Britain
AS ICE AGE EXPANDS PUSHED THE NORTH NATIVES SOUTHWARD. THEN AS WARMING OCCURRED THESE NATIVES MIGRATE NORTHWARD FOLLOWING THE ICE AGE. FROM THE OLDEST REMAINS FOUND IN BRITAIN, GOUGHS CAVE REPRESENTS MAGDALENIAN CULTURE, AND KENDRICKS CAVE REPRESENTS VILLABRUNA(WHICH IS PRE-19KYA IBERIAN WITH A LITTLE NEAR EASTERN ADMIX). KENDRICKS DIET WAS MAINLY MARINE LIFE AND GOUGHS CAVE WAS MAINLY LAND DIET. SUGGESTS KENDRICK MIGRATES TO BRITAIN VIA SEA AND/OR COASTAL TO RECOLONIZE BRITAIN ABOUT 15KYA FROM IBERIA. AND GOUGHS MIGRATES TO BRITAIN VIA LAND FROM THE EAST THRU DOGGERLAND ABOUT THE SAME TIME OR WITHIN FEW HUNDRED YEARS. THE GOUGHS DIET INCLUDED CANNIBALISM.
GOUGH CARRIED U8a mt-DNA, AND KENDRICK CARRIED U5a2 mt-DNA.
THERE WAS POPULATION SHIFTS AND REPLACEMENTS IN EUROPE. PRIOR TO MAGDALENIAN ALL EUROPE FROM WEST TO SIBERIA WAS PATERNAL K2/R1 TERRITORY. IN THE MAGDALENIAN CAME PATERNAL I HAPLOGROUP MIXING IN AND PUSHING OUT THE R1b LINEAGE. THE I HG WERE FROM THE BALKEN REFUGIA WHO EXPANDED INTO EUROPE ABOUT 19KYA. VILLABRUNA WAS PURE R1b BEFORE 14KYA WHERE HE WAS IDENTICAL TO 19KYA IBERIAN GENETICS. THUS WHEN RECOLONIZATION OCCURRED IN BRITAIN ABOUT 16KYA IT WOULD HAVE HAD DISTINCT PATERNAL GROUPS OF R1b, I, AND MIX OF R1b AND I GENETICS. DURING NEOLITHIC NEAR EAST MATERNAL GENETICS REPLACED THE PALEOLITHIC U mtDNA IN EUROPE. ....
Dual ancestries and ecologies of the Late Glacial Palaeolithic in Britain
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01883-z
Here we present genetic data from Palaeolithic human individuals in the United Kingdom and the oldest human DNA thus far obtained from Britain or Ireland. We determine that a Late Upper Palaeolithic individual from Gough's Cave probably traced all its ancestry to Magdalenian-associated individuals closely related to those from sites such as El Mirón Cave, Spain, and Troisième Caverne in Goyet, Belgium. However, an individual from Kendrick's Cave shows no evidence of having ancestry related to the Gough’s Cave individual. Instead, the Kendrick’s Cave individual traces its ancestry to groups who expanded across Europe during the Late Glacial and are represented at sites such as Villabruna, Italy. Furthermore, the individuals difer not only in their genetic ancestry profles but also in their mortuary practices and their diets and ecologies, as evidenced through stable isotope analyses. This fnding mirrors patterns of dual genetic ancestry and admixture previously detected in Iberia but may suggest a more drastic genetic turnover in northwestern Europe than in the southwest....
humans in Europe, before the emergence of agriculture. These studies have revealed numerous instances of genetic shifts indicative of population expansions. One of the most notable examples occurred during the Late Glacial, between the end of the LGM (~23,400 calibrated years before present (cal. bp)) and the start of the Holocene epoch (~11,700 cal. bp). This shift is reflected in the ancestries associated with the ~15,090-year-old (IntCal20) Goyet Q2 individual, Belgium, and the ~14,010-year-old Villabruna individual, Italy, in post-LGM Europe. We use these individuals as shorthand for the ancestries associated with them throughout the text.
‘Goyet Q2’ ancestry, which has previously been defined by the ~18,770-year-old ‘El Mirón’ individual from Spain, has been identified in individuals associated with the Magdalenian culture, dating from ~20,500 to 14,000 cal. bp. This Goyet Q2/El Mirón ancestry has been suggested to represent a post-LGM expansion from southwestern European glacial refugia.
The ‘Villabruna’ ancestry, also broadly known as Western hunter gatherers or WHG, consists of individuals dated from ~14,000 to 7,000 cal. bp associated with Epigravettian, Azilian/Federmesser, Epi-palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures. The Villabruna ancestry is also associated with the observation that from ~14,000 cal. bp, all European individuals show some level of genetic affinity to present-day Near Eastern populations. The expansion in the geographic distribution of this ancestry also correlates with a period of rapid climate warming of the Late Glacial Interstadial (considered broadly equivalent to the onset of Greenland Interstadial 1, ~14,650 cal. bp) as well as cultural transitions from the Magdalenian/Late Upper Palaeolithic to the Azilian/Federmesser-Gruppen/Final Palaeolithic and has therefore been suggested to represent the movement of people into northwestern Europe after the LGM.
Interestingly, however, individuals with a mixture of Goyet Q2 and Villabruna ancestry appear in southern Europe from at least ~18,700 cal. bp—with the individual from El Mirón being the earliest identified thus far.... the presence of individuals with un-admixed Goyet Q2 ancestry in northern Europe until ~14,000 cal. bp also suggests some degree of sustained isolation throughout the LGM and into the Late Glacial. There is evidence of populations living in ice-marginal environments within northern Europe at the LGM and of long-distance movement of people from east to west north of the Alps, which has also been linked to the expansion of Magdalenian cultural groups....
Britain offers a unique environmental context through which Late Upper Palaeolithic populations can be considered. By ~19,000 cal. bp the British–Irish Ice Sheet was undergoing widespread melt and by ~16,000 cal. bp ice was absent from virtually all of England and Wales. Reindeer were present in southwest England by ~17,000 cal. bp and habitats were dominated by open steppe–tundra vegetation... there is no evidence for post-LGM human recolonization of southwestern Britain before ~15,500 cal. bp. As such, some regions of Britain were colonized before the rapid climate warming at
the start of the Late Glacial Interstadial (~14,650 cal. bp).... Whilst the genetics of Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age individuals from Britain have recently been explored, no genetic data have yet been generated for British Palaeolithic individuals, due in part to the scarcity of human skeletal material available from Late Pleistocene Britain.... westerly fringe of the European continent. Mesolithic British populations have been identified genetically as WHGs (Villabruna ancestry), indicating that this genetic ancestry spread to the most northwesterly area of early Holocene Europe by at least ~10,500 cal. bp. What remains unclear, however, is when this ancestry first arrived in Britain and, additionally, what the genetic ancestry of Palaeolithic populations in Britain may have been. Given the previous association of Goyet Q2 ancestry with Magdalenian cultures across Europe and the similarities between the Creswellian and the Classic Hamburgian cultures, it could be hypothesized that British Late Upper Palaeolithic populations would also fall within the Goyet Q2 genetic cluster....
Four new ultrafiltered radiocarbon determinations were obtained from the Kendrick’s Cave human skeletal remains, which range from 11,990 ± 50 14C BP to 11,830 ± 50 14C bp... Previous isotopic analysis of the human remains suggested a diet which included marine and/or freshwater resources... the Kendrick’s Cave humans...gives a boundary start date for human activity at the site of 16,410–14,070 cal. bp and a boundary end date of 13,730–13,140 cal. bp (95% confidence). When only the dates for the human remains are used in the model, however, the boundary start date is 14,100–13,460 cal. bp (95% confidence). The human individual used for aDNA analysis here (Kendricks_074) has a modelled date of 13,770–13,390 cal. bp (95% confidence,...
the Gough’s Cave humans and humanly modified fauna...results of this give a boundary start date for the site of 15,070–14,850 cal. bp and a boundary end date of 14,960–14,610 cal. bp with a 95% confidence interval. This new calibration shifts the site occupation to being primarily before the rapid climate warming at the start of the Late Glacial Interstadial (~14,700 bp) as recorded in the Greenland ice cores...
The Gough’s Cave individual carries substitutions that define the haplogroup U8a and the Kendrick’s Cave individual carries substitutions that define the haplogroup U5a2. The U8a haplogroup has not previously been detected in British early prehistoric individuals but has been identified in Magdalenian individuals elsewhere in Europe, for example at Hohle Fels and Brillenhצhle, Germany, and the Goyet Q2 individual from Belgium. A number of British Mesolithic individuals have previously been found to carry the U5 mt haplogroup, including one from Kent’s Cavern which has also been determined as U5a2.... Gough’s Cave is female and the individual from Kendrick’s Cave is male...
In a principal component analysis the Gough’s Cave individual falls close to the ~15,000-year-old Goyet Q2 individual from Belgium, whereas the Kendrick’s individual clusters with individuals with predominantly WHG-like ancestry, including British Mesolithic individuals... Gough’s Cave individual shares most drift with the individuals belonging to the ~19,000–14,000-year-old Goyet Q2 genetic cluster, whereas the Kendrick’s Cave individual shares most drift with the individuals belonging to the ~14,000–7,000-year-old Villabruna genetic cluster.... Again, we found that the Gough’s Cave individual shares significantly more alleles with the members of the Goyet Q2 genetic cluster than the Villabruna genetic cluster. In contrast, the Kendrick’s Cave individual, as well as Mesolithic individuals from Britain, share significantly more alleles with the members of the Villabruna cluster than with the members of the Goyet Q2 cluster....
all Mesolithic individuals from Britain, except Cheddar Man, can also be modelled as having un-admixed Villabruna ancestry in this analysis. Cheddar Man, an individual also recovered from Gough’s Cave and dating to 10,564–9,915 cal. bp, is instead best modelled as having 84.6% (±0.5%) Villabruna-related ancestry and 15.4% (±0.5%) Goyet Q2-related ancestry.... two-source models of genetic ancestry of these previously published Mesolithic individuals cannot be fully rejected either. In these two-source models, Villabruna ancestry remains the predominant component for all individuals, corresponding to between 74.8% (±9.7%,) and 93.2% (±6.7%,) of the genetic ancestry of these individuals. In contrast, the Gough’s Cave Magdalenian individual can only be modelled as having a single-source Goyet Q2 ancestry and the Kendrick’s Cave individual can be modelled as having a single-source Villabruna ancestry, with two-source models either strongly rejected or with estimated admixture proportions outside the range 0–100%, indicative of poor fit.
Discussion
Combined, the genetic results and AMS dates from these individuals indicate the presence of two genetically distinct groups in Britain in the Late Glacial period. This is evident through both the differential mitochondrial haplogroups of the two individuals analysed here and also through their distinctive ancestral patterns. The Gough’s Cave individual shows clear affinity to Goyet Q2 ancestry, whereas the Kendrick’s Cave individual shows affinity to Villabruna (WHG). It is also interesting to note the lack of genetic admixture at Gough’s Cave given the lithics assemblage is of mixed origin, containing both late Magdalenian and early Federmesser-Gruppen technologies. Furthermore, the single culturally identifiable lithic from Kendrick’s Cave has been ascribed to the Magdalenian, whereas Villabruna ancestry has previously been associated with Epigravettian and Azilian/Federmesser cultures. However, the incised and perforated artefacts at Kendrick’s Cave do bear stylistic similarities with continental art linked to the Federmesser-Gruppen culture. It may be that boundaries between cultural and genetic affinities break down at this time or alternatively culturally and genetically distinct groups are present at both Gough’s Cave and Kendrick’s Cave but the evidence is at a resolution we at present cannot chronologically resolve. However, our analyses demonstrate that Villabruna ancestry was already present within Britain during the Late Glacial. This suggests that the emergence of Villabruna ancestry in Britain predates the Holocene. It is possible that there may have been more than one migration of Villabruna ancestry into Britain...
It is important to note, however, that the temperate climate of the Late Glacial Interstadial and the early Holocene was punctuated by the Younger Dryas Stadial (~12,900–11,700 bp,), when temperatures were notably colder, ice sheets expanded in Scotland and reindeer once again became the dominant fauna in the cave sites of southwest Britain. Currently, there are no radiocarbon determinations documenting human presence in the British Isles during the Younger Dryas. Although this may be the result of taphonomy and preservation issues, if a gap in human presence is real then this indicates more than one migration of Villabruna ancestry into Britain may have occurred. On the basis of the data currently available, whilst the Late Palaeolithic Kendrick’s Cave individual indicates it has single-source Villabruna ancestry, some British Mesolithic individuals show significantly more affinity to Cheddar Man, which can be modelled as having two-source Goyet Q2 and Villabruna ancestry. This, therefore, suggests that a degree of genetic change may have occurred in tandem with the substantial cultural change seen with the emergence of the Mesolithic in Britain, to the limits of our current resolution.
Interestingly, these two genetically distinct Late Upper Palaeolithic populations, present in Britain ~600 and 1,200 years apart, appear to have also had isotopically different diets. The individuals from Kendrick’s Cave show evidence of intensive consumption of marine and freshwater foods, including high trophic level marine mammals. In contrast, the Gough’s Cave human skeletal assemblage shows no evidence for marine or freshwater resource consumption and instead diet was based primarily on terrestrial herbivores, specifically red deer and bovids but also horses. However, this assumes that the cannibalized individuals were also those consuming the faunal remains recovered from the site. In tandem with this, it is interesting to note that whilst there is evidence of cannibalism and secondary treatment of human material at Gough’s Cave (also found at other Magdalenian sites such as Brillenhצhle and Hצhle Fels in Germany and Mazsycka Cave in Poland), Kendrick’s Cave has been interpreted as being used as a possible burial site, associated with important portable art items such as the decorated horse mandible. Combined, these lines of evidence support the interpretation that at least two different human groups, with different genetic affinities and dietary and cultural behaviours, were present in Britain during the Late Glacial....
During this period, Britain was connected via Doggerland to the main European continent. Despite this, the Late Glacial Channel River was probably difficult to cross at its more southwesterly points, such as from the Paris Basin and is suggested to have created (seasonal) barriers to movement. Instead, it has been proposed that populations arriving in Britain during the Late Glacial may have taken a more easterly route, between the Channel River and the Palaeo-Elbe catchment, possibly across an area of higher ground linking Britain with Belgium and the Netherlands. These hypotheses are difficult to test, however, due to the lack of Late Palaeolithic remains suitable for aDNA and AMS dating preserved in these regions.
Nonetheless, our qpAdm modelling indicates that Goyet Q2 ancestry persisted in Britain until at least 15,070 cal. bp and potentially as late as 14,610 cal. bp based on the modelled boundary start and end dates for Gough’s Cave. The appearance of people in southwest England before the Interstadial warming and soon after the earliest evidence for reindeer and horse returned to the landscape, combined with this Goyet Q2 ancestry, suggests that these people may have come from Magdalenian populations that had remained isolated during the LGM and early Late Glacial from more southerly populations where admixed Goyet Q2 and Villabruna ancestry is evident. Indeed, it is perhaps the post-LGM climate amelioration and Late Glacial rapid climatic warming, causing key cold-adapted prey species to contract to more northerly latitudes, which facilitated this—in effect, a retreat to the north by Magdalenian cold-adapted populations. From at least 13,800 to 13,240 cal. bp however, Villabruna (WHG) ancestry appears in Britain and persists into the Mesolithic, being replaced only at the start of the Neolithic with the emergence of agriculture....
Conclusions
dual genetic ancestries present in Britain during the Late Glacial period.... Interestingly, dual Late Pleistocene genetic ancestry has also been demonstrated in Iberian hunter gatherers. However, although admixed Goyet Q2 and Villabruna ancestry can be seen in southern Europe at El Mirףn from at least ~18,770 cal. bp, this signature of admixture is not visible in British individuals, thereby suggesting a more significant genetic turnover or replacement in northwestern Europe than in the southwest. In addition, we demonstrate that the Gough’s Cave and Kendrick’s Cave individuals, despite being close in date, differ not only in their genetic ancestry profiles but also in their mortuary practices and their diets, as evidenced through stable isotopic analyses.....
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/10/221024131042.htm
U5 are Saami, and U6 are Imazighen. And if U-mtdna hg was the female companion of the R-Ydna hg then it stands to reason that the R1b were the decendants, and were in Britain at least 10,000 to 15,000 years ago just based on the Goughs cave, and Cheddar man finds. Villabruna was R1b dated 14,000 ybp found in Italy with ancestry linked to 19,000 ybp Iberians. Malta boy found in Siberia was R Ydna dated to 24,000 ybp along with Venus figurines similar to ones found in Europe. Paviland Man dated 33,000 YA has a DNA sequence corresponding to the commonest extant lineage in Europe. U, U2, and U6 mtdna in Europe at least 43,000 ybp, and her ancestor mother N mtdna in Europe 47,000 ybp. U5 in Europe at least 31,000 ybp. Summing just this little bit of evidence tells that west Europe and Siberia were connected throughout the last 47,000 years at least.
