Finno-Ugric & (Sami)

Genetic History of the Finno-Ugrics

https://evolutionistx.wordpress.com/2015/10/30/genetic-history-of-the-finno-ugrics/

With a few isolated exceptions (eg, the Basque,) almost all Europeans have a fairly similar genetic profile reflecting three main ancestral groups.

The original “orange” and “blue” tribes have been identified via DNA sequencing of ancient European skeletons....

“Blue-Teal” tribe is therefore believed to be the original Indo-Europeans....

The red/yellow combination is found throughout most of the “Asian” countries–Japan, China, Korea, Mongolia, etc., but not in Cambodia or Thailand. You can see them on the big chart at the top. The two pure yellow groups, the Ami and Atayal, are indigenous people of Taiwan.

The Red, therefore, is found in large quantities in Siberia/polar peoples. In Asia it mixes with the yellow, with the ration of yellow/red increasing as you go south. Red finds its maximum in far northern Siberia, and yellow in Taiwan. I therefore speculate that the red started in Siberia and worked its way south, while the yellow started somewhere around southern China and moved outwards from there.

The Blue is found in all Europeans but is rare in the Middle East; it appears in small quantities in Central Asia, India, and Siberia. Small quantities could just be the result of thousands of years of people moving around ancient trade routes, but the relatively larger quantities in Siberia seem less likely to be the result of trade.

Teal appears to be found in all Indo-European and Middle Eastern regions; it is even more wide-spread than orange, which never made it to India.

Therefore I suspect that a band of blue and a band of red people merged to form the original Uralic people from which the Finno-Ugrics later split off. ...

Haplogroup N, which appears to have emerged about 20,000 years ago:

According to Wikipedia, Subtype N-P43 is estimated at 4,000 to 6,000 years old, frequently among the Samoyedic peoples, with a sub-clade common in Finno-Ugric and other Uralic speakers in Europe. Additionally,

“The subclade N-M178 … has higher average frequency in Northern Europe than in Siberia, reaching frequencies of approximately 60% among Finns and approximately 40% among Latvians, Lithuanians & 35% among Estonians (Derenko 2007 and Lappalainen 2008).

“Miroslava Derenko and her colleagues noted that there are two subclusters within this haplogroup, both present in Siberia and Northern Europe, with different histories. The one that they labelled N3a1 first expanded in south Siberia (approximately 10,000 years ago on their calculated by the Zhivotovsky method) and spread into Northern Europe where its age they calculated as around 8,000 years ago.”

Overall: the Finno-Ugrics living in Europe proper are genetically closest to other Europeans; their Siberian component is quite small. The Sami are the one exception, with a larger chunk of Siberian DNA, but they are still mostly European....

The Finno-Ugrics who live within the heart of Russian Siberia, however, appear to have quite a bit more Siberian DNA, some European, but not Indo-European DNA....

Finno-Ugric peoples

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finno-Ugric_peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Eurasia who speak languages of the Finno-Ugric group of the Uralic language family, such as the Khanty, Mansi, Hungarians, Maris, Mordvins, Sámi, Estonians, Karelians, Finns, Udmurts and Komis.

The four largest Finno-Ugric peoples are the Hungarians (13–14 million), Finns (6–7 million), Estonians (1.1 million) and Mordvins (744,000). The first three of these have their own independent states – Hungary, Finland, and Estonia. The traditional area of the indigenous Sami people is in Northern Fenno-Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula in Northwest Russia and is known as Sápmi....

Population genetics:

A study of Population Genetics of Finno-Ugric speaking humans in North Eurasia carried out between 2002–2008 in the Department of Forensic Medicine at the University of Helsinki showed that most of the Finno-Ugric speaking populations possess an amalgamation of West and East Eurasian gene pools, genetic drift, and recurrent founder effects. North Eurasian Finno-Ugric-speaking populations were found to be genetically a heterogeneous group showing lower haplotype diversities compared to more southern populations. ...

Y-chromosome haplogroup N3, and sometimes N2, having branched from haplogroup N, which, itself, probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years ago from father haplogroup NO (haplogroup O being the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup in Southeast Asia) ...

A recent study has found that haplogroup NO of the Finno-Ugric peoples and their descendants probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years ago from its father lineage and today is found in Eastern Europe. The Department of Forensic Medicine at the University of Helsinki showed that most of the Finno-Ugric speaking populations possess an amalgamation of West and East Eurasian gene pools, supporting the idea of mixed origins in these modern populations. ...

R1a1a7-M458 frequency peaks among Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples.

R1a1a1i (Z280+) This group seems to have connection with among others the Finno-Ugric peoples. It is the North-East European subclade of R1a1a1 and spread from the Baltic to the Ural Mountains as well as the Carpathian Basin. The majority of the Steppe Magyars likely belonged to this haplogroup, carrying the Ugric Hungarian language....

Finno-Ugric People

http://www.elupuu.org/index.php?id=52

The original home of the Finno-Ugric peoples is generally believed to be west of the Ural Mountains, in the area of Udmurtia, Perm, Mordva and Mari-El. By 3000 BC, the Baltic-Finnic groups had migrated west to the shores of the Baltic Sea. At about the same time, the Saami migrated further north and further west, reaching the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. The Magyars (known as Hungarians in English) made the longest and most recent journey from the area of the Ural Mountains to their present home in central Europe only in AD 896. ...

How old are the Finno-Ugric peoples?

The "Comb Ceramic Culture" (so named due to the comb like tool used to give artistic decoration to their pottery), which flourished between the Urals and the Baltic Sea between 4200 and 2000 BC, is generally presented as the oldest clear evidence for early Finno-Ugric communities. This identification of the Comb Ceramic Culture is based in part upon discoveries of skeletal remains which share the Finno-Ugric distinctive mixture of caucasian and mongoloid features. ...

