discussion:  The in-depth population genetics analysis revealed a closely related group of samples that show no evidence of population replacement within this dataset (support for hypotheses 1 and 3) and do not support the null hypothesis of the spatial-temporal model explaining the patterning in these data. Instead, one of our alternative hypotheses appears to be supported (see Spatial Structure and Social Isolation in Nubia: Support of Genetic Drift, below). Therefore, our hypotheses are only somewhat supported by these results. In sum, with the exception of the C Group from Sayala, the Nubian samples all clustered together, showing a strong biological relationship (thus, supporting hypothesis 1). The Middle Nubian Horizon relationship is complex, with only the Kerma and Wadi Halfa C-Group demonstrating a close affinity (which addresses the research question), while most other contemporary samples did not cluster together (hypothesis 2). Instead, the Nubian groups mostly clustered by site with some deviations (e.g.,Sayala C-Group). To understand the results in the context of our hypotheses/research question, questions of extraregional gene flow, genetic drift, and population replacements should be examined....

The estimate of Fst reveals that 9-10% of variation in these samples lies between the

Nubian groups, and around 90% within. As genetic drift was not statistically removed from the population structure analyses, the 9-10% thusly reflects influences from both extraregional gene flow and genetic drift. These results appear to be conflicting on first glance, but upon further inspection they more likely indicate almost all the groups engaged in longstanding extraregional gene flow from other population(s) that exerted a homogenizing effect on the residuals and biological distances. In other words, the residuals are approximately the same across most of the groups because extraregional gene flow was similar among the samples at some point in their population history. These results are in agreement with the molecular data;  mtDNA studies have found evidence for gene flow into and among Nilotic populations....

Contact with Extraregional Populations Post-Paleolithic: Support of Gene Flow:  ...the A-Group also displayed similarities in artifacts from the Upper Egyptian predynastic Naqada culture, which is suggestive of cultural diffusion. The Egyptians occupied Lower Nubia during the Middle Nubian Horizon, and evidence suggests amicable interactions between them and the C-Group. Moreover, Kerma’s establishment as a strategic trade center, with Egyptian fortresses established in the vicinity at the Second Cataract (2050-1750 BC) would provide opportunity for gene flow between the populations. Similarly, the documented presence of the Pan-Grave people in Egypt at Hierakonpolis and employment by the Egyptians would also provide the means for gene flow if it occurred....  Analyses of the skeletal material demonstrated a movement towards biological homogeneity from distinctly different groups of Nubians and Egyptians at Tombos. The Meroitic time period brought with it another major trade center at Meroë, where there was opportunity for gene flow. However, the Meroitic group here was from north of Meroë, at Semna South (an outpost)....

Such examples of sustained contact with the Romans and Egyptians are demonstrated through the archaeological and mortuary (i.e., grave goods) evidence, which supports the biological conclusions of sustained extraregional gene flow in this paper. But, was gene flow the predominant evolutionary mechanism driving the statistical results here, or was genetic drift also operating in this population?...  Likewise, the isolation by distance and spatial temporal models assume linearity. In the PCO plots, we see a more complex, non-linear structure where samples cluster mainly by site. For the samples that do not group by site (i.e., island Kulubnarti, Pan-Grave people, and Sayala C-Group), social isolation, which occurs in several forms, might explain this pattern. Jorde (1980) provides examples of social isolation, including class and clan differences, which are factors that could potentially be found in these groups and should be detectable by interpreting the archaeological and historic records....kinship coefficient. The same groups that deviate from site clustering in the PCO plot (Kulubnarti (island), Pan-Grave, and Sayala C Group) appear to be affected more greatly by either differing levels of gene flow, or potentially by genetic drift,...these three Nubian groups were isolated by social boundaries.

The Kulubnarti (Batn el Hajar region) samples are representative of the Christian time

period where the island cemetery was established at the beginning of the Christian period and the mainland cemetery was established later, probably around 1100 AD. During

the late Christian period, immigration to the Batn el Hajar area from the North is evident, although the impetus for the population movement has not been established. The increased level of genetic drift (or reduced extraregional gene flow) in the island Kulubnarti sample vs. the mainland sample may be due to its earlier date, prior to the influx of immigrating peoples (making them isolated to the genetic material contributed at the later time), and which also would allow for differences in genetic composition between the two Kulubnarti samples. Increased extraregional gene flow was not detected by the residuals in either sample, suggesting the immigrating population was one with which Nubians had engaged in gene flow in the past, which is supported by the historic record detailed in the section above.