NOTES: CHEDDAR MAN WAS NOT GENETICALLY LINKED WITH OTHER HUMAN REMAINS FOUND IN THE CAVE. DNA OF THE OTHER REMAINS NOT GIVEN. HIS YDNA NOT GIVEN, HE IS U5b1 mtDNA WHICH IS SAAMI. HE HAD DARK SKIN BUT THIS mtDNA RESULT HAS NO RELEVANCE TO SKIN PIGMENTATION. SCANDINAVIA AND WEST ASIA HAD LIGHT SKIN DURING THIS TIME.
THIS GIVES RISE TO MANY QUESTIONS, FOR ONE IS HIS DARK PIGMENTATION GENE FROM HIS YDNA, mtDNA, BOTH, OR NONE?
JUST BECAUSE HE CARRIES A DARK SKIN PIGMENTATION DOES IT MEAN HE WAS DARK, AS SOME PEOPLE CARRY MANY GENES THAT ARE NOT EVIDENT SUCH AS EYE COLOR, HAIR COLOR, ETC... MANY EUROPEANS CARRY BLUE EYE GENE THAT HAVE BROWN EYES, AND MANY HAVE RED HAIR GENE BUT ARE BROWN OR BLOND HAIR, AND MANY RECESSIVE GENES?
OTHER ARTICLES DESCRIBED THE CLOSE RELATIVE AMAZIGH AS BEING LIGHT SKIN AND RED HAIRED. SO WAS CHEDDAR MAN REALLY A TRUE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE ENTIRE WESTERN HUNTER GATHERERS, OR JUST ONE TRIBE OR A FEW TRIBES OR EVEN THE MAJORITY OF SEVERAL OTHER HAPLOGROUPS BUT, OTHER TRIBES WERE OF A DIFFERENT GENE POOL?
WAS HE A MODERN MAN WITH MONKEY GENES?
IF NEANDERTHAL WAS NOT A MONKEY MAN AND WAS IN EUROPE HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS PRIOR TO MONKEY MAN THEN NEANDERTHAL WAS A LIGHT SKIN AND RED HAIRED MAN MAKING THE MAJORITY BEFORE MONKEY MAN. AND THE SCANDINAVIAN AND WEST ASIAN PEOPLE WERE ALREADY PRESENT WHO WERE OF THE LIGHT SKIN PIGMENT. IT SEEMS THAT IF U-mtDNA WAS FROM SIBERIA, AND/OR WEST ASIA ORIGINALLY THEY COULD HAVE MIXED WITH THE DARK PEOPLE IN THEIR MIGRATIONs BRINGING IN THE MONKEY MAN GENES. OR IT WAS MONKEY MAN IN HIS MIGRATIONS THAT SPREAD THE MONKEY GENE. WERE ALL MONKEY MAN DARK SKINNED OR JUST CERTAIN TRIBES?
IN CONCLUSION, I DONT THINK THERE ARE ENOUGH FACTS TO SAY THAT CHEDDAR MAN REPRESENTS THE ENTIRE WEST HUNTER GATHERER. JUST LIKE IN AMERICA TODAY THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT GENE POOLS WITH MANY DIFFERENT TRAITS. EACH ONLY REPRESENTS THAT PARTICULAR PEOPLE AND ITS HISTORY.
CHEDDAR MAN ONLY GIVES EVIDENCE THAT HE CARRIED A GENE THAT HAD A DARK INDIAN TYPE OF PIGMENT, AS WELL AS HAVING BLUE EYES. THIS COULD INDICATE MANY MIXING EVENTS POSSIBILITIES.
ANOTHER DEBATE IS THE AMOUNT OF WHG IN TODAYS EUROPEAN PEOPLE. THE FAQ ARTICLE CLAIMS 10% IN MODERN BRITAIN POPULATION. HOWEVER, OTHER RESEARCH SAYS UPTO 50% WHG IN NORTH EUROPEANS...
PAVILAND MAN FOUND IN WALES WAS NON AFRICAN FIRST PEOPLE AFTER NEANDERTHAL IN THE PALEOLITHIC. 33,000 YA WAS A WARM PHASE IN WALES SIMILAR TO NORTH SIBERIAN WEATHER TODAY OF SUMMER TIME HIGH OF 50 DEGREE FAHRENHEIT AND BELOW ZERO HIGH IN WINTER....
Red Lady of Paviland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Lady_of_Paviland
The Red Lady of Paviland is an Upper Paleolithic partial skeleton of a male dyed in red ochre and buried in Britain 33,000 BP. The bones were discovered in 1823 by William Buckland in an archaeological dig at Goat's Hole Cave (Paviland cave) — one of the limestone caves between Port Eynon and Rhossili on the Gower Peninsula, south Wales.... Goat's Hole was occupied throughout prehistory. Artefacts are predominantly Aurignacian, but also include examples from the earlier Mousterian, and later Gravettian and Creswellian periods. The site is the oldest known ceremonial burial in Western Europe.... Although now on the coast, at the time of the burial the cave would have been located approximately 70 miles inland, overlooking a plain....he lived during a warmer period....Bone protein analysis indicates that he lived on a diet of between 15% and 20% fish, which, together with the distance from the sea, suggests that the people may have been semi-nomadic, or that the tribe transported the body from a coastal region for burial.... Analysis of the evidence from the two excavations at Long Hole Cave on the Gower Peninsula, including sediment and pollen as well as the lithic evidence, has identified Long Hole as an Aurignacian site contemporary with and related to the site at Paviland, evidence of the first modern humans in Britain.
A man’s red-ochre burial in Goat’s Hole Cave (aka The Red Lady of Paviland)
Published: January 8, 2009
The ‘Red Lady’, when alive, was a healthy young adult male – aged 25-30, about 5′ 8″ (1.74 metres) in height, and possibly weighing about 11 stone (73 kg) – but less robust than might be expected for this period. Whilst the earliest anatomically modern humans in Europe were characterised by tropically-adapted body proportions, arising from their African ancestry, this is not reflected in the skeleton of the ‘Red Lady’, probably because the Paviland individual was a product of perhaps 10,000 years of evolution of modern humans within Europe.[OR SIMPLY AS FACTS REVEAL HE WAS NOT AFRICAN MONKEY MAN RATHER HE WAS INDIGENOUS EUROPEAN]
Molecular biologist Bryan Sykes has shown that the ‘Red Lady’ skeleton has a DNA sequence corresponding to the commonest extant lineage in Europe. As such, the Paviland evidence lends support to the argument that the roots of modern Europeans lie not with Neolithic farmers but with the ingress into Europe of human populations who were to replace the Neanderthals.
Restudy of the Goat’s Hole lithic collections has confirmed material ranging from about 40,000 BP to about 13,000 BP (including Mousterian, leaf point, late Aurignacian, early Gravettian, Creswellian, and Final Upper Palaeolithic phases), although the earliest and latest phases are not dated by radiocarbon. Aurignacian finds form the dominant element. These artefacts were made from a range of imported and local raw materials. It is interesting that analysis of the ochres is consistent with a local origin, probably within Gower....
CHEDDAR MAN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheddar_Man
found in Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, England. The skeletal remains date to the Mesolithic (ca. 9100 BP) ...Analysis of his nuclear DNA indicates that he was a typical member of the western European population at the time, probably with lactose intolerance, blue eyes, and dark curly or wavy hair and, less certainly, dark skin....These features are typical of the European population of the time, now known as West European Hunter-Gatherers. This population forms about 10%, on average, of the ancestry of Britons without a recent family history of immigration.
Brown eyes, lactose tolerance, and light skin are common in the modern population of the area. These genes came from later immigration, most of it ultimately from two major waves, the first of Neolithic farmers from the Near East, another of Bronze Age pastoralists, most likely speakers of Indo-European languages, from the Pontic steppe.
The mitochondrial DNA of Cheddar Man was of haplogroup U5b1. Some 65% of western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers had haplogroup U5; today it is widely distributed, at lower frequencies, across western Eurasia and northern Africa.
There was no genetic link with the other, less complete skeletons from Gough's Cave, which are 5,000 years older than Cheddar Man.
Gough's Cave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gough%27s_Cave
Skull that potentially shows signs of cannibalism. The cave contained skeletal remains of both humans and animals, all showing cut-marks and breakage consistent with de-fleshing and eating. Skull fragments represent from 5 to 7 humans, including a young child of about 3 years and two adolescents. The brain cases appear to have been prepared as drinking cups or containers, a tradition found in other Magdalenian sites across Europe. In 1903 the remains of a human male, since named Cheddar Man, were found a short distance inside Gough's Cave...a carving of a mammoth, estimated to be 13,000 years old, was found in the cave. In 2010 further human bones from the cave were examined, which ultra-filtration carbon dating dated to around the end of the ice age 14,700 years ago....cannibalism amongst the people living in or visiting the cave at that time....
Cheddar Man FAQ
Previous studies of DNA from Mesolithic individuals recovered from Spain, Luxembourg and Hungary identified that they also lacked the versions of genes associated with reduced skin pigmentation in modern, light-skinned Europeans. We found that Cheddar man belonged to the same population as these individuals – usually referred to as western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers... subsequent migrations into Britain,... Populations with the versions of genes primarily responsible for lighter skin pigmentation were living in parts of Scandinavia and western Asia at around the time Cheddar man was alive...The versions of the genes primarily responsible for lighter skin pigmentation in modern North-West Europeans arrive in Europe on the back of two waves of migration thousands of years after Cheddar Man died; one associated with Near Eastern farmers and another with pastoralists from the Pontic steppe...
Cheddar Man’s mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited exclusively down the maternal line, belongs to haplogroup U5b1. As this is only a tiny portion of an individual’s genome, and there have been several large-scale population movements in Europe and across the world since Cheddar Man was alive, this result has no relevance to his skin pigmentation, and says little about the distribution of this mitochondrial haplogroup amongst modern populations....
When we look at genetic variation in modern British people today, we find that – for those who do not have a recent history of migration – around 10% of their ancestry can be attributed to the ancient European population to which Cheddar Man belonged. This group is referred to as the western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. However, this ancestry does not relate specifically to Cheddar Man or the Mesolithic population of Britain. Well after Cheddar Man’s death, two large-scale prehistoric migrations into Britain produced significant population turnover. Both of these migrations into Britain represented westward extensions of population movements across Europe. In both cases, these migrating populations intermixed with local people who carried western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherer ancestry, as they moved across Europe. When these populations arrived in Britain they already had some hunter-gatherer ancestry derived from this mixing with local populations. Therefore the majority of western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers ancestry that we see in modern British people probably originates from populations who lived all over Europe during the Mesolithic, which was carried into Britain by these later migrations.
Evidence of 'Britain's Atlantis' found beneath North Sea
Scientists investigating a drowned Stone Age landscape at the bottom of the North Sea have discovered two potential prehistoric settlement sites on the banks of a long-vanished ancient river. It is the first time that an archaeological expedition has ever found such evidence far offshore under the huge body of water....drowned Stone Age landscape of Britain’s North Sea Atlantis ... likely to be Stone Age settlement sites that were swallowed up by the sea in around 6000 BC. The potential settlements themselves – on opposite sides of an ancient river estuary – are even older – probably dating from between 8200 and 7700 BC....
How Doggerland Sank Beneath The Waves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DECwfQQqRzo
Paviland Man 31,000 BC Wales
Swanscombe Skull 400,000 YA
Boxgrove Man 500,000 YA
LGM 31,000-14,000BC
HUMANS RETURN TO BRITAIN & DOGGERLAND12,670-10,890BC
Younger Dryas 10,900-9,700 BC ice age return to desolate the population again.
9000BC ice melts and life returns.
Holocene 9650BC-present. age of man
7000BC Ireland breaks off and becomes an Island but Britain and Doggerland still connected with the continent.
Cheddar Man 7100 BC
Star Carr in Yorkshire religius horned skulls 9000-8500BC
8000-6200 BC Doggerland sinks
6100 BC mega tsunami buries Doggerland and separates Britain from the continent.
Boat building 6000 BC Isle of Wight. Oldest boat workshop in the world.
What Happened To Britain's Last Hunter-Gatherers? Prehistoric Europe Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTyojqbW6lM
Prehistoric Britain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain
For the purposes of this article, Prehistoric Britain is Britain during the period between the first arrival of humans on the land mass now known as Great Britain and the start of recorded British history. The "recorded history" of Britain is conventionally reckoned to begin in AD 43 with the Roman invasion of Britain,...
The earliest evidence of human occupation around 900,000 years ago is at Happisburgh on the Norfolk coast, with stone tools and footprints probably made by Homo antecessor. The oldest human fossils, around 500,000 years old, are of Homo heidelbergensis at Boxgrove in Sussex. Until this time Britain was permanently connected to the Continent by a chalk ridge between south-east England and northern France called the Weald-Artois Anticline, but during the Anglian Glaciation around 425,000 years ago a megaflood broke through the ridge, creating the English Channel, and after that Britain became an island when sea levels rose during interglacials. Fossils of very early Neanderthals dating to around 400,000 years ago have been found at Swanscombe in Kent, and of classic Neanderthals about 225,000 years old at Pontnewydd in Wales. Britain was unoccupied by humans between 180,000 and 60,000 years ago, when Neanderthals returned. By 40,000 years ago they had become extinct and modern humans had reached Britain. But even their occupations were brief and intermittent due to a climate which swung between low temperatures with a tundra habitat and severe ice ages which made Britain uninhabitable for long periods. The last of these, the Younger Dryas, ended around 11,700 years ago, and since then Britain has been continuously occupied. Britain and Ireland were then joined to the Continent, but rising sea levels cut the land bridge between Britain and Ireland by around 11,000 years ago. A large plain between Britain and Continental Europe, known as Doggerland, persisted much longer, probably until around 5600 BC. By around 4000 BC, the island was populated by people with a Neolithic culture....
The story of ancient Britain is traditionally seen as one of successive waves of invasion from the continent, with each bringing different cultures and technologies....Many of the changes in British society demonstrated in the archaeological record are now suggested to be the effects of the native inhabitants adopting foreign customs rather than being subsumed by an invading population....
Palaeolithic...This period also saw Levallois flint tools introduced, possibly by humans arriving from Africa. However, finds from Swanscombe and Botany Pit in Purfleet support Levallois technology being a European rather than African introduction. ...
Albion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion
Albion (Ancient Greek: Ἀλβιών) is the oldest known name of the island of Great Britain. Today, it is still sometimes used poetically to refer to the island. The name for Scotland in the Celtic languages is related to Albion: Alba in Scottish Gaelic, Albain (genitive Alban) in Irish, Nalbin in Manx and Alban in Welsh, Cornish and Breton. These names were later Latinised as Albania and Anglicised as Albany, which were once alternative names for Scotland....
The Common Brittonic name for the island, Hellenised as Albíōn (Ἀλβίων) and Latinised as Albiōn (genitive Albionis), derives from the Proto-Celtic nasal stem *Albi̯iū (oblique *Albiion-) and survived in Old Irish as Albu ...
The root *albiio- is also found in Gaulish and Galatian albio- ("world") and Welsh elfydd (elbid, "earth, world, land, country, district"). It may be related to other European and Mediterranean toponyms such as Alpes, Albania and Liban. It has two possible etymologies: either *albho-, a Proto-Indo-European root meaning "white" (perhaps in reference to the white southern shores of the island, though Celtic linguist Xavier Delamarre argued that it originally meant "the world above, the visible world", in opposition to "the world below", i.e., the underworld), or *alb-, Proto-Indo-European for "hill". ...
A legend exists in various forms that giants were either the original inhabitants, or the founders of the land named Albion.... According to the 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae ("The History of The Kings of Britain") by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the exiled Brutus of Troy was told by the goddess Diana; ...After many adventures, Brutus and his fellow Trojans escape from Gaul and "set sail with a fair wind towards the promised island".
"The island was then called Albion, and inhabited by none but a few giants. Notwithstanding this, the pleasant situation of the places, the plenty of rivers abounding with fish, and the engaging prospect of its woods, made Brutus and his company very desirous to fix their habitation in it. " After dividing up the island between themselves "at last Brutus called the island after his own name Britain, and his companions Britons; for by these means he desired to perpetuate the memory of his name". Geoffrey goes on to recount how the last of the giants are defeated, the largest one called Goëmagot is flung over a cliff by Corineus.
Bretons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretons
The Bretons are an ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Brittonic speakers who emigrated from southwestern Great Britain including Cornwall to avoid the invading Germanic peoples. They also descend from the Gauls and in some parts from Vikings. They migrated in waves from the third to ninth century (most heavily from 450-600) into Armorica, which was subsequently named Brittany after them. ...Brittany and its people are counted as one of the six Celtic nations. Ethnically, along with the Cornish and Welsh, the Bretons are Celtic Britons....
Bretons were the most prominent of the non-Norman forces in the Norman conquest of England. A number of Breton families were of the highest rank in the new society and were tied to the Normans by marriage....
Native Tribes of Britain (1st Century AD)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/iron_01.shtml
This map shows the approximate location of the major tribes who lived in Britain at the time of the Roman Conquest of Britain in the First Century AD. The sole source for the existence and location of these tribes are Roman writers who visited Britain.