While archaeologists have discovered human settlements in this region going back to before the end of the last ice age, there is currently no evidence to identify these earlier settlements with the Finno-Ugrics or with any other known culture. ... Unfortunately, as these earlier settlements are 10 000 years old, there simply is not enough surviving evidence to make this kind of a link, leaving their identity a mystery. ...

How old are the Finno-Ugric peoples? Currently it is impossible to give an exact answer. The best we can say, is that the Finno-Ugric peoples originated west of the Urals sometime between the end of the last ice age in 8000 BC and 4200 BC....

Genetic studies on Sami

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sami

The Sami languages belong to the Uralic languages family of Eurasia. Some earlier anthropologists have suggested they might be of Asian and/or Siberian origin. The frequency of blood group and protein polymorphisms in Sami differs significantly from the general Northern European population....

While their mtDNA haplogroup distribution overwhelmingly represents a subset of the European gene-pool, the most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Sami is widely believed to be of Eurasian origin and very common among all peoples in Northeastern Europe, which is haplogroup N and its subclades....

European mtDNA pool: The two haplogroups V and U5b dominate, between them accounting for about 89% of the total. This gives the Sami regions the highest level of Haplogroups V and U5b thus far found. Both haplogroups V and U5b are spread at moderate frequencies across Europe, from Iberia to the Ural Mountains....Alessandro Achilli and colleagues noted that the Sami and the Berbers share U5b1b, which they estimated at 9,000 years old, and argued that this provides evidence for a radiation of the haplogroup from the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe....

Torroni and colleagues have suggested that the spread of haplogroup V in Scandinavia and in eastern Europe is due to its late Pleistocene/early Holocene expansion from a Franco-Cantabrian glacial refugium. However subsequent studies found that haplogroup V is also significantly present in eastern Europeans. Furthermore, haplogroup V lineages with HVS-I transitions 16153 and 16298 that are frequent in the Sami population are much more widespread in eastern than in western Europe. So haplogroup V might have reached Fennoscandia via central/eastern Europe. Such a scenario is indirectly supported by the absence, among the Sami, of the pre-V mtDNAs that are characteristic of southwestern Europeans and northwestern Africans.

Haplogroup Z is found at low frequency in the Sami and Northern Asian populations but is virtually absent in Europe. Several conserved substitutions group the Sami Z lineages with those from Finland and the Volga-Ural region of Russia. The estimated dating of the lineage at 2700 years suggests a small, relatively recent contribution of people from the Volga-Ural region to the Sami population.

Y-DNA: The most common haplogroup among the Sami is N1c (formerlyN3a)...

N1c correlates closely with the distribution of the Finno Ugrian languages....

The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic “Outliers” Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181943/

The results indicate that the origin of U5b1b, as for the other predominant Saami haplogroup, V, is most likely in western, rather than eastern, Europe. ... The Y-chromosomal variety in the Saami is also consistent with their European ancestry. It suggests that the large genetic separation of the Saami from other Europeans is best explained by assuming that the Saami are descendants of a narrow, distinctive subset of Europeans. ...The Saami (Lapps) are aboriginal inhabitants of Fennoscandia. The Saami language belongs to the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language family...

Soon after the beginning of the retreat of the ice sheets covering the area, in the 8th–10th millennia before present (BP), populations of hunters and fishermen, the producers of the Mesolithic Komsa and Fosna-Hensbacka cultures, inhabited the coastal region of Scandinavia, extending well into Finland and to the Kola Peninsula. The linguistic affiliation of these pioneer settlers of the north is largely unknown, but it has been suggested that they are the descendants of the Ahrensburgian population, which migrated toward the north from western Europe, along the Atlantic coast of Norway. It has been proposed that they might have been the ancestors of the present-day Saami. Another presumably important component in the postglacial recolonization of northern Fennoscandia came from the east, via Karelia and Finland. It has been associated with the movement of Mesolithic populations, carriers of post-Swiderian cultures, to the north. Starting in the Neolithic period, the northern population came into contact with tribes of territories lying to the south. Thus, according to archeological data, the present-day Saami population might have been shaped in different times both by the eastern and western influences....

Analyses of classic chromosomal marker variation have demonstrated that the genetic distances between the Saami and other European populations are significantly larger than between any other pair of European populations ...

Classification of the Saami mtDNA lineages revealed that the absolute majority of these are clustered in a subset of the European mtDNA pool where two haplogroups—V and U—cover ∼80% of the variability of this subset ...

In contrast to the predominance of European mtDNA haplogroups observed among the Saami, nearly half of their Y chromosomes share a TatC allele (haplogroup N3, according to the nomenclature of the Y Chromosome Consortium [YCC 2002]) with most Finno-Ugric and Siberian populations. This variant is found at high frequencies among Siberian populations, such as the Yakuts and the Buryats, but is virtually absent in western and Mediterranean Europe; even among the Norwegians and the Swedes, populations that have historically lived in close proximity to the Saami, it is found at frequencies of only 4%–8%. High frequencies of the TatC allele have also been observed in Baltic (30%–40%) and Volga-Finnic–speaking populations (20%–50%). These findings have been interpreted according to the classic view that a substantial element of the Saami (and other European Finno-Ugric–speaking populations) genetic lineages originated in a recent migration from Asia.

Another half of the Saami paternal lineages...are identified as haplogroups I, R1a, and R1b. Y chromosomes possessing those mutations are widely spread in European populations... are present at moderate frequencies in some Siberian populations as well....

Haplogroup N3, the most frequent haplogroup in the Saami population, is distributed in eastern European and northern Asian populations but it is rare or absent in western Europe...

The second largest haplogroup I, corresponds to roughly one-third of the Saami Y-chromosomal lineages. It is widespread in Europe but virtually absent in Asian populations ...Indeed, the high frequencies of haplogroup I in the Norwegians, Swedes, Finns, and the Saami suggest that haplogroup I represents the heritage from the very first settlers of Fennoscandia. Analyses of microsatellite variation of the Saami haplogroup I Y chromosomes reveals that 9 of 10 Saami M170 chromosomes share the same modal microsatellite haplotype (6/9) or its derivatives with other Nordic haplogroup I chromosomes....