Sociocultural factors, suggestive of social isolation, may have caused the drift in the Pan-Grave people; while most likely Nubian, they were culturally and socially distinct from other Nubian groups (including their positions as Medjay and burial practices), which may have led to their genetic isolation and the patterning of Middle Nubian Horizon biological relationships...  Strouhal and Jungwirth (1984) also provide information that explains the genetic profile of the C-Group at Sayala, and their separation from other Middle Nubian Horizon groups, supporting the kinship coefficient value, and the idea they were significantly affected by genetic drift/and or low levels of extraregional gene flow in relation to the other samples examined here.  The authors describe the nature of the C-Group settlements as comparatively small, spatially separated, endogamous groups, providing ideal conditions for genetic drift.  

The archaeological and historic records further indicate the Egyptians occupied Lower Nubia during the partially contemporary C-Group (Nubian)/Middle Kingdom (Egyptian) periods.  While Kerma crumbled from Egyptian intervention, the C-Group were stable from, “emphasizing their own culture and excluding Egyptian influences”.  As a result of this solidarity, and social isolation, it is probable that genetic drift could take hold in some C-Group occupations. In combination, the historical evidence and the outlying nature of the Sayala C-Group biodistance here and in Godde point to local genetic drift, and/or greatly reduced extraregional gene flow, stemming from the spatial distribution of their settlements and cultural practices.

Galland et al. provide alternative evidence, showing biological continuity between the A- and C-Groups, but with neither group showing a close affinity to a Mesolithic sample from Wadi Halfa. While on the surface this may appear to contradict the results here and in Godde, the differing perspectives may be as a result of study design and the different information the data types contain....  

Therefore, collectively, the evidence suggests extraregional gene flow and genetic drift appear to both be the major contributors to the biodistance patterns in these samples....

There is evidence of great competition for resources in the Nile Valley during the Late Paleolithic and the aridity of the climate probably forced more peripheral populations to move toward the river to survive, placing a number of populations in the region. The climate changed in the Nile Valley between the Late Paleolithic and the Mesolithic, moving from the hyperaridity of the Last Glacial Maximum into the African Human Period. Prior to the change in climate, the flow of the Nile was approximately 10-20% of its current output. With the climate shift, the environment became wetter and environmental pressures would have changed at this time, potentially lowering competition for resources and allowing populations to spread out from the floodplain.  After the African Humid Period took hold in the region there was a population increase, which would likely have been the result of one or more populations migrating to the northern and eastern Sahara....  However, if taken together, the climate, demographic (increase in population), and lithic evidence points to multiple peoples inhabiting the Paleolithic at around the same time.

In combination, the dental nonmetrics and the cranial nonmetrics have narrowed down any population replacements or other major population events that affected the genetic structure of the Nubians to before the Mesolithic and near the Late Paleolithic, although the work from Galland et al. (2016) disagrees. This is supported by limb proportions data from individuals interred at Jebel Sahaba (Late Paleolithic), which represents a morphologically dissimilar population to later Nubian groups. Thus, taken in combination, the preponderance of evidence from archaeology (possibly more than one population in Nubia during the Late Paleolithic), climatic changes, the among group variation, the findings from Jebel Sahaba, and the continuity after the Late Paleolithic in population relationships, support our third hypothesis and suggest multiple populations from the Late Paleolithic may be ancestral to modern Nubians or a new population moved into the area and became ancestral.

Biases and Conclusions:  The exclusion of the Sesebi sample from the second analysis demonstrates the effect it had on Fst. Fst lowered with the inclusion of Sesebi. This makes sense in relation to sample structure; Sesebi is a composite of several Nubian groups (represented by other samples in the analysis) at a single site (Kerma, Meroitic, and Christian). Thus, the composite sample exerted a homogenizing effect on this population structure investigation and biodistance interpretations of Sesebi should be framed on a limited scale, such that the conclusions are only that Sesebi groups most closely align with its geographic neighbor to the south: Kerma....

In this paper, the population structure of Nubians, as constructed from the skeletal record, was examined in relation to the environmental, archaeological, and mortuary evidence in order to interpret population genetics parameters in conjunction with the historic record. It was discovered that the samples mostly clustered by site, which in combination with the archaeological evidence of social isolation operating on some samples, balanced with their biological similarity to other samples that display evidence of extensive contact with different peoples, suggest that extraregional gene flow was probably punctuated with genetic drift, at least in three of the samples we examined. Our results also discount a population replacement happening during the range of time examined in this study.