ANCIENT BRITAIN Life in Britain & Ireland Before the Romans english documentary part 5
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiXTKxtM5o8
ANCESTOR VENERATION...
Britain BC - Part 2: Neolithic & Bronze Age henges, tombs and dwellings
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1X4hCC-ZSU
ANCESTOR VENERATION
Britain BC Episode 1 ~ Francis Pryor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkCRkWH_ISw
LONGBOAT DATES 2000BC IN BRITAIN TO TRANSPORT MALAKITE COPPER TO THE TIN MINES IN SOUTH BRIT. TRADED TO THE CONTINENTAL PEOPLES.
Episode 1: Age Of Ice | The World of Stonehenge | BBC Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FqdhkuMTNWU
Episode 2: Age Of Ancestors | The World of Stonehenge | BBC Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FFo3AB2fzTE
Documentary - Sacred Wonders Of Britain 1of3 Earliest Religion in Britain
Documentary - Sacred Wonders Of Britain 2of3 Bronze and Iron Age Sites
Documentary - Sacred Wonders Of Britain 3of3 The Early Church
Britain BC Episode 1
Genetic history of the British and the Irish
http://www.eupedia.com/genetics/britain_ireland_dna.shtml
This page attempts to retrace the origins of the British and Irish people through the analyses of their genetic markers using Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) haplogroups, which are passed on nearly unaltered from father to son, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited only from one's mother, and complete genomic studies looking at all the chromosomes.
During the Paleolithic period, the British Isles were covered by a thick sheet of ice, which made them all but uninhabitable. Europe had been originally inhabited by Neanderthals, a close relative of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens). Neanderthals had been living in Ice Age Europe for over 250,000 years when Homo sapiens started to advanced into Europe from the Middle East from 45,000 years ago, reaching western Europe approximately 35,000 years ago. The last pure Neanderthals may have survived until 24,000 years ago around Gibraltar....
The Indo-European speakers from central Europe, and caused them to invade western Europe and destroy the Megalithic cultures that had lasted for several millennia. Equipped with bronze weapons and horses, these Indo-Europeans were not cereal farmers but cattle herders from the Pontic Steppe, north of the Black Sea. ...reaching Britain and western France by 2,200 BCE and Ireland by 2,000 BCE....
It is likely that these Proto-Celts who invaded the British Isles belonged to a great majority to the L21 subclade of R1b, as this haplogroup now makes up over two thirds of paternal lineages in Wales, Ireland and Highland Scotland....A latter Celtic migration took place around 500 BCE, when Central European Celts from the Hallstatt culture expanded over a large swathe of western Europe...the Celts colonised most of France, Belgium and the south-east of England. ...
In 43 CE, under the reign of Emperor Claudius, the Romans invaded Great Britain. Within two decades most of England and Wales had been conquered and would remain a province of the Roman Empire for over three centuries. For most of the second century Lowland Scotland was also Romanised....
It is very difficult to assess the genetic impact of Romanisation on the British population as the Roman citizens, soldiers and slaves who settled in Britannia were not merely people from the Latium or Italy, but could have come from anywhere in the empire....
Overall, the majority of immigrants to Roman Britain came from the Mediterranean region, with higher percentages from Italy and the Balkans ...
The analysis of the Hinxton genomes revealed that pre-Roman Celtic Britons did not have any West Asian or Southwest Asian genetic admixture in them. ...This suggests that the West Asian or Southwest Asian admixtures entered the British gene pool during the Roman and/or Norman period, since neither the Anglo-Saxons nor the Vikings could have contributed to such levels. ...The Italians have considerably higher levels of West Asian or Southwest Asian admixtures....
Using Central Italians as a proxy, and hoping that the Hinxton samples are representative of pre-Roman Britons, it is possible that approximately one third of the autosomal genes in the British population comes from Mediterranean people who settled in Britain during the Roman period....
this results in a maximum roughly 15% of male lineages of "Roman" origin for England, 10% for Wales, and 7% for Scotland. However, it would be reasonable to assume that at least half of these come from Alpine Celts and Normans. ...
from 410 to the middle of the 6th century, the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons, Germanic tribes from Denmark and north-west Germany, left their homeland and migrated to what would become England....from around 800, Danish Vikings started raiding the coastlines of the British Isles. ...Germanic people brought a whole new set of paternal lineages with them.... Those haplogroups now make up over half of all male lineages in England and Lowland Scotland. ...Nowadays, most English counties have between 55% and 65% of Germanic Y-DNA haplogroups, while Cornwall has 45% and Wales has much as 25%. ...
If we exclude Germanic lineages, Ireland is almost purely Insular Celtic...
Normans: a Viking contingent made up of Danes and Norwegians, Norse–Gaels and Anglo-Danes became Duchy of Normandy in France... Normandy conquered England...Norman noblemen left a greater number of offspring than the commoners, and as a result managed to leave a noticeable genetic impact....In Scotland, the Nomans founded several clans,...
Seahenge gives up its secrets
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/388988.stm
A circle of waterlogged wooden posts found on a remote beach in Norfolk, England, is transforming our knowledge of Bronze Age culture 4,000 years ago. The 55 posts, together with the up-turned stump of an oak tree in the middle ... it is thought timber circles were used by prehistoric cultures to expose their dead to the elements, birds and wild animals - a practice called excarnation. The belief was that allowing the flesh to rot from the bones in the open air would liberate the dead person's spirit. ... large inverted oak stump in the centre of the circle. It is thought to have formed a sort of altar on which the bodies would have been placed to decay. ...the symbolism of the upside-down oak tree is very important to understanding the Bronze Age mind. "We often find everyday objects deliberately turned upside down at Bronze Age sites. The inverted oak is a very complex statement. It is the world turned upside down, just as death is an inversion of life.
Agricola
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola
Step by step they were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance, they called civilization, when it was but a part of their servitude.
Agricola (book) (Summary & Themes)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricola_(book)
The Agricola ... On the life and character of Julius Agricola is a book by the Roman historian Tacitus, written c.AD98 .... It also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain.
Tacitus: Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola, c.98 CE
http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/tacitus-agricola.asp
11. Who were the original inhabitants of Britain, whether they were indigenous or foreign, is as usual among barbarians, little known. Their physical characteristics are various, and from these conclusions may be drawn. The red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia point clearly to a German origin. The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them, are an evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts. Those who are nearest to the Gauls are also like them, either from the permanent influence of original descent, or, because in countries which run out so far to meet each other, climate has produced similar physical qualities. But a general survey inclines me to believe that the Gauls established themselves in an island so near to them. Their religious belief may be traced in the strongly-marked British superstition. The language differs but little; there is the same boldness in challenging danger, and, when it is near, the same timidity in shrinking from it. The Britons, however, exhibit more spirit, as being a people whom a long peace has not yet enervated. Indeed we have understood that even the Gauls were once renowned in war; but, after a while, sloth following on ease crept over them, and they lost their courage along with their freedom. This too has happened to the long-conquered tribes of Britain; the rest are still what the Gauls once were.
12. Their strength is in infantry. Some tribes fight also with the chariot. The higher in rank is the charioteer; the dependants fight. They were once ruled by kings, but are now divided under chieftains into factions and parties. Our greatest advantage in coping with tribes so powerful is that they do not act in concert. Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to ward off a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly, all are conquered....
15. Relieved from apprehension by the legate's absence, the Britons dwelt much among themselves on the miseries of subjection, compared their wrongs, and exaggerated them in the discussion. "All we get by patience," they said, "is that heavier demands are exacted from us, as from men who will readily submit. A single king once ruled us; now two are set over us; a legate to tyrannise over our lives, a procurator to tyrannise over our property. Their quarrels and their harmony are alike ruinous to their subjects. The centurions of the one, the slaves of the other, combine violence with insult. Nothing is now safe from their avarice, nothing from their lust. In war it is the strong who plunders; now, it is for the most part by cowards and poltroons that our homes are rifled, our children torn from us, the conscription enforced, as though it were for our country alone that we could not die. For, after all, what a mere handful of soldiers has crossed over, if we Britons look at our own numbers. Germany did thus shake off the yoke, and yet its defence was a river, not the ocean. With us, fatherland, wives, parents, are the motives to war; with them, only greed and profligacy. They will surely fly, as did the now deified Julius, if once we emulate the valour of our sires. Let us not be panic-stricken at the result of one or two engagements. The miserable have more fury and greater resolution. Now even the gods are beginning to pity us, for they are keeping away the Roman general, and detaining his army far from us in another island. We have already taken the hardest step; we are deliberating. And indeed, in all such designs, to dare is less perilous than to be detected."
16. Rousing each other by this and like language, under the leadership of Boudicea, a woman of kingly descent (for they admit no distinction of sex in their royal successions), they all rose in arms....
...The tribe was all but exterminated.
.... Step by step they were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance they called civilisation, when it was but a part of their servitude.
30. “Whenever I consider the origin of this war and the necessities of our position, I have a sure confidence that this day, and this union of yours, will be the beginning of freedom to the whole of Britain. To all of us slavery is a thing unknown; there are no lands beyond us, and even the sea is not safe, menaced as we are by a Roman fleet. And thus in war and battle, in which the brave find glory, even the coward will find safety. Former contests, in which, with varying fortune, the Romans were resisted, still left in us a last hope of succour, inasmuch as being the most renowned nation of Britain, dwelling in the very heart of the country, and out of sight of the shores of the conquered, we could keep even our eyes unpolluted by the contagion of slavery. To us who dwell on the uttermost confines of the earth and of freedom, this remote sanctuary of Britain’s glory has up to this time been a defence. Now, however, the furthest limits of Britain are thrown open, and the unknown always passes for the marvellous. But there are no tribes beyond us, nothing indeed but waves and rocks, and the yet more terrible Romans, from whose oppression escape is vainly sought by obedience and submission. Robbers of the world, having by their universal plunder exhausted the land, they rifle the deep. If the enemy be rich, they are rapacious; if he be poor, they lust for dominion; neither the east nor the west has been able to satisfy them. Alone among men they covet with equal eagerness poverty and riches. To robbery, slaughter, plunder, they give the lying name of empire; they make a solitude and call it peace.
31. “Nature has willed that every man’s children and kindred should be his dearest objects. Yet these are torn from us by conscriptions to be slaves elsewhere. Our wives and our sisters, even though they may escape violation from the enemy, are dishonoured under the names of friendship and hospitality. Our goods and fortunes they collect for their tribute, our harvests for their granaries. Our very hands and bodies, under the lash and in the midst of insult, are worn down by the toil of clearing forests and morasses. Creatures born to slavery are sold once and for all, and are, moreover, fed by their masters; but Britain is daily purchasing, is daily feeding, her own enslaved people. And as in a household the last comer among the slaves is always the butt of his companions, so we in a world long used to slavery, as the newest and most contemptible, are marked out for destruction. We have neither fruitful plains, nor mines, nor harbours, for the working of which we may be spared. Valour, too, and high spirit in subjects, are offensive to rulers; besides, remoteness and seclusion, while they give safety, provoke suspicion. Since then you cannot hope for quarter, take courage, I beseech you, whether it be safety or renown that you hold most precious. Under a woman’s leadership the Brigantes were able to burn a colony, to storm a camp, and had not success ended in supineness, might have thrown off the yoke. Let us, then, a fresh and unconquered people, never likely to abuse our freedom, show forthwith at the very first onset what heroes Caledonia has in reserve.
32. “Do you suppose that the Romans will be as brave in war as they are licentious in peace? To our strifes and discords they owe their fame, and they turn the errors of an enemy to the renown of their own army, an army which, composed as it is of every variety of nations, is held together by success and will be broken up by disaster. These Gauls and Germans, and, I blush to say, these Britons, who, though they lend their lives to support a stranger’s rule, have been its enemies longer than its subjects, you cannot imagine to be bound by fidelity and affection. Fear and terror there certainly are, feeble bonds of attachment; remove them, and those who have ceased to fear will begin to hate. All the incentives to victory are on our side. The Romans have no wives to kindle their courage; no parents to taunt them with flight, man have either no country or one far away. Few in number, dismayed by their ignorance, looking around upon a sky, a sea, and forests which are all unfamiliar to them; hemmed in, as it were, and enmeshed, the Gods have delivered them into our hands. Be not frightened by the idle display, by the glitter of gold and of silver, which can neither protect nor wound. In the very ranks of the enemy we shall find our own forces. Britons will acknowledge their own cause; Gauls will remember past freedom; the other Germans will abandon them, as but lately did the Usipii. Behind them there is nothing to dread. The forts are ungarrisoned; the colonies in the hands of aged men; what with disloyal subjects and oppressive rulers, the towns are ill-affected and rife with discord. On the one side you have a general and an army; on the other, tribute, the mines, and all the other penalties of an enslaved people. Whether you endure these for ever, or instantly avenge them, this field is to decide. Think, therefore, as you advance to battle, at once of your ancestors and of your posterity.” ...
Bede: Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Book I
http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/bede-book1.asp
CHAPTER I
OF THE SITUATION OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND, AND OF THEIR ANCIENT INHABITANTS
contains five nations, the English, Britons, Scots, Picts, and Latins...
At first this island had no other inhabitants but the Britons, from whom it derived its name, and who, coming over into Britain, as is reported, from Armorica, possessed themselves of the southern parts thereof. When they, beginning at the south, had made themselves masters of the greatest part of the island, it happened, that the nation of the Picts, from Scythia, as is reported, putting to sea, in a few long ships, were driven by the winds beyond the shores of Britain, and arrived on the northern coast of Ireland, where, finding the nation of the Scots, they begged to be allowed to settle among them, but could not succeed in obtaining their request. ...
The Picts, as has been said, arriving in this island by sea, desired to have a place granted them in which they might settle. The Scots answered that the island could not contain them both; but "We can give you good advice," said they, "what to do; we know there is another island, not far from ours, to the eastward, which we often see at a distance, when the days are clear. if you will go thither, you will obtain settlements; or, if they should oppose you, you shall have our assistance." The Picts, accordingly, sailing over into Britain, began to inhabit the northern parts thereof, for the Britons were possessed of the southern. Now the Picts had no wives, and asked them of the Scots; who would not consent to grant them upon any other terms, than that when any difficulty should arise, they should choose a king from the female royal race rather than from the male: which custom, as is well known, has been observed among the Picts to this day. In process of time, Britain, besides the Britons and the Picts, received a third nation the Scots, who, migrating from Ireland under their leader, Reuda, either by fair means, or by force of arms, secured to themselves those settlements among the Picts which they still possess. From the name of their commander, they are to this day called Dalreudins; for, in their language, Dal signifies a part. ...
CHAPTER XII
THE BRITONS, BEING RAVAGED BY THE SCOTS AND PICTS, SOUGHT SUCCOUR FROM THE ROMANS, WHO, COMING A SECOND TIME, BUILT A WALL ACROSS THE ISLAND; BUT THE BRITONS BEING AGAIN INVADED BY THE AFORESAID ENEMIES, WERE REDUCED TO GREATER DISTRESS THAN BEFORE
After their departure, the Scots and Picts, understanding that they had declared they would come no more, speedily returned, and growing more confident than they had been before, occupied all the northern and farthest part of the island, as far as the wall. Hereupon a timorous guard was placed upon the wall, where they pined away day and night in the utmost fear. On the other side, the enemy attacked them with hooked weapons, by which the cowardly defenders were dragged from the wall, and dashed against the ground. At last, the Britons, forsaking their cities and wall, took to flight and were dispersed. The enemy pursued, and the slaughter was greater than on any former occasion; for the wretched natives were torn in pieces by their enemies, as lambs are torn by wild beasts. Thus, being expelled their dwellings and possessions, they saved themselves from starvation, by robbing and plundering one another, adding to the calamities occasioned by foreigners, by their own domestic broils, till the whole country was left destitute of food, except such as could be procured in the chase. ...
CHAPTER XV
THE ANGLES, BEING INVITED INTO BRITAIN, AT FIRST OBLIGED THE ENEMY TO RETIRE TO A DISTANCE; BUT NOT LONG AFTER, JOINING IN LEAGUE WITH THEM, TURNED THEIR WEAPONS UPON THEIR CONFEDERATES. [A.D. 450-456.]
Those who came over were of the three most powerful nations of Germany Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From the Jutes are descended the people of Kent, and of the Isle of Wight, and those also in the province of the West Saxons who are to this day called Jutes, seated opposite to the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons, that is, the country which is now called Old Saxony, came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the Angles, that is, the country which is called Anglia, and which is said, from that time, to remain desert to this day, between the provinces of the Jutes and the Saxons, are descended the East Angles, the Midland Angles, Mercians, all the race of the Northumbrians, that is, of those nations that dwell on the north side of the river Humber, and the other nations of the English. ...
Armorica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armorica
Armorica or Aremorica is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul between the Seine and Loire rivers, that includes the Brittany peninsula, extending inland to an indeterminate point and down the Atlantic coast...
Aremorica is not a 'country name', but a word that describes a type of geographical region - a region that is by the sea. ...