Haplogroup R1a, encompassing 11% of the Saami Y-chromosomal gene pool, is a frequent Y-chromosomal variety in eastern Europe, but it is also found in Siberia, the Altai Mountains (table 3), and India. Like haplogroup I, it is absent among Nenets, the largest Samoyed population, living partly in northeast Europe. Haplogroup R1a is present in the Swedish and Kola Saami at frequencies that are comparable to those observed among other Scandinavian and northeastern European populations, but it is relatively rare in Finland, both in the Saami and non-Saami populations.

Haplogroup R1b is present in the Saami population at a level of 4%. It is the most frequent haplogroup in western Europe, especially among the French, and it is relatively frequent in Scandinavian Germanic-speaking populations, but it has not been found among the Finns. In the Volga-Ural region populations, R1b is present at frequencies similar to those of the Saami.

Haplogroups J and E, found solely among Kola Saami, may have arisen as a recent contribution from the neighboring northern Russian population, since these Y-chromosomal variants are present there....

We note that U5b1b was also identified in a northwestern African population, among the Moroccans. In contrast, its diversity in eastern Europe is much lower. There, the haplotype diversity (excluding subclade U5b1b1) is 0.79, whereas most of the U5b1b sequences in eastern Europe belong to the U5b1b1 branch. In the Eurasian cohort, U5b1b (other than U5b1b1) is absent from native Siberians and is notably absent from the Ob-Ugric populations and the Samoyeds...

Thus, it is likely that haplogroup N variation represents a prehistoric link between the Siberian and eastern European/proto-Finnic populations via their paternal heritage....

the considerable diversity of the U5b1b cluster in western and southern Europe suggests that these regions, rather than eastern Europe, were the likely place of origin of U5b1b. Thus, the distribution of U5b1b is similar to that suggested above for haplogroup V. Notice that this cluster, like haplogroup V, is also found in northwestern Africa (table 4). Hence, we envision an initial diversification of U5b1b in western Europe, followed by the spread of a particular subhaplogroup in eastern Europe, finally reaching Fennoscandia (but not the Samoyeds or any other aboriginal Siberians) via an eastern route...

Haplogroup H1 lineages most probably spread to Fennoscandia via a western route ... The two eastern Eurasian mtDNA variants, haplogroup Z1 and the particular subbranch of D5, have probably reached northeastern Europe not via the Arctic but via a more southern route across the southern Urals and, passing the Volga River basin ...

The Y-chromosomal haplogroups N3 and R1a, which make up ∼60% of the Saami Y-chromosomal variants, have likely reached Fennoscandia from eastern Europe ...Haplogroups I and R1b, which together make up a third of Saami Y chromosomes, seem to have arisen in western Europe...

Saami and Berbers—An Unexpected Mitochondrial DNA Link

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1199377/

This unexpected finding not only confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum but also reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers....

Such a recent common ancestry of maternal lineages found in populations living as far as 9,000 miles apart and whose anthropological affinities are not at all obvious is, to say the least, unexpected. Can we provide a reasonable explanation? The recent molecular dissection of other mtDNA haplogroups reveals some clues. H1 and H3, two frequent subhaplogroups of H, display frequency peaks centered in Iberia and surrounding populations, including the Berbers of Morocco, and coalescence ages of ∼11 ky. Furthermore, their frequency patterns and ages resemble those reported for haplogroup V which, similar to U5b1b, is extremely common only in the Saami (together, U5b1b and V encompass almost 90% of the Saami mtDNAs). Thus, although these previous studies have highlighted the role of the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area as a major source of the hunter-gatherer populations that gradually repopulated much of central and northern Europe when climatic conditions began to improve ∼15 ky ago, the identification of U5b1b now unequivocally links the maternal gene pool of the ancestral Berbers to the same refuge area and indicates that European hunter-gatherers also moved toward the south and, by crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, contributed their U5b1b, H1, H3, and V mtDNAs to modern North Africans.

SAAMI TODAY ARE MIXED FROM THE FIRST, AND/OR LATER HUNTER GATHERERS OF SIBERIA/URAL ANCESTRAL BLOOD TYPE WHATEVER IT WAS. IT WAS O NEGATIVE IN WEST EUROPE FROM THE RELATED FIRST ANCESTRAL GROUP AMAZIGH AND/OR BASQUE PEOPLE OF THE SW EUROPE ICE AGE REFUGE. THIS FIRST AND SECOND GROUP OF HUNTER GATHERERS MIXING LATER WITH THE LATER INCOMING A+ BLOOD GROUP OF THE NEAR EAST NEOLITIHIC PEOPLES MUCH LATER. THIS U5 SAMI GROUP MUST HAVE BRANCHED OFF FROM A RELATED PALEOLITHIC AMAZIGH AND/OR BASQUE U6 AND U5 PEOPLE FROM SOUTH WEST EUROPE GOING NORTH AND EAST AS ICE AGE RETREATS. LOOKING AT THEIR FIRST ORIGINS AS U OR U5 OF URAL/ SIBERIAN THEY MAY HAVE BEEN ORIGINALLY B- BLOOD TYPE THEN DEFAULTING TO O- IN WEST EUROPE UNTIL THE NEAR EAST FARMER MIGRANTS CHANGED THE BLOOD TYPE TO MAJORITY A+ (JMO). SAAMI ARE NOT GENETICALLY RELATED TO THE CURRENT SIBERIAN UGRIC AND SAMOYEDIC LANGUAGE PEOPLE OF TODAY. HOWEVER, IN THEIR EARLIEST U AND R Hg's THEY WOULD HAVE BEEN AMONG THE ORIGINAL PEOPLE THERE AT LEAST 45,000 YBP....