Pliny lists the following Celtic tribes as living in the area: the Aedui and Carnuteni as having treaties with Rome; the Meldi and Secusiani as having some measure of independence; and the Boii, Senones, Aulerci (both the Eburovices and Cenomani), the Parisii, Tricasses, Andicavi, Viducasses, Bodiocasses, Veneti, Coriosvelites, Diablinti, Rhedones, Turones, and the Atseui....
The linguistic origins of Breton are clear: it is a Brythonic language descended from the Celtic British language, like Welsh and Cornish one of the Insular Celtic languages, brought by these migrating Britons. ...
When Vikings or Northmen settled in the Cotentin peninsula and the lower Seine around Rouen in the ninth and early tenth centuries, and these regions came to be known as Normandy, the name Armorica fell out of use in the area. With western Armorica having already evolved into Brittany, the east was recast from a Frankish viewpoint as the Breton March under a Frankish marquis....
The Truth About British DNA Ancestry
Stephen Oppenheimer The origins of the British 1/2
Stephen Oppenheimer The origins of the British 2/2
Rhesus Negative Blood Type Origins
AB blood type (genetics)
Brits and America had similar beginnings with one major difference: The Brits lost their independence to the Roman Govt while America won its independence from the defeated bastardized British Roman Empire.
Briton Tribes vs. Government: A war for independence and freedom from tyrannical government. To free themselves from slavery, and oppression from Roman Govt.
Was this war really about a financial matter among the elites causing the whole tribe to die over an angry woman who couldn't control her emotions? Or did the Roman Law and/or Govt swindle Boudicca stealing her families estate, and the tribes rights? Was Rome a corrupt Government, and corrupt legal system tyrannizing the people causing a revolt? Roman Law disarmed the Celts contrary to Celtic Law... Gun Control is Roman Law, not Briton Law.
Boudica: Celtic War Queen Who Challenged Rome
http://www.historynet.com/boudica-celtic-war-queen-who-challenged-rome.htm
For whatever reason Ostorius decided to disarm those subject tribes that he felt he could not fully trust, including the Iceni. Established Roman law forbade subject populations to keep weapons other than those used for hunting game, but that was contrary to Celtic law and custom. The Iceni rebelled, and Ostorius defeated them. Antedios may have been killed in the rebellion. If not, it seems likely that Ostorius removed him immediately afterward and installed Prasutagus as client-king in his place. Boudica was now queen of the Iceni.
Two years later, in 49, Ostorius confiscated land in and around Camulodunum to set up a colonia. This was a town for retired Legionaries, in which each veteran was granted a homestead. The town gave the veterans a secure retirement and concentrated an experienced reserve force in the new province, on which Rome could call in case of emergency. In theory, it was supposed to provide a model of Roman civilization to which the natives might aspire. Unfortunately, the colonia at Camulodunum caused more problems than it solved. As it grew over the next decade, more and more Britons were driven off their land, some enslaved by the veterans, others executed and their heads exhibited on stakes.
The Iceni had once avoided trade with Rome, while the Catuvellauni grew rich from it. Now, the Iceni submitted, while the former king of the Catuvellauni fought Rome, and his people suffered the consequences....
Despite the Roman ban, they had secretly stockpiled weapons, and they now armed themselves and planned their assault. ...
Boudica’s army overran the town, and the Roman garrison retreated to the unfinished temple, which had been one of the prime causes of the rebellion....
Boudica killed everone she found when she reached Londinium. Dio described the savagery of her army: They hung up naked the noblest and most distinguished women and then cut off their breasts and sewed them to their mouths, in order to make the victims appear to be eating them; afterwards they impaled the women on sharp skewers run lengthwise through the entire body....
The speech Tacitus reports Suetonius gave may be a closer reflection of what he said, appealing to his Legions to disregard the clamor and empty threats of the natives. He told them: There were more women visible in their ranks than fighting men, and they, unwarlike and poorly armed, routed on so many occasions, would immediately give way when they recognized the steel and courage of those who had always conquered them. Even when many Legions were involved, it was a few men who actually decided battles. It would redound to their honor that their small numbers won the glory of a whole army....
The Romans did not refrain from slaughtering even the womenfolk, while the baggage animals too, transfixed with weapons, added to the piles of bodies, Tacitus reported, citing figures of 80,000 British casualties and 400 Roman dead and a slightly larger number wounded....
Description by Tacitus of Boudicca's Rebellion, AD 60-61
http://www.athenapub.com/britsite/tacitus1.htm
Prasutagus, the late king of the Icenians, in the course of a long reign had amassed considerable wealth. By his will he left the whole to his two daughters and the emperor in equal shares, conceiving, by that stroke of policy, that he should provide at once for the tranquility of his kingdom and his family.
The event was otherwise. His dominions were ravaged by the centurions; the slaves pillaged his house, and his effects were seized as lawful plunder. His wife, Boudicca, was disgraced with cruel stripes; her daughters were ravished, and the most illustrious of the Icenians were, by force, deprived of the positions which had been transmitted to them by their ancestors. The whole country was considered as a legacy bequeathed to the plunderers. The relations of the deceased king were reduced to slavery.
Exasperated by their acts of violence, and dreading worse calamities, the Icenians had recourse to arms. The Trinobantians joined in the revolt. The neighboring states, not as yet taught to crouch in bondage, pledged themselves, in secret councils, to stand forth in the cause of liberty. What chiefly fired their indignation was the conduct of the veterans, lately planted as a colony at Camulodunum. These men treated the Britons with cruelty and oppression; they drove the natives from their habitations, and calling them by the [shameful] names of slaves and captives, added insult to their tyranny. In these acts of oppression, the veterans were supported by the common soldiers; a set of men, by their habits of life, trained to licentiousness, and, in their turn, expecting to reap the same advantages. The temple built in honour of Claudius was another cause of discontent. In the eye of the Britons it seemed the citadel of eternal slavery. ...
Boudicca, the Celtic Queen that unleashed fury on the Romans
http://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/boudicca-celtic-queen-unleashed-fury-romans-002065
In 43 AD, before the time that Boudicca reached adulthood, the Romans invaded Britain, and most of the Celtic tribes were forced to submit. ...However, it was not a time of harmony for Boudicca and Prasutagus. The Roman occupation brought increased settlement, military presence, and attempts to suppress Celtic religious culture. There were major economic changes, including heavy taxes and money lending. ...
“Kingdom and household alike were plundered like prizes of war.... The Chieftains of the Iceni were deprived of their family estates as if the whole country had been handed over to the Romans. The king's own relatives were treated like slaves.”
— Tacitus
Boudicca
https://www.ancient.eu/Boudicca/
Boudicca was the Celtic Queen of the Iceni tribe of modern-day East Anglia, Britain, who led a revolt against Rome in 60/61 CE. The Iceni King, Prasutagus, an independent ally of Rome, divided his estate between his daughters and King Nero of Rome. When Prasutagus died, however, his lands were taken by Rome and the Iceni lost their status as allies. When his wife, Boudicca, objected to this action she was flogged and her two daughters raped. She mounted a revolt against Rome which left the ancient Roman cities of Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium in ruins and over 80,000 Roman citizens of Britain dead. She was defeated at the Battle of Watling Street by the Roman Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus chiefly by his judicious choice of battlefield and allowing her army to cut off its own escape route by encircling their rear with their wagons, animals and families. Boudicca is said to have committed suicide by poisoning herself after her defeat. ...Though she lost her battle and her cause, Boudicca is celebrated today as a national heroine and a universal symbol of the human desire for freedom and justice.
Boudicca
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica
The Iceni initially voluntarily allied with Rome following Claudius's conquest of Southern Britain AD 43. They were proud of their independence, and had revolted in AD 47 when the then Roman governor Publius Ostorius Scapula planned to disarm all the peoples in the area of Britain under Roman control following a number of local uprisings. Ostorius defeated them and went on to put down other uprisings around Britain.[20] The Iceni remained independent. ...
Cassius Dio ...said that the cause of the rebellion was the decision of the procurator of Britain (the chief financial officer) and Seneca (an advisor of the emperor Nero) to call in Prasutagus’ debts and the harsh measures which were taken to collect them. Tacitus does not mention these events. However, he wrote: "Alarmed by this disaster and by the fury of the province which he had goaded into war by his rapacity, the procurator Catus crossed over into Gaul."...
Tacitus said that "It was against the veterans that their hatred was most intense. For these new settlers in the colony of Camulodunum drove people out of their houses, ejected them from their farms, called them captives and slaves …"
Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body, and the abused chastity of her daughters. ...She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice....
Old Texts
England
http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/index.htm
Avalon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalon
Avalon (literally meaning "the isle of fruit [or apple] trees") is a legendary island featured in the Arthurian legend. It first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 1136 pseudo-historical account Historia Regum Britanniae ("The History of the Kings of Britain") as the place where King Arthur's sword Excalibur was forged and later where Arthur was taken to recover from his wounds after the Battle of Camlann. Avalon was associated from an early date with mystical practices and people such as Morgan le Fay.... The name is generally considered to be of Welsh origin (though an Old Cornish or Old Breton origin is also possible)...
Cornish Legends Saints, Mermaids & Phoenicians
The Cassiterides
http://members.tripod.com/cornwall_phoenicians/The%20mermaid.htm
The argument has raged for a long time about whether or not the Phoenicians ever visited Britain. I believe they did and that the evidence exists to prove it.... I believe that the above is a strong argument that the Scillies were indeed the Cassiterides referred to. As I stated above, it is known that the Phoenicians used off-shore islands as bases to trade with people from the mainland or larger Island and the Scillies would have been an ideal base for them to visit the tin mining area coming ashore to do the actual trading. Indeed some Phoenician glass faience beads, from around 1600BC which must have been amongst the first products of the great Phoenician civilisation to reach Cornwall were found buried in a Bronze Age barrow on the Lands End in the 1800’s and are displayed at the Truro Museum.
Do not misunderstand the title. It refers to the Phoenician people migration to the Isles, and their influence there. It does not refer that the Phoenicians were the only people, nor the original people of the Isles.
This was an interesting book. The entire book could easily be hilited. What follows were just a few notes I hilited but, the entire book should be hilited and read.
I have read that Turkic were the Phoenicians, then I read another article that says Semitic were the Phoenicians, and now this article claims the Aryans were the Phoenicians. Sumer was a melting pot of races of all three. So is it possible the Phoenicians actually were all three? Starting out by a race of people then becoming a nationality by multiple peoples?
According to this article: Pict, Celt are first people; Slav, German, Hun are Turkic; Britons, Jutes, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Norse and Normans are Aryan...
According to DNA there was a Western Hunter Gatherer population. This article gives the impression the Picts and Celts were the indigenous but, from the same near east population migrating a couple thousand years prior to the Phoenicians Barats. This to me is unclear.
POEN: "The Phoenician Origin of Britons, Scots & Anglo-Saxons" PDF
https://ia801400.us.archive.org/2/items/ThePhoenicianOriginOfBritonsScotsAnglo-saxons/POEN.pdf
L. A. Waddell [Lawrence Austine Waddell] Orig. pub. by Williams & Norgate, 1924 2nd ed., 1925
laboriously scanned by JR and proofread by Dr. Samar Abbas, Aligarh, India (July, 2003)
POEN
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/POEN.pdf
POEN Hi-Lites
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/POEN%20hilites.rtf
This article claims Aryan's, namely the Goths by King Thor being originally from the Danube Valley, civilized the wolf and lion tribes, and the aborigines in the Mesopotamian region. The wolf tribes must be the Turkic peoples who migrated there from their northern Eurasian homelands. The lion tribe the dwarf aborigine. Serpent tribe is unclear but, must be a religious cult of various peoples from the southern regions from India extending to Egypt. Semitic Chaldees as adversary is variously called Loki (i.e., Sutt or Seth-Abel).
This article gives several different stories of different things, for one is Wodan's description.
Eve's race seems to be contradictory: "the Serpent Wolf priestess of Eden"; and as "`Racially Eve or Sif, the Sibyl, is disclosed to have been of the Gothic race, and of the same royal clan as Adam himself, ... Her Gothic or Asa race"... she-wolf,... ardent horsewoman, sounds like she is Turkic people. So either she was Goth by marriage, or Goth's and Aryan's are also Turkic people. None can tell the genealogy of Sif. She was the fairest of women. Her hair was like gold.... Adam also described as Western Aryan Wolf Goth Goat... I am a little confused as this article describes things sometimes differently as I have read elsewhere. This article seems contradicting at times, or I have not understood clearly.
THE BRITISH EDDA
http://www.thechristianidentityforum.net/downloads/British-Edda.pdf
The following are just a few hi-lites from the book... Using this book's descriptions we can identify the Serpent Tribes, Wodan, Thor, Odin, and Goths were nonmongolian Scyths...
THE BRITISH EDDA Hi-lites
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/British%20Edda%20Hilites.rtf
(This book and hilites are also at bottom of this page in files section)
Thor and The All-Wise Dwarf
Dwarf Chief to his men quoths: Broider the benches! Now shall my bride with me Hasten hame together!
I'm in a mighty hurry (for marriage). everyone naun think. But there's no resting now in a squalid hame for me! [He repairs to Thor in the Inn.]
Thor to Dwarf: What is this, fellow? Why art thou so pale about the nose? Wast thee dwelling o'ernight with corpses? A likeness to the dour dunces (of Eden), methinks hangs o'er thee; Thou wast not born (of the breed) for a (Gothic) bride!
D. All-Wise I'm named. I bide far aneath the earth (in cave) ; Under the rock-stones is my homestead. A wakeful man with witness am I come (to fetch my bride), Let none upbraid this anguished foster(-brother).
T. I have the (wisht-for) bride in ward like a father. I was not at home when the word-troth was plighted, I who hallow the weddings of the Goths. Winged Thor I'm called. Wide have I wandered, Son am I of a civilized green branch. Never without my will shalt thou have that young maid, Nor get that gift-match from the Goths.
D. I will surely have to satisfy thee To get that gift-match, For I would liefer hold in my arms than lack That milk-white maiden.
T. The maiden's love thou maunna lack if thou (prove) worthy, Wise guest and wooer: if thou canst tell of
every (land) All that I wish to wit. Say to me All-Wise all thou reckon'st of divers people, Various, 0 Dwarf, that I (may test) thy wit! How is the Earth SIb hight, that lies before the sons of men, In every hame?
D. Icerth is it hight 'mong (Gothic) men, but 'Field' by the Asas; Way' it is called by the Vans, 'Igreen' by
the Edenites; 'Ground' by the elfs, and Aur 'tis called by the Regi rulers.
T. How is the Moon hight, that all men see, In every hame?
D. Moon' 'tis called 'mong men, 'Mill-stone' among the Goths, 'Wheel' 'tis called by helots, 'Shindy' by the Edenites, And 'Shine' by the dwarfs, 'Year-teller' is it called by the elfs.
T. How is the Sun hight, that's seen since old (lang) syne, In every hame?
D. 'Sol' 'tis called 'rnong men, and 'Sunna' 'mong Goths, 'Larking Dallier' by the dwarfs, 'Ever-glow' by the Edenites, 'Fair-wheel' by the elfs, and 'All-scourer' by the Asa's sons.
T. How is the Sky hight, that blandly soars o'erhead, In every hame?
D. 'Sky' 'tis hight 'rnong men, and 'Soarer' 'mong Goths, 'Wind-float' 'tis called by the Vans, 'Over-one' by the Edenites, 'Weather-might' by the elfs, 'Hollow-helmet' by the helots.
T. How is the Wind hight, which widely fares, In every hame?
D. 'Wind' 'tis hight 'rnong men, and 'Waverer ' 'rnong Goths, 'Neigher' 'tis called by the knowing rulers, 'Weeper' by the Edenites, 'Din-maker' by the elfs, 'Fitful' 'tis hight by the helots.
T. How is the Calm hight, that lies at rest, In every hame ?
D. 'Loun' 'tis called 'mong men and 'Lea' by the Goths, 'Wind-sloth' 'tis called by the Vans, 'Over-warm' by
the Edenites. 'Day-softening' by the elfs, and 'Day's-comfort' by the dwarfs.
T. How is the Mer(Sea) hight, on which men row, In every hame?
D. 'Sea' 'tis hight 'mong men, and 'Silver-herringOcean' 'mong Goths, 'Waves' 'tis called by the Vans, "Eel Hame' by the Edenites, 'Low (Water) Stave' by the elfs, 'Deep Mere' 'tis called by the dwarfs.
[And so on with regard to many other common names, concluding with:]
T. How is Ale hight, as drunk by the sons of men, In every hame?
D. 'Ale' 'tis called 'mong (Gothic) men, and 'Beer' among the Asas, 'Voice-giver' 'tis called by the Vans, 'Rinse-lees' by the Edenites, 'Mead' by the helots, 'Assembly-drink' 'tis called by young Sutt's sons (Seth or Abel's sons).
T. In one breast, I never saw More foreign word-staves! Mickle tales (wisely) hast thou told, quoth I Of the
Upper Class art thou, 0 Dwarf! An umpire chief before thy day, Now let the Sun shine into thy (dark) cellar
(home) ! Know ye yet the Edda? Know ye yet it all?