Lifestyle, Genetics, and Disease in Sami

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC20804

The most northerly parts of Europe were populated soon after the retreat of the glacial ice, about 10,000 years before present. Human artifacts from the west coast of Sweden have been dated at 10,200 years before present and radiocarbon dating indicates that northern Fennoscandia was populated as early as 9000 years before present . The first immigrants are believed to have arrived to Finland about 7000 years before present...

Studies of the mitochondrial genome have indicated that two mitochondrial haplogroups, V and U5b1b1, account for 80% of the Sami population...

A study of the V haplogroup in 56 populations from different geographic regions found that it was relatively common in Europe. Estimates of the age of this haplogroup vary from 16,000 years before present in Western Europe to 8000 years before present in Eastern Europe, indicating that the lineage originated in Western Europe after the last glacial maxim and subsequently spread throughout Europe by human re-colonization from glacial refugia.

Studies of the other major Sami mitochondrial haplogroup (U5b1b1) have indicated that it is either absent or only found at very low frequencies in many European populations , but found at the highest frequencies in the populations of Eastern and Northern Europe. However, the U5b1b haplogroup, which includes the U5b1b1 subclade, is present across Europe. The higher diversity of the U5b1b clade in Western and Southern Europe led to the proposal that while U5b1b1 has arisen in Eastern Europe, U5b1b is likely to be of southwestern European origin....

The Y chromosome tells a similar story with 3 haplogroups (N3, I, and R1a) accounting for 80% of the Y-chromosomal diversity in the Sami. The most common haplogroup in Sami (N3) is common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, and is almost absent in Western Europe. This polymorphism is at its highest frequency in the Yakuts, Buryats, and Finns and has been dated to between 3140-6200 years before present....

In summary, genetic studies indicate that the Sami population has a heterogeneous origin and is the result of several migration events into Fennoscandia. A large portion of the genetic background is likely to be of Continental or Eastern European origin and reflects a migration of early hunter-gatherer tribes that arrived in the area soon after deglaciation. There is a small but detectable influence from Eastern Asian that may reflect people migrating into the region after it was already colonized by way of Central Asia and the Volga-Ural region....

TODAYS SAAMI ARE MAJORITY BLOOD TYPE A+. BUT, IN THEIR SW REFUGE THEY WERE MOST PROBABLY 0- , (OR MAYBE AT FIRST WERE B- THEN DEFAULTING TO O-. JMO) ...

BLOOD TYPES

http://s155239215.onlinehome.us/turkic/63_Blood_Types/Blood_TypesEn.htm#A type blood

At 10-35% frequency in most populations of the world, the A blood allele is more common than the B allele. The highest frequencies of A are found in small, unrelated populations, especially the Blackfoot Indians of Montana (30-35%), the Australian Aborigines (many groups are 40-53%), and the Lapps, or Saami people, of Northern Scandinavia (50-90%).

The Sami (or Saami) – Rhesus Negative

http://www.rhesusnegative.net/staynegative/genetics/the-sami-or-saami/

Another area that stands out is Lappland, mainly the northern part of Norway and Finland, home of the Sami. This is of interest even though according to Cavalli-Sforza, the Sami of Norway and Finland have between 5 and 7% rh negatives amongst them which is not a lot....

Haplogroup V is a relatively rare mtDNA haplogroup, occurring in around 4% of native Europeans. Its highest concentration is among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia (~59%). It has been found at a frequency of approximately 10% among the Maris of the Volga-Ural region, leading to the suggestion that this region might be the source of the V among the Saami. Additionally, haplogroup V has been observed at higher than average levels among Cantabrian people (15%) of northern Iberia, and at a lower percentage among the adjacent Basque (10.4%). Haplogroup V is also found in parts of Northwest Africa. It is mainly concentrated among the Tuareg inhabiting Burkina Faso (18.42%), Sahrawi in the Western Sahara (17.9%), and Berbers of Matmata, Tunisia (16.3%). The rare V7a subclade occurs among Algerians in Oran (1.08%) and Reguibate Sahrawi (1.85%). Alessandro Achilli and colleagues noted that the Sami and the Berbers share U5b1b, which they estimated at 9,000 years old, and argued that this provides evidence for a radiation of the haplogroup from the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe. ...

The Rh Negative Connection: The History of the Basques, Berbers, Samis and Guanches

http://www.firetown.com/2012/05/10/the-rh-negative-connection-the-history-of-the-basques-berbers-samis-and-guanches/

Please be aware that much new research has surfaced since the original post. To find the best research on anything related to the rh negative blood factors, Basques, Berbers, Samis, Guanches and also Bedouins, please continue your quest on www.rhesusnegative.net/staynegative

Alessandro Achilli and colleagues noted that the Sami and the Berbers share U5b1b, which they estimated at 9,000 years old, and argued that this provides evidence for a radiation of the haplogroup from the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe....

But let’s go back to the Sami, who are also the population highest featuring the HLA-B27 group.

Other groups high on the list for HLA-B27 include Gypsies, Parsi (the original population of Iran and with it various parts of India to which they have fled to escape Arab persecution) and the people of Southern Ireland.

Pharao Ramses was said to have B negative blood which also is exceptionally high amongst the Gypsies and Parsi and his DNA tested for HLA-B27. Aside from that, the Berbers consider themselves the original Egyptians kicked out by the Arab invaders which could be part of the hesitation within the Egyptian government to release all DNA and blood tests performed on the mummies.

Rh Negative Info Website

http://www.rhesusnegative.net/staynegative/

ACCORDING TO FIG 4, U5b AND MAYBE V FEMALES MOST LIKELY WERE COMPANIONS TO R1b PEOPLE. THEN AS THEY MIGRATED NORTH AND EAST FROM THE SW REFUGE THEY MIX WITH I MALES BECOMING THE U5b1 THEN U5b1b. AS THE R1b AND I MALES CONTINUE EASTWARD WITH V AND U5b1b FEMALES SHE CHANGES AGAIN TO U5b1b1 AFTER MIXING WITH R1a AND POSSIBLY N3 MALES IN EAST EUROPE. THEY ALL GO NORTHWARD INTO NORTH SCANDINAVIA. SOMEWHERE ALONG THE WAY R1b IS NO LONGER A MAJORITY AS WHEN THEY FIRST BEGAN FROM WEST EUROPE WHEN U5b WAS DOMINANT. D5 FEMALES ALSO MIX IN SCANDINAVIA.

SAAMI MOTIF U5b1b1 DEFINED BY 16144 CONNECTS TO MOROCANS, SICILIANS, CZECKS, NOGAYS, AND RUSSIANS WHICH DEVELOPED ABOUT 10,000 YBP. BUT, U5 WAS PALEOLITHIC HUNTER GATHERERS DOMINANT IN EUROPE 26,000 YBP. THE ICE AGE SEND U5 TO THE SW REFUGE WHERE THEY BECOME U5b MIXING IN WITH THE U6 AND PROBABLY R1b (OR HIS DIRECT ANCESTOR). BUT IT IS THE U5b1b1 THAT IS CONSIDERED SAAMI SPECIFIC. IT IS THEIR MIXED GENETICS U5b1b1 UPON SETTLING IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA RATHER THAN THEIR BEGINNING GENETICS U5b FROM SW EUROPE WHICH IS SAAMI SPECIFIC....

The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic “Outliers” Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707618928

The results indicate that the origin of U5b1b, as for the other predominant Saami haplogroup, V, is most likely in western, rather than eastern, Europe. Furthermore, an additional haplogroup (H1) spread among the Saami was virtually absent in 781 Samoyed and Ob-Ugric Siberians but was present in western and central European populations. The Y-chromosomal variety in the Saami is also consistent with their European ancestry. It suggests that the large genetic separation of the Saami from other Europeans is best explained by assuming that the Saami are descendants of a narrow, distinctive subset of Europeans. In particular, no evidence of a significant directional gene flow from extant aboriginal Siberian populations into the haploid gene pools of the Saami was found....

Thus, 98% of the Saami mtDNA pool is encompassed within haplogroups V, U5b, H, Z, and D5. The two largest subsets, V and U5b, account for a lion’s share (89%) of the Saami mtDNA pool. ...Both haplogroups V and U5b are spread at moderate frequencies across Europe, from Iberia to the Ural Mountains....The third-most-frequent haplogroup among the Saami is H, which is present at a frequency of 4%...This variant of mtDNA can be found both in western and eastern Europe...

Three major haplogroups—N3, I, and R1a—comprise >80% of the Saami Y-chromosomal gene pool (table 2) and appear, likewise, as the major haplogroups in northeastern Europe (table 3). The nearly equal distribution of the Y-chromosomal variants among different Saami populations strongly supports their common paternal history....Haplogroup N3, the most frequent haplogroup in the Saami population, is distributed in eastern European and northern Asian populations but it is rare or absent in western Europe (table 3)....The second largest haplogroup, I, corresponds to roughly one-third of the Saami Y-chromosomal lineages. It is widespread in Europe but virtually absent in Asian populations (table 3)....Haplogroup R1a, encompassing 11% of the Saami Y-chromosomal gene pool, is a frequent Y-chromosomal variety in eastern Europe, but it is also found in Siberia, the Altai Mountains, and India...Haplogroup R1b is present in the Saami population at a level of 4%. It is the most frequent haplogroup in western Europe,...

Phylogeography of Haplogroup U5b1b and the “Saami-Specific” Motif (U5b1b1):

Haplogroup U5b is found at low frequencies all over Europe (Richards et al. 1998). A distinct phylogenetic subbranch of U5b carries the “Saami-specific” HVS-I motif defined by 16144-16189-16270 in the study by Sajantila et al. (1995) and has been named “U5b1” by Richards et al. (1998)....

The U5b1b subclade is found all over Europe, but it occurs in western and central Europe with notable sequence variation. The haplotype diversity (excluding subclade U5b1b1) is 0.96. We note that U5b1b was also identified in a northwestern African population, among the Moroccans (fig. 3A). In contrast, its diversity in eastern Europe is much lower. There, the haplotype diversity (excluding subclade U5b1b1) is 0.79, whereas most of the U5b1b sequences in eastern Europe belong to the U5b1b1 branch (fig. 3A and 3B). In the Eurasian cohort, U5b1b (other than U5b1b1) is absent from native Siberians and is notably absent from the Ob-Ugric populations and the Samoyeds.... Most importantly, the data indicate that U5b1b1, the only subcluster of U5b in the Saami population, is present outside the Scandinavian-Baltic and the Volga-Uralic regions...

Two principal haplotypes, differing by one mutational step, define the Saami U5b1b1. One, with transitions at nps 16144, 16189, and 16270, can be identified as the founder haplotype because of its presence in many other populations. The second, containing an additional transition at np 16148, is so far exclusive to the Saami population. This subfounder comprises 38% of their U5b1b1 mtDNAs...

Uralic-speaking Samoyeds, Khants, Mansis, and Altaic-speaking Siberians virtually lack the European mtDNA haplogroups V and U5b1b1 that predominate in the Saami mtDNA pool. Eastern Eurasian mtDNA variants in the Saami are represented by a restricted set of lineages that belong to superhaplogroup M....lack of gene flow from Samoyeds to eastern Europe.... The absence of haplogroup Z from most of the Siberian Uralic-speaking populations (Samoyedic-speaking Nenets and Selkups, as well as Siberian Ob-Ugric-speaking Khants and Mansis) is therefore striking....A matching HVS-I founder haplotype has been observed in the Koryak and the Itelmen populations. The limited diversity of haplogroup Z in Europe suggests its relatively recent spread west of the Urals....