Source: British Edda https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/British-Edda.pdf?attredirects=0&d=1
M269 is Paleolithic, and Neolithic in West Europe. Having had at least a major migration during each of these time periods. M269 is Native European.
New clues to the evolutionary history of the main European paternal lineage M269: dissection of the Y-SNP S116 in Atlantic Europe and Iberia
http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v24/n3/full/ejhg2015114a.html?foxtrotcallback=true
The new population data highlight the high frequencies of M529 found in Brest (>50%) outside the British Isles, which may raise doubts about whether it originated in the European continent or in the British Isles...
One of the main reasons leading to the proposal of the hypothesis of origin and/or expansion of M269 from the Franco–Cantabrian refuge is its maximum frequency and pattern of decreasing frequency with increasing distance from this area. The Basque population is located in the heart of the refuge area, and our results indicate that almost all of their M269 lineages belong to sublineage S116 (Basque Country; M269–82%; S116-80%, Supplementary Table S1). If M269 had originated in this area, it would seem logical to find higher variability of M269 sublineages, such as M269xL11, L11 or U106*. Thus, the dissection of M269 in the refuge area raises questions about its origin in this region. Unfortunately, the homogeneity in the variability of Y-STRs within M269 makes it impossible to pinpoint a more likely origin, but the frequency distribution of M269 sublineages in the European continent suggests an origin in the East with a subsequent migration westwards, with the appearance of its sublineages during the advance of the migration wave.
However, the Basque region has maximum frequencies of S116 and its sublineages S116* and DF27, the latter showing a decreasing gradient with distance. Meanwhile, M529 and U152 frequencies are extremely low. This may indicate that this region is a source for S116 and its sublineage DF27. ...
In summary, this study provides new genetic evidence indicating the absence of diversity of M269 lineages over S116 in the current population of what once was the refuge, the maximum frequencies of S116, S116* and DF27 in the refuge area and their spatial distributions in Iberia and Western European coast. This is in addition to the evidence from previous studies: the homogeneity in Y-STR diversity within M269 in Europe and the emergence of new sublineages such as L11 on the wave of the advance of M269 into Western Europe consistent with the scenario proposed in Figure 1.
This scenario proposes an origin in the East for M269, in contrast to the classical theories. The controversy in calculating TMRCAs makes it impossible to reliably date these evolutionary episodes, at least until the more complete Ychr allows more accurate time scales and/or until genotyped and firmly dated archaeological remains become available.
However, the authors believe that it is unlikely that an arrival to Europe of M269 during the Neolithic period has generated such a complex scenario of expansions for its sublineages, especially when genetic evidence of cultural diffusion has been found for Ychr in Anatolia and for mtDNA in the refuge. Thus, the spread of Neolithic culture would mean a lower demic movement. The theories that argue for an origin in the East and during the Neolithic period assume a rapid expansion of M269 throughout Europe, replacing most of the previously settled haplogroups, which would be compatible with a main scenario of demic diffusion.
The scenario proposed here would be most compatible with an arrival of M269 from the East occurring in Palaeolithic times. The Wurm glaciation had numerous ups and downs in temperature that would have led to the existence of multiple glacial refugia, which has been proposed both for mtDNA and Ychr. Improved weather conditions would allow colonization of more northern territories from all refuges simultaneously. Similarly, the mtDNA-H and Ychr-R lineages that evolved in the East from Palaeolithic times, could have expanded westwards during the Neolithic period, thereby mixing with other H and R lineages that arrived to Western Europe in Paleolithic times and evolved independently in these western territories. This may be one reason for the complexity of interpreting the results, in addition to the assumption that post-Neolithic movements may be masking and confounding the oldest traces.
FIGURE 1. New clues to the evolutionary history of the main European paternal lineage M269: dissection of the Y-SNP S116 in Atlantic Europe and Iberia
http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v24/n3/fig_tab/ejhg2015114f1.html#figure-title
From my understanding of prior research the Giants were in Albion before the Scots (later Goth migration of Phoenicians) , and before the Picts (Celts, Dwarfs, Blue Legs). When Brutus arrived from Troy, he slew the Giants and ran them out. And it was mentioned that the Scots and Picts were living on the Isles with the Giants when Brutus arrived. Note also the Giants are also referenced as the Nephilim Giants of Enoch who were said to be of the Goth race. Thus, these Giants of Albion most probably were the most earliest of Goth migrations to Albion prior to any other migration, and possibly the first to meet Neanderthals who were the original inhabitants.
The Giants of Ancient Albion & the Legendary Founding of Prehistoric Britain
Britain’s oldest acknowledged name is thought to be taken from a prehistoric giant king called ‘Albion’ who made his way to the island after being banished from his homeland of Greece. “He was begotten by the sea-god whom the Greeks called Poseidon, the Romans Neptune.”... After a long reign, Albion went to the south of France (Called Gaul at the time) to help his army defeat Hercules. To ensure winning, Hercules summoned his father Zeus and a shower of stones fell from the sky. These were used as weapons against Albion and he was defeated. However, the giant race of Britain continued for hundreds more years, although their numbers decreased and ended up at southwestern tip of Cornwall, until the arrival of Brutus after the Trojan wars. However, Britain’s original name could also be from a Greek giantess called ‘Albina’:...
The daughters were displeased and under the leadership of their eldest sister Alba (also Albina, or Albine) they plotted to cut the throats of their husbands as they slept. “For this crime they were set adrift in a boat with half a year’s rations, and after a long and dreadful journey they arrived at a great island that came to be named Albion, after the eldest. Here they stayed, and with the assistance of demons they populated the wild, windswept islands with a race of giants.”“Assistance” really meant, “mated with” and with their offspring a new ruling giant elite were founded. These giants are evidenced in the story by huge bones that were said to be unearthed in the country during the 1400s. This echoes the story of the Grigori (or Watchers) of the Bible, who mated with human women and birthed the mighty Nephilim giants, who have remarkably similar traits to their British counterparts....
Thousands of years after the giants had populated the island, Brutus and other warriors fleeing the Trojan wars landed on the coast of Albion and legend states that the modern name of Britain comes from Brutus. ...Brutus and his men realizing that Albion was already partly populated by unexpectedly tall foes: “It was uninhabited except for a few giants…. they drove the giants whom they had discovered into the caves in the mountains.”...After scaring off the giants and launching attacks on the titans, the land was then divided up and Corineus was given the southwest area of Cornwall to rule, named after the great warrior....Gogmagog broke three of Corineus’ ribs, and he was so enraged, he hoisted Gogmagog up on his shoulders with superhuman strength and ran to the cliff where he threw him off to his death. ...
After defeating the giants, Brutus travelled all over the country to find a suitable spot to rule from. He decided on the River Thames and founded the city of Troia Nova, or New Troy, which became Trinovantum, we now know as London, with his captured giant in tow....
CORNWALL St. Michael’s Mount: A prehistoric eight-foot (2.4 meter) skeleton was unearthed from a dungeon on the island 250 years ago,...
DEVONSHIRE This is the area where Gogmagog was thrown off the cliff by Corineus: “A stone coffin in Devonshire contained a thigh-bone belonging to a man eight feet nine inches high.”
STONEHENGE huge skeletons have also been discovered in the mounds in the local landscape. In Journey into South Wales (1802) George Lipscomb reported: “a skeleton which measured fourteen feet ten inches in length.” ...In A Theological, Biblical, and Ecclesiastical Dictionary (1830), it describes a nine foot four inch (284.48 cm) skeleton unearthed near Salisbury in 1719.
GAUL (France): Where Albion was finally defeated in a battle with Hercules are two examples of gigantic skeletons being unearthed
11,000-year-old Spiritualized Deer Masks Whisper Tales Of A Forgotten World
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/deer-masks-021960
Deer skulls with carved eyeholes dating to 11,000 years ago have been discovered at Star Carr Mesolithic archaeological site about five miles (8.0 km) south of Scarborough in North Yorkshire, England. ...Three of the 33 deer skull head-pieces, as well as tools, weapons, and jewelry are currently on display in the Li Ka Shing Gallery at the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Downing Street, Cambridge. The exhibition is called “ A Survival Story – Prehistoric Life at Star Carr ”...
‘animism.'...where material and spiritual realms are simply different parts of ‘one thing.’... To enhance hunting and fishing success, pre and post hunting rituals aimed at focusing and unifying the appropriate natural elements...
Cassivellaunus
http://www.maryjones.us/jce/cassivellaunus.html
Cassivellaunus is first mentioned in Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico v.11, where he is said to be the commander of the British resistance. His tribe is not named, but its location is, namely north of the Thames, apparently on its banks; this is known from other sources as the land of the Catuvellauni tribe, so it is reasonable to assume that is Cassivellaunus' tribe, though they are not mentioned. However, he may have instead been from the Cassi tribe, and his name may be a corruption of Vellaunus of the Cassi. Later, the Catuvellauni may have taken shape, their name meaning something like "Warriors of Vellaunus", catu- being a warband, related to the modern Welsh word cad "battle."
Rhys notes that Cassi could have been written Caθθi, the "s" being lisped, and thus latter Catti in Latin. There have been coins with the name Catti found near Monmouth. And so the Cassi could have become the Catti, and later the Catuvellauni after their chieftain Vellaunus, who drove off the Romans. ...
Cassivellaunus
https://peopleinhistory.co.uk/cassivellaunus
Cassivellaunus
http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/celts_25.html
Catuvellauni
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catuvellauni
They are mentioned by Cassius Dio, who implies that they led the resistance against the conquest in AD 43. ...The Catuvellauni are part of the Aylesford-Swarling archaeological group in Southern England often linked to Belgic Gaul and possibly to an actual Belgic conquest of the region alluded to by Caesar. ...An inscription records that the civitas of the Catuvellauni were involved in the reconstruction of Hadrian's Wall, ...
The Catuvellauni Tribe
https://catuvellauni.wordpress.com/the-catuvellauni-tribe/
The Celtic tribe of the Catuvellauni emerged in the late first century BC to become one of the most powerful tribes in southern Britain....Like many of their neighbours in the south-east, they were probably a Belgic tribe from the North Sea or Baltics,...
A descendant of his is to be found ruling the Dunbarton Damnonii in the second century, while the fifth century kings of the Goutodin also traced their lineage back to him, suggesting that his surviving family in Britain fled to the free British north of lowland Scotland, either in AD 43, or later, following the final defeat and capture of Caratacus....
Cassi Tribe
The British Chronicles, Volume 1
The Cassi appear to have been Kassites, an Indo-European tribe...
Kassites
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassites
The Kassites () were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu, although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi.
They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu. The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular, and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time.
The Kassite language has not been classified. What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate ...
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well known, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains...However, the Kassites were linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later....
they subsequently gained control of Babylonia c. 1570 BC some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in c. 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the Dynasty of the Sealand by c. 1460 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna....Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history....Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC... The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state....
Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia", a variant of the Kassite name.... During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei", lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6). ...
But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains")....
the Kassites spoke a language without a genetic relationship to any other known tongue. ...
The Middle Babylonian / Kassite Period (ca. 1595–1155 B.C.) in Mesopotamia | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kass/hd_kass.htm
Cylinder seals in the Kassite period were carved with elongated figures and long inscriptions, usually prayers, on colorful precious and semi-precious stones that would have been imported from afar (; ; ). Beyond emphasizing the amuletic power of seals of precious stones, the prayers inscribed on them demonstrate the carvers’ careful attention to text, with beautifully carved inscriptions. (A second style of Kassite-period cylinder seal carving appears to respond to contemporary trends in Egypt and Assyria.) Kassite cylinders were often set in granulated gold caps (), a setting that would have accentuated the stones’ brilliant colors and added to their amuletic efficacy.
As in preceding periods, Kassite rulers expended enormous effort on the restoration and construction of the gods’ abodes. The remains of their building works can still be seen in Iraq today, and are memorialized by inscribed dedicatory objects like stelae and foundation bricks that would have been deposited in temples ( and ; ). ...
KASSITES
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kassites
Their Akkadian name Kaššû originates from a Kassite form *G/Kalž- (cf. Balkan, 1954, pp. 131 f.). Middle Babylonian documents from Nuzi have the form Ku-uš-šu (-hé), i.e., with the Hurrian adjectival ending -ḫḫe (Fincke, 1993, pp. 160 f.; also > Kunšu-; cf. Balkan, 1954, p. 109). This form resembles the much later Greek name Kossaioii, Lat. Coss(a)ei, Cossiaei, etc., i.e., “Kassites” (along with he Kissía as the name of the Kassites’ country;...
There is good reason for thinking that the Kassites were once neighbors of Indo-Europeans, in view of some affinities between their pantheon and the Indo-Aryan one...
The Kassites strove to be integrated in the culture of the conquered land. Kassite rulers built temples to Babylonian deities. The only Kassite deities who had temples in Kassite Babylonia were the patron deities of the royal family, Šuqamuna and Šumaliya. Kassite traditions endured mostly in the private and familial spheres (see Heinz, 1995, p. 165). The Kassite rulers encouraged the collection, codification, and canonization of Babylonian religious-literary texts. The Kassites left no cultural impact in Babylonia. The Kassite termini surviving in Akkadian are mainly from the realms of horse breeding and chariot building....
Kassites & Kossaeans (Cossaeans) of Kossaea - Zoroastrian Heritage
http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/ranghaya/kassites.htm
In 317 BCE, the Macedonian commander Antigonus Monophthalmus is quoted as saying that he encountered Kossaeans, calling them cavemen. This is significant and brings to mind the troglodyte dwellers of Kandovan in the Urmia region not too far north of Hamadan... We do not know definitively if the Kassites were an Indo-Iranian group. However, there is a similarity in their pantheon of deities and the Indo-Aryan daeva pantheon (Bloomfield, 1904; Balkan, 1986, p. 8; Eilers, 1957-58, p. 136 ad surya-) and they exhibited various Aryan traits as well. ... The Aryan tradition was to readily adopted outward cultural norms, but to privately maintain their religion, language, philosophy, values and principles. ...
The Kassites also maintained the Indo-Iranian Aryan tradition of being traders in lapis lazuli and gold ...Along with horses, they exported the chariots in exchange for other raw materials. Amongst the nations with which the Kassite kings established trade and diplomatic relations were Assyria, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittite Hatti. ...
A Kassite deity is Suriash, a name that sounds very similar to the Sanskrit Surya meaning the sun. Another Kassite deity is Maruttash which sounds similar to the Sanskrit Marut or Marutah, a Vedic storm god. A further deity is named Indas, a name that sounds similar to Indra. ...
Kassapa Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassapa_Buddha
Kassapa was born in Isipatana Deer Park. This place is located in Varanasi, a city in the modern-day state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India. His parents were the Brahmins Brahmadatta and Dhanavatī, of the Kashyap Gotra....According to legend, his body was twenty cubits high, and he lived for two thousand years in three different palaces. They are Hamsa, Yasa, and Sirinanda. ...Just before attaining enlightenment, he accepted a meal of milk-rice from his wife and grass for his seat from a yavapālaka named Soma....Kassapa died at the age of forty thousand years, in the city of Kashi, in the Kashi Kingdom (now known as Varanasi, in the modern-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh). Over his relics was raised a stupa one league in height, each brick of which was worth one crore (ten million) rupees....
Kashyapa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa
Kashyapa is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism...Kaśyapa, alternatively kacchapa, means "turtle" in Sanskrit....According to Frits Staal, Kaśyapa means tortoise but it is a non-Indo-European word....Kashyapa is one of Saptarishi, the seven famed rishis considered to be author of many hymns and verses of the Rigveda (1500-1200 BCE)....Kashmir, the northern Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent got its name from Kashyapa Rishi....In ancient texts of Greece, linked to the expedition of Alexander the Great, this land has been called "Kasperia", possibly a contraction of "Kasyapamira"....
Kassite Gods
http://piereligion.org/kassite.html
Some names can be closely identified with the names of Gods in Sanskrit, notably Kassite Suriash (Sanskrit Surya); Maruttash (Sanskrit, the Maruts); and possibly Shimalia (the Himalaya Mountains in India). The Kassite storm god Buriash (Uburiash, or Burariash) has been identified with the Greek God Boreas, the God of the North Wind.... The current argument is that the actual language of the Kassites was not an Indo-European language, however based on the names of their Gods, this is somewhat implausible. ...The Kassites introduced the use of kudurrus or boundary marker stones, which contain legal inscriptions such as land grants, peace treaties and proclamations by kings. ...
"The Religion of the Kassites." (1885): p189-91.
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/368825
http://www.jstor.org/stable/527374
The lion, under whose likeness the god Nirgal is worshiped, is the symbol of the destructive Sun-flame... As the Assyrians worshiped their Nergal, so the Kassites their Sugamuna, chiefly as the god of War and of the Chase. After Adar follows, as frequently in the Bab.Assyr. texts his wife, the goddess G ul a, Kassite Hal a (line 10). She bears, in the Bab.Assyr. cuneiform texts, the by-names "the great mistress," "the wife of the god of the Noonday- sun," " the mother," "the bearer of the black-headed creatures " (i. e. men), " the
mistress who awakens the dead," etc....
The religion of the Kassites, as represented according to our glossary, has,
perhaps, not remained free from the influence of that of their new home, Babylo-
nia. However, that the Kassites worshiped the Moon, Sun, Storm, Thunder and
Lightning, Fire and Water as gods, and that they, in the goddess of the snow-
covered mountain tops, have originated a goddess peculiar to themselves, is, at
all events, certain. But whether this worship of a goddess corresponding to the
Babylonian Gula, or of a god Merodach, is older than their removal into Babylo-
inia is doubtful. Proper names, at least, as Har b i i h u, i. e. "Lord (Bel) is
Merodach," appear to me to be Kassite only in their outer shell, and, as far as
their meaning is concerned, to have clearly arisen on Babylonian soil.-Friedrich
Delitzsch in "Die Sprache der Kossaeer."
Kassite deities
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassite_deities
The only Kassite deities who had separate and distinct temples anywhere in Babylonia were apparently the patron deities of the royal family, Šuqamuna and Šumaliya.... Mountain gods were a popular motif in Kassite art, on cylinder seals and, for example, the brickwork façade of the temple of Karaindaš, the "Eanna of Inanna." The generic term for “god” in the Kassite language was mašḫu or bašḫu. Of the three hundred or so known Kassite words, around thirty of them are thought to be the names of deities, some strikingly similar to Indo-European god-names and this has been conjectured to be through contact transmission rather than linguistic affiliation....
Deity: Essential Character:
Alban Only known as a (possible) theophoric element in the name mBurra-Alban
Dur(a),
Duri, Tura God of the underworld
Indaš Sanskrit Indra
Kaššu Eponymous ancestor god
Maruttaš Vedic Maruts
Šimalia A form of the name Himalaya,
Šuriaš Vedic Surya
etc... etc...
Kosala
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosala
Kingdom of Kosala was an ancient Indian kingdom, corresponding roughly in area with the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh... During the 5th century BCE, Kosala incorporated the territory of the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.... According to the Ramayana, Rama ruled the Kosala kingdom from his capital, Ayodhya.... Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan, which indicates that Kosala may have subjugated the Shakya clan, which the Buddha is traditionally believed to have belonged to.... In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom. Mahakosala's daughter Kosaladevī married with king Bimbisāra (5th cent. BCE) of Magadha. Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Pasenadi (Prasenajit) (5th cent. BCE), who was a follower of the Buddha.... During the reign of Vidudabha, Raja Bir Sen of the Baghochia clan invaded the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged, and brought the territory under the sovereignty of Kosala. Not much later, the Kosala kingdom was defeated by Ajatashatru (5th or early 4th cent. BCE) of the Magadhan Haryanka dynasty, and absorbed into the Magadha kingdom, which formed the basis of the Mauryan empire....
In contrast to the developing Brahmanical traditions of the Kuru-Pancala region, the Kosala region "was where the early ascetic movements, including the Buddhists and Jains, took shape, and it was also a very important area for the Upanishads and developments in Brahmanical traditions." ...
KAS
Kashgar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashgar
This article is about the city. Kashgar, officially known as Kashi...on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe for over 2,000 years....
Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality")....
The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BCE the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range.
Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam....
During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BCE to 1 CE] and Emperor Ping [1 to 5 CE], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in 9 CE], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands.... In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. ...
During the Yongping period [58 - 75 CE], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi.
The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi (Kushan) involvement in the Kashgar oasis: ...Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region:...
These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin.
The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar:...civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. ...
An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible.
Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin.
The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin....
Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes....Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Sarvastivadin Buddhist...
In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. ...
Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8...Tang dynasty regained control...In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas....In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs.... It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate....Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans...
The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan.... Later In the 14th century Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy.... dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572....(Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose wth Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers.... The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate...The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829... The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor,...The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups...Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan...
With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877...Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang....
some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan.... Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880 to 1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang when Chinese men married Muslim Uyghur women. A reason for this, suggested by foreigners, is that even though Uyghur women who married Chinese men were labelled as whores by the Uyghur community, the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men as the Chinese protected them from Islamic authorities, meaning that the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their incomes for themselves. Chinese men gave their Uyghur wives privileges which Uyghur men's wives did not have...
An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Uyghur prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar....morality was not strict in Kashgar...
Battle of Kashgar (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated....
Battle of Kashgar (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic....From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred... Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934....
Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949....Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s....
KAS
The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 2 By Edward Balfour
KAS a term to several regions in NW Himalaya Kas Mer is not the country of the Kas but the Kasia Montes (mer) of Ptolemy, the Kha (mer) Kas or Caucasus. Mer is mountain in Sanskrit as is Koh in Persian. Kas was the race inhabiting these; and Kas gar is the Kasia Regio of Ptolemy Gar is a Sanskrit word in use for a region as Cutchwaba gar, Gujurgar the region of the tortoise race, the country of the Gujar race. But Kash, Khas, or Kas a frequently recurring prefix in India is supposed by Mr Campbell to have its origin from the rishi Kasyapa who gave his name to Kashmir, Kashgar, and to the originally called Kasha or Kassia.
KASI the earliest name of Benares and still in common use either alone or joined with the later name as Kasi Banaras It is perhaps the Kassida or Kassidia of Ptolemy The name is referred to Kasi raja who was one of the of the early progenitors of the Lunar race He was succeeded by twenty descendants all rajas of Kasi amongst whom was the celebrated Divodăsa
KASIA or Khasiya a race occupying the hills S of the valley of the Brahmaputra in lat 25 20' to 28 7' N long 90 52' to 92 11' E between Cherra punji and the Shillong mountain The Kasia are the ablest bodied of the borderers of Assam and differ very little from the Garo They are arranged in petty rajaships Nat worship seems the cult of the Kasia They dread snakes They build their houses on piles They trap fish They distl and drink intoxicating liquors and between Ringhot and Cherra and in other places they have bridges of the fibres of the india rubber tree The Kasia is distinguished from all the languages Indian Ultra Indian and Tibetan by its direct and prepositional ideology It is a fragment of the Mon Kambojan formation of languages and is a remnant of an older formation which preceded the Burma Tibetan in Northern Ultra India They have the Mongolian type of features in the highest development Colonel Yule mentions that porters of the Kasia nation used often to carry down from the coal mines of Cherrapunji to the plains a distance of 11 miles loads of two maunds or 165 lbs of coals Their strength and bulk of leg were such as he had never seen elsewhere In the upper parts of the Kasia country stones are scattered on every wayside These are of several kinds but the most common is of erect oblong pillars sometimes quite unhewn in other instances carefully squared and planted a few feet apart The number composing one monument is never under three and runs as high as thirteen; generally it is odd but not always so The highest pillar is in the middle sometimes crowned with a circular dish and to right and left they gradually diminish In of these is what English antiquaries call a a large flat stone resting on short pillars These form the ordinary roadside resting place of the weary traveller The blocks are sometimes of great size The tallest of a thick cluster of pillars in the market place of Murteng in the Jaintia country rising through the branches of a huge old tree measured 27 feet in above the ground A flat table stone or cromlech near the village of Sailankot elevated 5 feet from the earth measured 32 feet by 15 feet and 2 feet in thickness In other instances the monument is a square sarcophagus composed of four large slabs resting on their edges and well fitted together and roofed in by a fifth placed horizontally In Bell's Circassia may be seen a drawing of an ancient monument existing in that country which is an exact representation of a thousand such in the Khassya Hills and nearly as exactly a description of them though referring to the eastern bank of Jordan may be read in Irby and Mangles Syrian Travels The sarcophagus is often found in the form of a large slab accurately circular resting on the heads of many little rough pillars close planted together through whose chinks you may descry certain earthen pots containing the ashes of the family Belonging to the village of Ringhot in the valley of Mausmai deep in the forest is a great collection of such circular cineraries so close that one may step from slab to slab for many yards Rarely may be seen a simple cairn or a pyramid some 20 feet in height and sometimes one formed in diminishing stories like the common notion of the tower of Babel or like the pyramid of Saccara in Egypt.
But the last is probabaly rather a burning place than a monument or at least a combination of the two. The upright pillars are merely cenotaphs and if the Kasia be asked why their fathers went to such expense in erecting them the invariable answer is ' To preserve their name' Yet to few indeed among the thousands can they attach any name Many of the villages however seem to derive their appellations from such erections as may be seen from the number commencing with mau which signifies a stone eg mausmai the stone of the oath mau mlu the stone of salt; mau flong the grassy stone and others Mausmai the oath stone suggests that these pillars were also erected in memory of notable compacts On asking Umauz the origin of the names his answer was a striking illustration of many passages in the Old Testament There was war said he between Cherra and Mausmai and when they made peace and swore to it they erected a stone as a witness Sakhi ke wasté was his expression Genesis xxxi 45 And Jacob took a stone and set it up for a pillar Genesis xxxi 47 And Laban called it Jegar sahadutha but Jacob called it Galeed both signifying the heap of witness Genesis xxxi 51 And Laban said to Jacob Behold this heap behold this pillar which I have cast betwixt and thee this heap is a witness and this is a witness that I will not pass over this thee and that thou shalt not pass over this and this pillar to me to do me harm etc also Joshua xxiv 26 The name of maumlu the salt stone is probably of kindred meaning as the act of eating salt from a sword point is said to be the Kasia form of adjuration These large stones are also frequently formed into picturesque bridges for the passage of brooks There is at Murteng a bridge of this kind consisting of one stone 30 feet in length It is stated by Pemberton that Kai is the real name of the people and Kasia the title bestowed on them by the Bengali But Kasi is the only name which they acknowledge as that of their country and race
KAS
Memoirs of Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Baber: Emperor of Hindustan
By Babur (Emperor of Hindustan)
The extensive country which lies between the three grand ranges of mountains the Kashmirian Muz tagh and Belut tagh does not properly belong to Turkistan though some parts of it at the present day are traversed by Turki tribes It seems rather with the country immediately east of the Ala or Alak tagh to have belonged to one of the mountain races which inhabit the grand range of Hindukush in an independent state to this day Baber mentions a curious fact which seems to throw some light on the ancient history and geography of that country He tells us that the hill country along the upper course of the Sind or Indus was formerly inhabited by a race of men called Kas and he conjectures that from a corruption of the name the country of Kashmir was so called as being the country of the Kas The conjecture is certainly happy and the fact on which it is founded important for it leads us farther and permits us to believe that the Kasia Regio and the Kasii Montes of Ptolemy beyond Mount Imaus were inhabited by this same race of Kas whose dominion at some period probably extended from Kashghar to Kashmir in both of which countries they have left their name The country at this day called Kashkar and included within the triangular range just described probably derived its appellation from the same origin being only a corruption of Kashghar within the territory of which it was long included the name having survived the dominion.
KAS
Indian Antiquary, Volume 13
With Ptolemy the name of Imaos (the Greek transcription of the usual form of the name of Himalaya) is applied to the central chain from the region of the sources of the Ganges where rise also the Indus and its greatest affluent the satadru or Satlaj to beyond the sources of the Iaxartes The general direction of this great axis is from south to north saving a bend to the south east from Kasmir to the sources of the Ganges it is only on parting from this last point that the Himalaya runs directly to the east and it is there also that with Ptolemy the name of Emodos begins which designates the Eastern Himalaya Now it is on Imaos itself or in the vicinity of this grand system of mountains to the north of our Punjab and to the east of the valleys of the Hindu Koh and of the upper Oxos that there come to be placed in a space from 6 to 7 degrees at most from south to north and less perhaps than that in the matter of the longitudes all the names which can be identified on the map where Ptolemy has wished to represent in giving them an extension of nearly 40 degrees from west to east the region which he calls Skythia beyond Imaos and Serika One designation is there immediately recognizable among all the others that of Kasia Ptolemy indicates the situation of the country of Kasia towards the bending of Imaos to the east above the sources of the Oxos although he carries his Montes Kasii very far away from that towards the cast but we are sufficiently aware beforehand that here more than in any other part of the Tables we have only to attend to the nomenclature and to leave the notations altogether out of account The name of the Khasa has been from time immemorial one of the appellations the most spread through all the Himalayan range To keep to the western parts of the chain where the indication of Ptolemy places us we there find Khasa mentioned from the heroic ages of India not only in the Itihdsas or legendary stories of the Mahdbhdrata but also in the law book of Manu where their name is read by the side of that of the D ar e da another people well known which borders in fact on the Khasa of the north The Khasa figure also in the Buddhist Chronicles of Ceylon among the people subdued by Asoka in the upper Panjab and we find them mentioned in more than 40 places of the Kaémir Chronicle among the chief mountain tribes that border on Kasmir Baber knows also that a people of the name of Khas is indigenous to the high valleys in the neighbourhood of the Eastern Hindu Koh and with every reason we attach to this indigenous people the origin of the name of Kashgar which is twice reproduced in the geography of these high regions Khasagiri in Sanskrit where according to a form more approaching the Zend Khasaghairi signifies properly the mountains of the Khasa The Akhasa Khora near the Kasia regio is surely connected with the same nationality The Aspakarai with a place of the same name Aspakara near the Kasii Montes have no correspondence actually known in these high valleys but the form of the name connects it with the Sanskrit or Iranian nomenclature Beside the Aspnkarai the Batai are found in the Bautta of the Rdjatarangini In the 10th century of our era the Chief of Ghilghit took the title of Bhatshah or Shah of the Bhat The Balti that we next name recall a people mentioned by Ptolemy in this high region the Byltai The accounts possessed by Ptolemy had made him well acquainted with the general situation of the Byltai in the neighbourhood of the Imaos but he is either ill informed or has ill applied his information as to their exact position which he indicates as being to the west of the great chain of Bolor and not to the east of it where they were really to be found The Ramana and the Dasamana two people of the north which the Mahabharata and the Pauranik lists mention along with the China appear to us not to differ from the Rhabannae and the Damnai of Ptolemy's table Saint Martin gives in the sequel a few other identifications that of the T h r o a n o i whose name should be read Phrounoi or rather Phaunoi as in Strabo with the Phuna of the Lalitavistara p 122 0f the Kharaunaioi with the Kajana whose language proves them to be Daradas and of the Ithagouroi with the Dangors Dhagars or Dakhars who must at one time have been the predominant tribe of the Daradas The country called Asmiraia he takes without hesitation to be Kasmir itself As regards the name Ottorokorrha applied by Ptolemy to a town and a people and a range of mountains it is traced without difficulty to the Sanskrit Uttarakuru ie the Kuru of the north which figures in Indian mythology as an earthly paradise sheltered on every side by an encircling rampart of lofty mountains and remarkable for the longevity of its inhabitants who lived to be 1000 and 10,000 years old Ptolemy was not aware that this was but an imaginary region and so gave it a place within the domain of real geography The land of the Hyperboreans is a western repetition of the Uttarakuru of Kasmir
Bharatas (tribe)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharatas_(tribe)
Scholars believe the Bharatas to be a Vedic tribe around river Ravi in modern Punjab in the second millennium B.C.E. Bharatá is also used as a name of Agni, and as a name of Rudra...
the Bharatas as taking part in the Battle of the Ten Kings... They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various Vedic tribes so that in post-Vedic (Epic) tradition, the Mahābhārata, the eponymous ancestor becomes Emperor Bharata, the ancient conqueror of all of India, and his ruler and kingdom is called Bhārata. The Bharata clan later allied and merged with the Puru clan, to form the Kuru tribe. "Bhārata" today is an official name of the Republic of India.
Rama and the Ramayana: Crash Course World Mythology #27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsuqbPda5uo
Ramayana - The Great Indian Epic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBiWDKuEalE
Ramayana The Epic - English Movie - Animated Devotional Stories For Kids - WowKidz
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDBwCHz41Vc
Rama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama
Born Ayodhya, Kosala (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India)
Consort Sita Children Lava (son) Kusha (son)
Parents Dasharatha (father) Kaushalya (mother)
Kaikeyi (step-mother) Sumitra (step-mother)
Siblings Lakshmana (half brother) Bharata (half brother) Shatrughna (half brother)
In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being.... Rama was born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala. ... The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates dharma and dharmic living through model characters.... Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India....
Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions....
Rama was born on the ninth day of the lunar month Chaitra (March–April), a day celebrated across India as Ram Navami. This coincides with one of the four Navratri on the Hindu calendar, in the spring season, namely the Vasantha Navratri....Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, and a part of the solar dynasty of Iksvakus. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts, as one of the sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India, and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists....
In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta yuga or Dvapar yuga that their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE, while a few others place Rama to have lived in 102, 67 or 8 BCE. ...
The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.... In some parts of India, Rama's return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights....
At the end of this Dasaratha-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was Rama: ...
Lord Ram's date of birth revealed
http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/lord-rams-date-of-birth-revealed_1799392.html
New Delhi: An institute has claimed that the Mahabharata and Ramayana are historical texts, not mythological epics....The institute established that Lord Ram was born on January 10, 12.05 hours, 5114 BC, the war in Mahabharata started on October 13, 3139 BC, and Hanuman met Sita in Ashok Vatika on September 12, 5076 BC....