The sister clade of Z—haplogroup C—is far more diverse and frequent than haplogroup Z in eastern Eurasians, as well as in the populations of the Volga-Ural region but, it is absent among the Saami. Here, again, the lack of haplogroup C in the Saami is specifically indicative of the absence of possible genetic links between the Saami and the Samoyeds....

N2 lineages are frequent in Siberian and Volga-Uralic populations. Thus, it is likely that haplogroup N variation represents a prehistoric link between the Siberian and eastern European/proto-Finnic populations...

one does not need to postulate a recent Siberian flow of Y chromosomes into the Saami gene pool to explain their high N3 frequency. First, such a flow from Samoyedic-speaking aboriginal Siberians to the Saami Y-chromosomal pool would predict the presence there of haplogroup N2 and/or haplogroup Q, widely spread in Samoyeds...the lack of Y-chromosomal haplogroup C in Saami contrasts with its high frequency among Tungusic-speaking native Siberians (such as the Evenks and the Evens) as well as among Mongolic-speaking Mongols, the Buryats, the Kalmyks, and the Turkic-speaking Kazakhs and Uzbeks....these observations make it unlikely that there was recent Y-chromosomal flow from these Siberian populations into the gene pool of the Saami....

Origins of the Saami mtDNA and Y Chromosomes:

extremes of genetic drift, such as that due to repeated bottlenecks...Likewise, it is possible that, when the proto-Saami gene pool was in statu nascendi, it was restricted to only a few basic mtDNA haplotypes that were carried by the founding settlers—a plausible scenario during the “Paleolithic isolation.”...

the spread of haplogroup V in Scandinavia and in eastern Europe is due to its late Pleistocene/early Holocene expansion from a Franco-Cantabrian glacial refugium. Haplogroup V shows high diversity and the presence of pre-V lineages in Iberia and the islands of Croatia...haplogroup V is also well present in eastern Europeans. Furthermore, haplogroup V lineages with HVS-I transitions 16153 and 16298 that are frequent in the Saami population are much more widespread in eastern than in western Europe... This indicates that haplogroup V might have reached Fennoscandia via central/eastern Europe. Such a scenario is indirectly supported by the absence, among the Saami, of the pre-V mtDNAs that are characteristic of southwestern Europeans and northwestern Africans and that are also present in Germans....

the considerable diversity of the U5b1b cluster in western and southern Europe suggests that these regions, rather than eastern Europe, were the likely place of origin of U5b1b. Thus, the distribution of U5b1b is similar to that suggested above for haplogroup V. Notice that this cluster, like haplogroup V, is also found in northwestern Africa. Hence, we envision an initial diversification of U5b1b in western Europe, followed by the spread of a particular subhaplogroup in eastern Europe, finally reaching Fennoscandia (but not the Samoyeds or any other aboriginal Siberians) via an eastern route (fig. 4A). Indeed, U5b1b1 is absent from a large sample set of Germans from Lower Saxony, and it is detected only in trace frequencies in other western European populations. That makes it less likely that U5b1b1 entered the Saami mtDNA pool (or that the proto-Saami tribes carried it) directly from the west. The wide geographic distribution of both U5b1b1 and U5b1b in western Eurasian populations and the apparent absence of U5b1b “twigs” (except of U5b1b1) in Finno-Ugric speakers suggests that the latter may have originated before the differentiation of the European Finnic-speaking people.

Haplogroup H1 lineages most probably spread to Fennoscandia via a western route (fig. 4A). The diversity of H1 is relatively higher in Norwegian (0.76), Swedish (0.78), German (0.78), and Polish (0.80) populations than in Finnish (0.09), Estonian (0.35), Latvian (0.50), Karelian (0.0), and Volga-Uralic populations (highest among Komis: 0.40). Furthermore, as was mentioned above, the Saami may have obtained their H1 lineages from recent admixture with the Norwegians.

The Y-chromosomal haplogroups N3 and R1a, which make up ∼60% of the Saami Y-chromosomal variants, have likely reached Fennoscandia from eastern Europe (fig. 4B), where these haplogroups can be found in high frequencies, as among the Saami. Haplogroups I and R1b, which together make up a third of Saami Y chromosomes, seem to have arisen in western Europe (fig. 4B)....

We conclude that the phylogeography of mtDNA and Y-chromosome variants that correspond to the maternal and paternal gene pools of the Saami does not provide any evidence for the Saami population arising among the northernmost Uralic-speaking populations—Siberian Ugric and Samoyedic speakers—or among any other aboriginal Siberians. The Samoyeds are the least genetically close to the Saami among the people of the Uralic language family, whereas nearly all of the mtDNA and Y-chromosomal heritage of the Saami can be adequately explained within the European pools of the two haploid genetic systems. This genetics-based reconstruction (fig. 4) is in agreement with the reconstruction of the spread of Ahrensburgian and Swiderian Mesolithic technologies in northern Europe, linking it with population expansion that can be likely traced back to the post–Last Glacial Maximum recolonization of the European north (Torroni et al. 2001; Tambets et al. 2003). The results also stress that the grouping of populations according to language families should be used exclusively only in a linguistic context.

Haplogroup U5 (mtDNA)

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_U5_mtDNA.shtml

U5 appear to have been a major maternal lineage among the Paleolithic European hunter-gatherers (known as Cro-Magnons), and even the dominant lineage during the European Mesolithic....Carriers of haplogroup U5 were part of the Gravettian culture, which experienced the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 26,000 to 19,000 years ago). During this particularly harsh period, Gravettian people would have retreated into refugia in southern Europe, from which they would have re-expanded to colonise the northern half of the continent during the Late Glacial and postglacial periods. ...

U5b would have been found at a much higher frequency in the Franco-Cantabrian region. We can deduce this from the fact that modern Western Europeans have considerably more U5b than U5a, but also because the modern Basques and Cantabrians possess almost exclusively U5b lineages. What's more, all the Mesolithic U5 samples from Iberia whose subclade could be identified belonged to U5b. ... The same observations are valid for the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods too ...