"planetary information" from the Rig Veda, Ramayana and Mahabharata was used to find the exact dates. “Our history is at least 10,000 years old, much before Muslims and Christians arrived.We found that planetary formations mentioned in Ramayana and Mahabharata corresponded to actual formations at the time. We have also studied genealogy which proves that Aryans were indigenous,” added Bala.
Maha = Great, Bharatan = Britain
Mahabharata
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata
The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". ... According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".... The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan.... The Mahābhārata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue...
Pandavas - The Five Warriors ► English Animation Movies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxO3ReWkJ6Y
Mahabharat - Full Animated Movie - English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xx4H_yuZbmU
Mahabharata - Mahabharat Full Movie - Adi Parva - Birth Of Heroes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAkrfD-l9HU&t=607s
Burra-Alba:
The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania:
Series A Cuneiform texts, edited by Hilprecht, 1906
Documents from Temple Archives of Nippur
Dated in the Reigns of the Cassite Rulers
al ba di(ti), ... Bur ra Al ban,(probably Cassite, but maybe Babylonian, Foreign, or mix) have a known and unknown element found in both volumes....
Some names used in texts found during Cassite rule in Babylon:
Dan an (or Dan) KUR, Har ri ga nu, E ri bu, Hu di ia, In dar di ia, In na (an) ni (nu), Ka si, Ka shak ti, Kash in u, Kash shi i, Ki di ia, Ma nu(bad) di Bu ri ia ash, Ramman ilu i na mati (?) (Ramman is a God in the land, Ramman is mighty, Ramman is red, Ramman is the strength of his people, Ramman is the splendor of the gods, Ramman thou art raging)], Sa ak ka, Si gi, Tu ra hu (wild goat), Tu ra ilu (be merciful O God),
Ka la za a i tum, Kash ha ri ???, Ka ash ti ban,
Diety Names: Al ban (in the Cassite name Burra Alban), A ri, An nu,
Bel (En, En lil, L), Bu ri ia ash(Cassite God identified with Ramman), Gal du, Ka di, ....
The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
(Jan., 1917), pp. 101-114 (14 pages)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189508
King Agu...pure seed of the God Suqamunu. (Kassite)
Akkadian...Semitic Babylonians
Assuming Bharats are the Britains, and Kassites are Kasi then more to learn at the India, and Eurasia pages.
Cornish wells
http://members.tripod.com/cornwall_phoenicians/cornish_wells.htm
Spirits have always been associated with springs and wells from the earliest times, and the Druids used sources of water as entrances to Other worlds....“Ladywells” are often connected with sightings of a strange lady, a ghostly figure, perhaps of the displaced well spirit or priestess. ...In Cornwall the strange lady turned into a 'mermaid' who enticed men into her underwater world. ...
Druids were just the teachers of their day. They presided at religious ceremonies, but it is not clear that they had their own religion. They seem to have taken over whatever religion was traditional in any given place. In The Gallic Wars Julius Caesar gives us a few snippets of information about the Druids. His observations relate to Gaul, but he does say that Druidism originated in Britain and crossed the Channel from here.
He also notes that those who wanted to improve their knowledge of Druidism generally went to Britain to study it.
The druids would also use water to foretell the future. Plutrarch the Greek historian writing about the Druids in his "Life of Ceaser" states:
"From the several waves and eddies which the sea, river, or other water exhibited when put into agitation, after a ritual manner they pretended to fortell with great certainty the event of battles." (Ref. 2)
But the people would also seek advice from the Druids about more mundane things like their own health and welfare. The holy man would consult with the water spirit and would be shown a sign for him to interpret. The Water Spirit usually took the female form and in ancient Cornwall the custodian of the healing spring was a fertility goddess, always beautiful, sometimes dangerous who metamorphosed over time into the mermaids of popular tradition who could change their form. Many of these wells were known as “Ladywells” and are often connected with sightings of a strange lady, a ghostly figure, perhaps of the displaced well spirit or priestess. Whilst the water spirits in Gaul were known as 'Niskas' or 'Peisgi', the word may derive from Old Celtic 'peiskos' or Latin 'piscos', both meaning fish. Sir F. Palgrave says:- "The Nixie... are in most respects like the Cornish Mermaid." (Ref.3)
Madron is one of these "Ladywells" and in her paper Madron Well: 'the Mother Well' (Ref. 4) Chesca Potter states the following:- "The name Modron (Ref.5) is used in Celtic mythology in a specific sense. It does not mean Mother as most of us think of her. Modron is Mother of the 'virgin', or maiden. Modron is the earth mother, sometimes depicted as a Black Goddess/Madonna, black being the symbolic colour of earth, the underworld and death. The Mother represents the dark or waning moon, and her daughter, the bride or virgin is the new and waxing moon This female polarity is a more ancient division of the aspects of the Goddess than the later maiden, mother, hag."...
Sancreed and Madron are both close to the Town of Penzance and on June 24th they celebrate Midsummer's Day. But at Penzance it falls in the middle of the Galowan festival. The ten days of Golowan... a festival which goes back in time through the Roman Goddess Diana to the Greek goddess Artemis to the Phoenician Goddess Astarte / Asherar – yam all of whom were celebrated on June 24th ... a major fire festival which included dancing in the street with lighted tar barrels on poles being swung around the heads of the dancers as they went down the street....
Orcadian Genesis: The Origins of the Orkney Isles’ Unique Megalithic Culture and its Roots in Britain’s Own Lost Atlantis – Part One
https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-europe/orkney-isles-megaliths-0010828
The Glastonbury Giant: Who Did the Mystery Bones of A Nine Foot Skeleton Belong To?
https://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-other-artifacts/glastonbury-giant-0011444
‘Glastonbury Giant’ which was allegedly unearthed in 1190... at sixteen feet deep they finally struck a large coffin hollowed out from the trunk of an old oak tree. Inside they discovered the skeletal remains of a man who had once measured close to nine feet tall, laid next to the skeleton of an average-sized woman... As covered in detail in The Myth Of Man by J.P. Robinson, skeletons measuring nine feet tall have been found all over the globe, with many examples having been discovered in the United States in particular....
British & Irish admixture
https://www.eupedia.com/europe/autosomal_maps_dodecad.shtml#British_Irish
This admixture appears to have been created by combining the Insular Celtic (ancient Gaelic and Brythonic) ancestry linked to Y-haplogroup R1b-L21 with the specifically Anglo-Saxon and Frisian clades of Y-haplogroup R1b-U106. However this admixture is found everywhere in Western Europe, from Iberia to Scandinavia and could be described as broadly Celto-Germanic. In other words it includes Indo-European DNA brought by the R1b migrations in the Bronze Age minus the admixture from the French & German and the Broadly Northwest European. Since almost all Irish ancestry is either Insular Celtic or Anglo-Saxon, it reached a maximum frequency of 95% in Ireland (and possibly in Wales too). The higher frequency in the Netherlands and Northwest Germany, and the presence in northern Italy and northern Sardinia suggests that this admixture was also found among the Anglo-Saxons and Lombards. The high frequency in France could also be due to a dual Celto-Germanic origin.
Broadly Northwest European admixture
https://www.eupedia.com/europe/autosomal_maps_dodecad.shtml#Broadly_Northwest_European
This admixture peaks in the northern Dutch provinces of Frisia and Groningen (40%), as well as in East Anglia (35-40%), Denmark (34%), the central Netherlands (32%), Germany (31%) and the northern French département du Nord (31%) and the Cotentin peninsula in Normandy (33%). Its distribution correlates mostly with West Germanic ancestry, but could also include some broader Celto-Germanic elements in Germany, the Benelux and France. It appears to be linked to the Proto-Celto-Germanic Y-haplogroup R1b-U106, which almost reaches its maximum frequency in Frisia, East Anglia and Denmark. The higher percentage in northern Portugal and Galicia can be attributed to the Suebi settlements in the early Middle Ages.
MY THOUGHTS, AND SPECULATION ONLY:
WESTERN R1b PREDATES THE PHOENICIANS, OR THEY ARE THE ORIGINAL PHOENICIANS. THE R-L21 WHO ARE INDIGENOUS TO THE BRITISH ISLES AT LEAST FROM 2500BC WERE SEA TRADERS OF THE ATLANTIC BUT, MAY HAVE ALSO BEEN THE SEA PEOPLE WHO TRADED WITH THE MEDITERANEANS OF NORTH AFRICA, AND CANAAN. THE SEMITE INVASIONS IN THE NEAR EAST AND BEYOND GAVE SEMITES CONTROL OF THE NEAR EAST CAUSING THE CANANITES TO FLEE AND THE PRESENCE OF J HAPLOGROUP TO DOMINATE THE NEAR EAST THEREAFTER. THE SEA PEOPLE POSSIBLY A WESTERN ATLANTIC R1b TRADED WITH THOSE SEMITES WHICH SOME MISINTERPRET THE SEMITE INVADERS AS THE PHOENICIANS. MY THOUGHTS ARE THE WESTERN ATLANTIC R1b WERE THE ORIGINAL PHOENICIANS IN WHOLE OR IN PART. THE SEMITES LATER EITHER TOOK CONTROL IN WHOLE OR IN PART OF THE TRADE IN THE MEDITERANEAN UP TO THE BRITISH ISLES AT AROUND 1000BC. THE OLDEST BOAT WORKSHOP IN THE WORLD IS FOUND IN DOGGERLAND ISLE OF WIGHT DATED 6000 BC. ALTHOUGH THE LONGBOATS ARE FROM EARLIER THAN THE 3RD MILLENIUM BC, ARCHAOLOGICAL FINDINGS HAVE FOUND LONGBOATS IN BRITISH ISLES DATING FROM 2ND MILLENIUM BC PREDATING THE MEDITERANEAN PHOENICIAN LONGBOAT WHICH PROVES THE ATLANTIC R-L21 AND /OR HIS R1b ANCESTORS WERE THE FIRST ORIGINAL SEA TRADERS AND ORIGINAL PHOENICIANS, AND POSSIBLY THE ORIGINAL INDIGENOUS CANANITES PRIOR TO THE SEMITIC INVASIONS WHEN TOURAN CONTROLLED THE NEAR AND MID EAST. MAY HAVE BEGAN AS KASSITES (R1b TRIBE) AS THEY WERE TRADERS WITH EGYPT, INDIA, BABYLON, AND THE AREAS. WHICH THEY MAY HAVE COME FROM THE ATLANTIC TRAVELLED EASTWARD THEN BACK TOT THE WEST AS A TRADE ROUTE. BUT JUST SPECULATION ON MY PART.
AS COMING FROM THE WEST AND BEING ATLANTIC ONE WONDERS IF R-L21 ARE DESCENDANTS OF ATLANTIS? DOGGERLAND IS ONE PROPOSED POSSIBLE SITES OF ATLANTIS THAT SANK INTO THE OCEAN. L21 ANCESTORS MAY HAVE BEEN THE ATLANTEANS. OR ATLANTIS MAY HAVE BEEN A LAND MASS FURTHER WEST AND/OR SOUTH IN THE ATLANTIC AND L21 ARE THE DESCENDANTS.
WHETHER OR NOT THEY WERE CASSITES IS ANOTHER DISCUSSION AS THE CASSITES GAINED THE EARLIEST OF POWER OF BABYLON AROUND 1600 BC WELL AFTER L21 WAS TRADING IN THE WEST ATLANTIC. IT IS POSSIBLE THE CASSITES CAME FROM THE WEST ATLANTIC MIGRATING EAST SINCE THEY DID NOT SPEAK INDO EUROPEAN AND NO ONE KNOWS FOR SURE WHERE THEIR ORIGINAL HOMELAND ORIGINATED. BUT THEY ARE SEEN IN INDIA, BABYLON, IRAN, EGYPT AND THOSE AREAS WITH EARLIER ORIGINS IN THE WEST ATLANTIC.
FURTHER INVESTIGATION INTO THE LINEAGE MIGHT OFFER MORE DETAILS.
R1b ARE WELL FAMILIAR WITH PLAGUES AS THEY WERE NEARLY WIPED OUT BY PLAGUES BROUGHT IN BY FOREIGN MIGRANTS.
ITS A MIRACLE THEY EXIST TODAY.
ACCORDING TO THIS ARTICLE:
R1b-L151 > P312 > L21
R-L21 ARE INDIGENOUS TO THE ISLES OF AT LEAST 2500BC AND ITS SUBCLADES CAME MORE RECENTLY. HE WAS AN ATLANTIC SEAMAN, OR A SHIP(S) OF ATLANTIC R1b, WHO POSSIBLY SETTLED IN SW BRITAIN WHERE THEY PROBABLY TOOK NATIVE WIVES FROM THE ISLE, OR HAD THEIR OWN WOMEN WHO ACCOMPANIED THEM.
R-L21 DID NOT COME FROM THE CONTINENT RATHER THEY CAME FROM THE SEA AND MIGRATED INWARD. THIS ARTICLE SAYS THEY WERE FROM THE ATLANTIC WESTERN BEAKER R1b PEOPLE. THEY WERE SEA TRADERS ESTABLISHING SETTLEMENTS WHERE RESOURCES WERE AVAILABLE. R-L21 NEARLY BECAME EXTINCT ON A FEW OCCASIONS THRU THEIR HISTORY FROM PLAQUES, FAMINES, WARFARE, AND FOREIGN MIGRATIONS.
IT APPEARS THE INDIGENOUS R-L21 IS PUSHED NORTH AND WEST FROM CORNWALL DEVON INTO IRELAND, WALES, SCOTLAND AND EVEN AS FAR AS THE NEW WORLD THRU THE AGES.
THE FOLLOWING ARE JUST A FEW OF THE HILITES OF THIS PAPER. A COMPLETE READ OF THE PAPER IS RECOMMENDED...
The phylogenealogy of R-L21:
four and a half millennia of expansion and redistribution
This paper uses spatial and temporal variation in the subclade distribution of the dominant Irish/British haplogroup R1b-L21 to describe population changes in Britain and Ireland over a period of 4500 years from the early Bronze Age until the present. The main focus is on the initial spread of L21-bearing populations from south-west Britain as part of the Beaker Atlantic culture, and on a major redistribution of the haplogroup that took place in Ireland and Scotland from about 100 BC.
The distributional evidence for a British origin for L21 around 2500 BC is compelling. Most likely the mutation originated in the large Beaker colony in south-west Britain, where many old lineages still survive. From that spread point it was carried rapidly by sea into north-west France, Ireland, north-west Spain and the Middle Rhine, which today have a high incidence of L21, and into Northern England and Scotland. Of about 45 known early Bronze branches or subclades of L21, almost all are found in Britain or in the English-speaking Diaspora. We are able to identify most of the larger subclades of L21 as ‘Atlantic’—spread throughout the Atlantic Beaker range with a distinct presence in Cornwall-Devon in the early Bronze. Continental R-L21 has origins in small random samples from the extensive English distribution. While many studies have tried to identify continental contributions to Isles populations, here we suggest that the reverse was much greater, at least in the early Bronze Age....
Around 100 BC a second major R-L21 expansion from a severe bottleneck was Initiated in Ireland and Scotland, when a dozen residual ‘deep’ sub-branches sprang to life and came to dominate L21. This is consistent with a collapse in the effective population of Ireland, followed by a rapid expansion. The limited evidence suggests that a severe weather event, famine and/or epidemic occurred around this time. The strongly patrilineal nature of insular Celtic society helped to keep male lines culturally intact, so that these emergent deep subclades can still be identified with Irish clans to some extent.
Around 90 per cent of R-L21 individuals in Scandinavia have paternal-line relatives in Ireland and Scotland dating to Viking times. The distribution is random and involves small numbers and distinct lines, suggesting that some of these were taken to Scandinavia as prisoners and slaves.
The Great Migration of millions of people from Ireland and Scotland to North America in relatively modern times was so substantial that no founder effects can be discerned and the New World has acted as a growth matrix extending and preserving the pre-existing R-L21 distribution.
This paper introduces several ‘skyline’ methods to trace the development over time of the subclade distribution of L21. These show that the distribution in England has not changed a great deal since the Bronze Age, in stark contrast to the situation in Ireland and Scotland. England and the Continent now make a much smaller contribution to R-L21 than in the past, probably stemming from Roman and Germanic expansion that pushed L21-bearing populations westward....
Haplogroup R-L21, the group of all men that have the SNP mutation known as L21, is the most common patrilineage in the British Isles. It is a major branch of the general Y-haplogroup R1b that has dominated Western Europe since the early Bronze Age. Around 37 per cent of men in the British Isles as a whole are R-L21, and two-thirds of the Irish. The coastal Atlantic areas in France across from Britain and an area on the Middle Rhine also have significant incidences of L21, but otherwise the presence in continental Europe is low. Because the British, particularly the Irish, have been such major contributors to the populations of USA and Canada, R-L21 is also one of the commonest lineages in North America. It has sometimes been identified as a carrier of Celtic culture because of its high frequency in areas that once spoke Celtic languages, and details of the lineage have been eagerly researched by those claiming Celtic heritage....