U5b1b1 arose approximately 10,000 years ago, over two millennia after the end of the Last Glaciation ...The Saami, who live in the far European North and have 48% of U5 and 42% of V lineages, belong exclusively to the U5b1b1 subclade. Amazingly, the Berbers of Northwest Africa also possess that U5b1b1 subclade and haplogroup V. ... the Yakuts of eastern Siberia, who have a bit under 10% of European mtDNA (including haplogroups H, HV1, J, K, T, U4, U5 and W), also share the exact same deep subclade (U5b1b1a) as the Saami and the Berbers....

Haplogroup N1c (Y-DNA)

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_N1c_Y-DNA.shtml

N1c represents the western extent of haplogroup N,...Haplogroup N is a descendant of East Asian macro-haplogroup NO. ...The phylogeny of N1c1 shows that the split between Balto-Finnic and Uralic (including Ugric) peoples took place around 4400 years ago ...A small percentage of N1c1 is found among all Slavic, Scandinavian populations, as well as in most of Germany (except the north-west). ...

The Scandinavian N1c1 has three potential sources:

1. Progressive assimilation of the northern Sami populations by Scandinavian/Germanic people since the Iron Age

2. Immigration from Germany and Poland in the last two millennia.

3. Population exchange with Finland and the Baltic countries when these came under Scandinavian rule, particularly during the eight centuries of political union between Sweden and Finland.

Haplogroup N1c1 is strongly associated with Uralic peoples,...

Sami genetic profile is the same as a Northern European but, with the exception of two to three times more ancient Siberian...

Genetic History of the Finno-Ugrics

https://evolutionistx.wordpress.com/2015/10/30/genetic-history-of-the-finno-ugrics/

First ancient DNA from mainland Finland reveals origins of Siberian ancestry in region

https://popular-archaeology.com/article/first-ancient-dna-from-mainland-finland-reveals-origins-of-siberian-ancestry-in-region/

THIS REGION REPOPULATES AFTER 12KYA AT VARIOUS TIMES MOSTLY BY Y-DNA HG's I1a, I1b, N3, R1a, AND R1b. AND BY mt-DNA HG's H, H1, U4, U5b, AND U5b1b1. R1/U LINEAGES WERE PALEOLITHIC THROUGHOUT ALL EUROPE AND EURASIA. I1 WAS ONLY IN THE BALKANS DURING PALEOLITHIC AND EXPANDED IN THE NEOLITHIC TO THE R1b IBERIAN ICE AGE REFUGIA TO THE WEST AND TO THE VOLGA AREA TO THE EAST, AND NORTH INTO CENTRAL EUROPE CUTTING THRU R1 TERRITORY AS NORTH AS SCANDINAVIA. FROM THE WEST AND EAST REFUGIAS I1 MIX AND MIGRATE WITH THE OTHER HG's IN THE WEST AND EAST REFUGIA'S AS THE ICE AGE MELTS. N3 MIGRATES IN FROM THE EAST AND MIXES IN THE AREA MORE RECENTLY ABOUT 8KYA. AMONG THE FEMALE HG's U FEMALES WERE PALEOLITHIC EUROPEANS AND EURASIANS 68KYA WITH TODAYS SAAMI SPECIFIC U5b1b1 FROM IBERIAN REFUGIA WHERE SHE BEGAN AS U5 THEN U5b. THE H FEMALES WERE FROM MID EAST WHO MIGRATED TO IBERIAN REFUGIA IN THE NEOLITHIC THEN MIGRATE WITH THE OTHER HG's AS ICE AGE MELTS FROM VARIOUS REGIONS....

Migration Waves to the Baltic Sea Region

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18294359/

Over 1200 samples from Finland, Sweden, Karelia, Estonia, Setoland, Latvia and Lithuania...populations surrounding the Baltic Sea are genetically similar,...Throughout their history, the populations of the Baltic Sea region have been affected by migrations from both Western and Central Europe and from the east. The region was first settled both from the south-east and from the south soon after the retreat of the continental ice sheet some 12000 years ago....These early Neolithic cultures were followed by the Corded Ware and Bronze Age cultures that affected Northern Germany, Scandinavia, the Baltic countries and coastal Finland...At present, the linguistic variation in the Baltic Sea region is substantial, with four major language groups: Finno-Ugric, and the Indo-European branches Baltic, Germanic, and Slavic....

We performed phylogeographic analysis for Y chromosomal haplogroups N3, I1a and R1a1, and mtDNA haplogroups H and U, since these haplogroups had a sufficient number of samples for the analysis of patterns of intrahaplogroup variation. In these mtDNA analyses all the Finnish samples sequenced belonging to the haplogroups H and U were used....

The populations in the Baltic states had a very high haplotype diversity up to 0.998, while the diversity was lower in the northeastern populations. In the admixture analysis of the Estonians, the parental populations of Latvians+Lithuanians and Eastern+Western Finns had respective admixture coefficient 0.81±0.20 and 0.19±0.20. For the other populations the definition of parental populations was too complex and the results too weak to yield good estimates of admixture coefficients.

Y-chromosomal Haplogroups

Haplogroup N3 was much more common on the eastern side of the Baltic Sea than in Sweden...The Estonians harbor both Baltic and Finnic haplotypes, and they had the highest haplotype diversity. The age of the haplogroup was 8,800 years.

Haplogroup I1a had a high frequency of up to 40% in Sweden and Western Finland and intermediate frequencies in the other Finno-Ugric populations, while it was almost absent among Latvians and Lithuanians. In the network the Finnish and Swedish haplotypes appear to be separate, which is supported by the SAMOVA analysis that separated the Swedes/Balts from the others with a moderate 6.9% of variation among these groups. The highest diversities were in Eastern Finland, the Baltic states, and Sweden. The age of the haplogroup was 7,700 years.

Haplogroup R1a1 had high frequencies up to 39% among all the populations with the exception of the Finns. In the very starlike network, the Karelians exhibited a limited diversity of haplotypes...The age of the haplogroup was as high as 10,700 years...

R1b was common in Sweden and in Western Finland, whereas I1b was more abundant in the Baltic states and Karelia....

Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups

Haplogroup H was very common among all the populations, but with considerable variation in the subhaplogroup frequencies. H1* was common among the Karelians, Swedes, and some Baltic populations with frequencies up to 18%, and rare especially in Finland and Estonia, while H1f was very specific to the Finns and Karelians. H3 was relatively rare, with frequencies of a few percent. The mean pairwise differences were again lower among the Karelians and Russians and, surprisingly, the highest among the Seto....The coalescence age of haplogroup H in our dataset was 36,700 years.

Of the U subhaplogroups, U4 was the most frequent among the Latvians, Seto, and Tver Karelians (7.1–8.8%). U5b and U5b1b1 were common in Karelia and especially among the Viena Karelians...The coalescence age was as high as 68,400 years.

Haplogroup Z was observed among the Finns, some Karelian populations, Russians and Swedes with a low frequency. Asian haplogroups A, C, G and D were rare in the Baltic Sea region with the exception of D5 that reached a high frequency of 11.5% in Viena Karelia....

The Y-chromosomal Haplogroups

It seems evident that the Finns and Karelians share a history regarding haplogroup N3. In the database comparisons, we also observed that N3 may mark a westward diffusion in the north from Finland to Sweden and in the south from the Baltic countries to Poland and Germany....the differences in the haplotype structure of Baltic speaking Latvians and Lithuanians and Finno-Ugric populations, also observed in our N3 data, imply that the migrations introducing N3 to the region followed a bifurcating pattern,...our data supports the idea of two migrations that introduced N3 to the Baltic Sea region. The haplotype variation in Estonia suggests an admixture of Baltic and Finno-Ugric haplotypes. Furthermore, a bifurcating migration pattern can contribute to the relatively high age of the haplogroup in the Baltic region, since the coalescence age represents the common root of the total variation in the region.

Haplogroup I1a is suggested to have its origins in the Iberian refugium, from where it spread northward and now has its highest frequencies in Northern Europe. The haplotype matches to Germany and Poland imply that I1a has arrived to the Nordic countries from the Southern Baltic Sea region, which is historically plausible. The coalescense age of the haplogroup is about 5000 years lower than the age of the earliest archaeological findings from the Northern Baltic Sea region, which suggests a Neolithic arrival. There are two possible migration routes from Central Europe to the Northern Baltic Sea region: an exclusive western route via Sweden, an eastern route via the Baltic states, or via both to Eastern Finland and Karelia....I1a has been involved in bifurcating migrations both via Sweden and the Baltic states, and that the presence of the haplogroup in Finland and Karelia is not merely due to Swedish influence. The low frequency of I1a among the Baltic populations may be due to later effects of genetic drift or replacement.

Haplogroup R1a1 is known to be most prevalent in Eastern Europe, and has possibly expanded alongside the Kurgan culture and/or the Indo-European language. The Baltic and Swedish haplotypes had affinities mainly with Germany and Poland in database comparisons, which suggests gene flow from that region to the Western and Eastern coasts of the Baltic Sea. It is plausible that both R1a1 and I1a were carried to the Baltic Sea region via the same Neolithic migrations from Germany/Poland.... It is an important observation that in the Baltic Sea region R1a1 is mainly associated to Central European rather than eastern or Russian influence. However, haplotype frequency comparisons give some indication of Russian gene flow as a partial source of R1a1 in Karelia, which would be plausible given the long period of admixture with Slavs....

Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups

The specificity of H1f for the Finnish population has been associated with drift within Finland... The high frequency of haplogroup H2 among the Swedes may be due to sampling bias or local genetic drift, since most of the Swedish H2 samples belong to a single haplotype. Haplogroups H1, H3, U5b and V have been associated with the expansion from the Iberian refugia after the Ice Age. Interestingly, H1 and U5b have frequency peaks in Northern Europe in addition to the Iberian peninsula, and our Karelian sample even had a higher H1 frequency than that of the Basques.... three possible scenarios to explain this pattern....genetic drift...migration from Southern to Northern Europe, possibly via the Atlantic and Baltic coasts,...The third alternative scenario would be initially high H1 and U5b frequencies in the entirety of Europe that were partly replaced by other haplogroups in Central Europe due to subsequent migrations that did not affect the north and the southwest.... Haplogroups H3 and V, despite their similar origin in the Iberian refugia, do not follow the same frequency pattern as H1 and U5b, as their frequencies in the Baltic Sea region are barely any higher than in Central Europe. However, the low frequencies of these haplogroups across Europe make reliable comparisons difficult...

Haplogroup U is an ancient European haplogroup with an age as great as 55,000 years, and it had a very old coalescense of age also in our analysis. U5b1b1, the so-called “Saami motif ”, was very common among the Karelian populations especially in Viena, which, together with the high frequency of D5 and the presence of Z, is a clear sign of shared population history for the Saami and Karelians... The eastern elements in the mtDNA variation of the Baltic Sea region are intertwined with the Saami influence. Recent studies of the mtDNA variation among the Saami show a link to the Volga-Ural region....U4 in the Eastern Baltic Sea populations may represent eastern influence, since it is typical for the Volga-Ural region....

Conclusions

The populations of the Baltic Sea region have their strongest roots in Central Europe,... Additionally, the populations from the eastern side of the Baltic Sea region carry signs of migrations rooted in the east that may be associated to the Finno-Ugric language... An interesting phenomenon our data has confirmed is the common features between the Iberian peninsula and Northern Europe, observed especially in mtDNA variation,... several Y-chromosomal and mtDNA haplogroups in the Baltic Sea region are of paleolithic origin in Europe....