After 2008 when SNP testing became commercially available, it became apparent that the various Irish clusters were actually associated with SNPs that defined deep subclades of L21 on the phylogenetic Y-tree. The O’Neill ‘Irish modal’ or ‘Irish Type 1’ cluster in particular was ultimately defined by M222 (Kennedy 2014), one of the original SNP markers named by Underhill (2003)....
This paper largely deals with the changing incidence of R-L21 and its subclades, in the context of the four expansive phases during which it came to occupy its current spread:
the founding of L21 and its major branches and settlement areas at the beginning of the Bronze Age around 2500 BC, followed by a long 2500-year interregnum with relatively little activity, the settlement of Scotland some time later; a major redistribution and subsequent expansion of L21 in Ireland and Scotland at the dawn of the Common Era 100 BC–700 AD; limited translation of L21 to Scandinavia as the result of Viking incursions; and the Great Migration to the English-speaking New World where most R-L21 is to be found today....
A strong west-to-east decline is evident, and there is a heavy presence of 50 per cent or more in the traditional ‘Celtic’ locations, especially Ireland. (IRELAND 65%, WALES AND SCOTLAND 50%, ENGLAND 20%,...) France has about 16 per cent R-L21 while Iberia has 10 per cent. The incidence in the ‘Germanic’ countries is low, about 4 per cent. There is a residual presence throughout most of central and eastern Europe....
Using the generic term ‘the Isles’ to refer to Britain, Ireland and associated islands...
Branches are identified from their presence in the database, and confirmed in the websites www.ytree.net or www.yfull.com. Timing largely follows the methodology used in www.yfull.com, where each SNP mutation found in a Big Y test occurs on average every 140 years or 5 generations approximately....
The genetic evidence for the expansion of L21 shows the following:
In the first expansive period, from 2500 BC to about 2000 BC, L21 and its subclades were founded, split and expanded throughout the Atlantic Beaker range. Sometime later in the middle Bronze a second expansion occurred and the expansion extended to Scotland.
In the second period, the early Common Era from 100 BC to 600 AD, another large population advance in Ireland and Scotland substantially reorganised the distribution of subclades. This was probably preceded by a very substantial fall in the population of Ireland, a near-extinction which gave a number of surviving very small subclades the chance to expand.
In the Viking period, this new Irish-Scottish L21 was carried into Scandinavia and Northern Europe, probably by slaves taken in raids.
Finally, in the colonial period from 1600 to 1900, L21 moved freely throughout the English-speaking Diaspora, preserving the ancient distributions and preventing the extinction of some ancient lines. ...
3.2 Beginnings - The Atlantic culture
The L21 mutation occurred during an extraordinarily rapid expansion of the effective population of the male R1b haplogroup on the Atlantic seaboard. In only a few hundred years. ‘Western R1b’ formed over 300 Y-chromosome branches that survive to the present day and which define our current categories of Western R1b. Batini et al. (2015, Figure 1) show that the branching of R1b at this time was spectacular, equal to that of all other European haplogroups taken together. No other effective male population expansion of this rate, magnitude and extent is known until the modern era.
The companion paper Flood (2016) proposes that the original Western R1b men were a closely related group of mariners and traders who came to the Atlantic seaboard before 2700 BC. These invaders are often known as the ‘Bell Beaker Folk’ because of their distinctive drinking vessels. The Bell Beaker period marked a period of unprecedented cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe on a scale not seen previously nor seen again.
With boats as their major form of transport and trade as a major means of sustaining communities, the Bell Beakers established their initial colonies near to tradeable Resources, on the coast and up major rivers. They appear to have leapfrogged to specific areas, probably to exploit valuable metals like gold, tin and copper- very much in the manner of their descendants in the New World four millennia later. The Beakers formed maritime colonies in quick succession in Iberia, southern England, Ireland, the Rhone Valley, Brittany and the Middle Rhine. These settlements grew together connected by the sea trade routes of the ‘Atlantic culture’ (Cunliffe 1994, 2001, 2010), with the south of England at the centre. As Bradley (2007: 26) puts it, ‘The islands’ distinct geography …allowed them to form links with regions of the European mainland that would not have been in regular contact with one another.’
In Figure 5 we see the principal ‘Western R1b’ haplogroups R-DF27, R-L21, R-U106 and R-U152. Flood (2016) regards these as the genetic expressions of separate settlements - R-L21 in the south-west English mining and religious settlement, R-U106 around the North Sea, R-U152 on the Rhone, in Lombardy and the Cisalpine area, while R-DF27 represents the original Iberian settlement.
The largest Beaker settlement, apart perhaps from the gold-tin Tagus valley settlement in Portugal, appears to have been in south-west Britain in what looks very much like the world’s first minerals rush, seeking the world’s most valuable resources at the time, alluvial gold and tin. Standish et al.(2015) write, ‘Southwest Britain would have been an extremely important region during the Bronze Age, as local populations would have had the ability to control the supply of two of the key materials in use at this time.
NextGen sequencing of the rapidly branching R1b genome has allowed for reasonably accurate dating of L21 to about 2500 BC. This date has been supported by the presence of Bell Beaker sites all over Britain and Ireland dating from before 2400 BC. The Beaker constructions in Cornwall are the most extensive in Britain with an abundance of round barrows and cairns, henges, stone circles and stone cist graves.
The construction of Stonehenge II and III in Wiltshire, which required complex logistics and extensive manpower, was probably funded from the proceeds of the Cornwall-Devon mining bonanza. At Durrington Walls near Stonehenge, the largest village on the Atlantic seaboard was sited for a short time around 2500 BC, housing about 4000 people from all over Britain (Parker-Pearson et al. 2013).
Ireland is particular important for L21. A Bell Beaker arsenical bronze smelting Industry at Ross Island in the south-west of Ireland dates to 2400 BC, when the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce most of the arsenical bronze axes used in Britain. Traded artefacts from the site have been found in the south of Britain, while large numbers of artefacts using Cornish gold have been found in Ireland.
A long-suspected relationship between Bell Beaker peoples and R1b DNA has now been confirmed by the sequencing of the first ancient Bronze Age genome in the Isles (Cassidy et al. 2016). Remains at Rathlin Island off the north coast of Ireland have been dated to 2050 BC and are L21>DF21, the largest subclade of L21 prior to the Christian era. Rathlin was a production facility for porcellanite axe heads, a dense form of recrystallised basalt, and several Bronze Age gold artefacts have been found there (Jope et al. 1952).
After this early ‘rush’ of settlement Ireland seems to have been demically isolated from the main Bell Beaker culture. Once the metals rushes were over, the Irish Beaker period was ‘characterized by the ancientness of Beaker intrusions, by isolation and by influences and surviving traditions of autochthons’ (Osmon 2011). Another very early L21 colony was founded on the Middle Rhine, and it is believed a high incidence of L21 occurs in the area even today. The presence of unique early L21 subclade branches from the area suggests the settlement date is probably prior to 2300 BC. Cassidy et al. (2016) found a significant admixture closely related to Irish DNA in modern Germans (particularly visible as a Middle Rhine hotspot in their Figure 3). The presence of Bronze Age Wessex wheel-and-cross disks and, Wessex-style pottery along the Middle Rhine coupled with the L21 genetic connection, make it likely that the colony was launched from south-west Britain.
It appears that the Beaker expansion hit its carrying capacity quite quickly, because after about 2000 BC there are few new branches in the L21 haplotree until the Common Era. One exception is very significant branching in the L513/DF1 subclade about 6 SNPs or 800 years from the formation of L21. This might correspond to a mid-Bronze population expansion in Scotland; a late Scottish Bronze Age where arable land expanded at the expense of forests; perhaps because all suitable land had been cleared in England and by this time and settlers turned to more marginal land in Scotland. This may have occurred as late as the Bronze Age Climatic Optimum around 1600 BC, when climate change made settlement further north more practicable....
What makes these subclades ‘deep’ is that they straddle a long thin line of many equivalent SNPs, so that after the branch formation in the early Bronze there were no further known branches for typically 1500–2000 years, when they suddenly sprang to life. Because of this very long isolation during which the STRs mutated, the new founder of the deep branch might quite possibly have a very different STR signature than the founder of L21, and so therefore do all his descendants. This means that members of deep Subclades can often be distinguished by STRs alone...
Conclusions:
We presume that the major haplogroup known as Western R1b was spread Throughout Atlantic Europe by the people known as the Beaker Folk, who were seafarers seeking tradeable resources. The expansion of the Beaker people over a narrow period of a few hundred years, establishing widely separated colonies in key locations by boat, has meant that different subclades of Western R1b have become associated with particular settlements, and we associate L21 with south-west Britain. Within the L21 lineage we can see evidence of an extremely rapid expansion of descendants of a single man, who peopled Ireland and a good part of Britain, northern France and the Middle Rhine within the space of a few hundred years, apparently meeting little opposition from the existing inhabitants. This occurred within the context of a wide ranging water-based network of trade and culture.
The evidence for a dispersal from Britain includes: the larger variance of L21 in England than anywhere else, and the presence of about 30 distinct subclade branches; south-west England as the major focus of Beaker activity in Northern Europe, at the centre of the L21 range, and having large easily accessible alluvial deposits of key metals; L21 on the Continent taking the form of small random samples from the English distribution; all but one of the major L21 subclades being ‘Atlantic’—spread throughout the range of the Atlantic culture, with an early Bronze presence in south-west England defined by two or more widely separated examples; no support for any other origin for L21 or its subclades.
During the period of the Atlantic culture, L21 was a primary signifier of an Insular Atlantic people in the Isles and beyond. Beaker settlements on the adjacent Continent seem to have been small client arrangements, though the presence of L21 today in the key areas shows their genetic influence persisted. Subsequent invaders of Britain such as the Belgae, Saxons and Normans had a British admixture from the early Bronze Age, making their DNA rather difficult to distinguish from the English population.
Several major subclades DF21 and L513 found their way into northern and Irish populations in greater proportions. There is some indication from the Y-haplotree that Scotland underwent a population expansion during the Bronze Age Climate Optimum from about 1600 BC, so differential rates of population growth involving founder effects may be responsible for this limited early differentiation of subclades.
It has been suspected for a long time because of the very few male lineages that have come down to us that the human genome has been subject to intermittent pruning involving substantial decreases in genetic diversity probably resulting from natural disasters, epidemics or extremes of warfare. For the first time one of these has been pinpointed, in Ireland around 100 BC, also affecting Scotland but not England to any degree.
At this time, more than half way through its history, a major reorganisation of L21 took place in Ireland and parts of Scotland. The Irish male effective population fell to very low levels, so significant as to be equivalent to a near-extinction and resettlement by survivors. This hitherto undocumented population collapse is probably due to an extreme (2500 year) weather event accompanied by famine, epidemic and opportunistic invasion and warfare. In support of this: a dozen L21 ‘deep subclades’ that had been residual for millennia suddenly appeared at the same time from nowhere and grew rapidly. One of these (M222) grew extremely rapidly over a few centuries to become the largest subclade of L21; the long tail of the Pareto distribution of L21 subclades was almost extinguished in Ireland; the isolation of Ireland and its exposure to the Atlantic has made it vulnerable to weather, famine and epidemics, as strongly hinted in the Irish pseudohistories; severe storm surge and famine were recorded by the Romans in Northern Europe from 120-114 BC, sufficient to displace a number of tribes and change the coastline; historians have made reference to a ‘Dark Age’ of fortified warfare in Ireland and a population decline prior to 400 AD.
This decline was followed by a period of rapid population growth and re-peopling which took the population above pre-disaster levels, during which Ireland underwent a major cultural renaissance and the current subclade structure of L21 was laid down. About 70 per cent of L21 belongs to ‘deep subclades’ from this period. The size of particular subclades has been established randomly, however the patrilineal and fragmented nature of Irish society caused these new deep subclades to be confined to particular areas and clans to a fair extent, a spatial legacy that is still visible today. The
very ‘long thin’ lead-ins to the new subclades meant that their founders had drifted far from the Atlantic Modal in many cases, so that the ‘clusters’ could be easily identified by STR signatures.
In Scotland much the same happened with the emergence of several new large ‘deep subclades’ especially L1335. However here the situation was complicated by prolonged harassment by the Romans that kept the population ‘between the Walls’ at minimal levels. With the departure of the Romans, the gap was filled by Irish populations that had overextended their local carrying capacity, and invasion from the Continent and England. During the same period Insular Atlantic DNA seems to have been pushed back on the Continent and in England. This substantially lowed the contributions of England and the Continent to the total L21 population.
Around 90 per cent of L21 in Scandinavia dates from the Viking period and is probably attributable to prisoners and slaves brought back to Scandinavia.
We have uncovered no evidence of any significant back-migration of L21 from mainland Europe to the Isles though this must have occurred in small quantities.
Phylogenetic methods such as variance, PCI and admixture analysis are found to be unsuitable in their usual form for analysis of L21 because of the multi-staged dynamic subclade development and the in situ alterations the haplogroup has undergone.
The final legacy of L21 is that it was carried to the English-speaking Diaspora in such great numbers that no bottlenecking is evident; in fact the structure of L21 seems to have been better preserved abroad than in the Isles These foreign descendants of an ancient Bronze Age lineage have come together collectively to test their own DNA and construct the detailed Y-haplotree that has made this analysis possible. Embedded in that haplotree is a rich imprint of events that happened before literacy or recorded history in the Isles, which this paper has begun to explore.
Britain's prehistoric catastrophe revealed: How 90% of the neolithic population vanished in just 300 years
Ancient Britons may have been nearly wiped out by bubonic plague brought by newcomers to the island... 51 skeletons from all over Neolithic Britain has now revealed that during the whole of the Neolithic era, the country was inhabited mainly by olive-skinned, dark-haired Mediterranean-looking people. But some 300 to 500 years after the main phase of Stonehenge was built, that mainly Mediterranean-looking British Neolithic-originating element of the population had declined from almost 100 percent to just 10 per cent of the population.... bubonic plague may have been the culprit....Having discovered the dramatic population replacement between 2500 and 2200 or 2000 BC (essentially the interface between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age),...Today, in genetic terms, the Neolithic population of Europe substantially survives in only one place – Sardinia.... Britain essentially has a whole new population after that period.”
Atlantis, the Antediluvian World by Ignatius Donnelly [1882] HILITES
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/egypt/ATLANTIS%20HILITES.rtf
And the citizens have a deity who is their foundress: she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith...She founded your city a thousand years before ours, receiving from the Earth and Hephæstus the seed of your race, and then she founded ours, the constitution of which is set down in our sacred registers as 8000 years old. As touching the citizens of 9000 years ago,... and this the goddess taught first among you, and then in Asiatic countries, and we among the Asiatics first adopted.... these histories tell of a mighty power which was aggressing wantonly against the whole of Europe and Asia, and to which your city put an end. This power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean...
"Let me begin by observing, first of all, that nine thousand was the sum of years which had elapsed since the war which was said to have taken place between all those who dwelt outside the Pillars of Heracles and those who dwelt within them...Poseidon, receiving for his lot the island of Atlantis..., begat children by a mortal woman...mountain there dwelt one of the earth-born primeval men of that country, whose name was Evenor, and he had a wife named Leucippe, and they had an only daughter, who was named Cleito. The maiden was growing up to womanhood when her father and mother died; Poseidon fell in love with her, and had intercourse with her...He also begat and brought up five pairs of male children, dividing the island of Atlantis into ten portions...the eldest, who was king, he named Atlas, and from him the whole island and the ocean received the name of Atlantic....
Theopompus tells us that the people who inhabited Atlantis were the Meropes, the people of Merou...Atlas Mountains... most north-western corner of Africa...Herodotus there dwelt near this mountain-chain a people called the Atlantes, probably a remnant of a colony from Solon's island? How comes it that the people of the Barbary States were known to the Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians as the "Atlantes," ...
"According to the Phœnicians, the art of writing was invented by Taautus, or Taut, 'whom the Egyptians call Thouth,' and the Egyptians said it was invented by Thouth, or Thoth, otherwise called 'the first Hermes,' in which we clearly see that both the Phœnicians and Egyptians referred the invention to a period older than their own separate political existence, and to an older nation, from which both peoples received it. The "first Hermes," here referred to (afterward called Mercury by the Romans), was a son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter of Atlas...."Many of the oldest myths, relate to Spain, North-western Africa, and other regions on the Atlantic,...being far beyond or below sunset, were the "under-world" of the ancients; while Atlantis, the Canaries, etc., constituted the island division with Western Africa and Spain. The under-world of the dead was simply the world below the western horizon; "the home of the dead has to do with that far west region where the sun dies at night."...
Poseidon, the first king of Atlantis, according to Plato, was, according to Greek mythology, a brother of Zeus, and a son of Chronos. In the division of the kingdom he fell heir to the ocean and its islands, and to the navigable rivers; in other words, he was king of a maritime and commercial people....
; "the ram with the golden fleece for which the Argonauts sailed was the offspring of Poseidon." He carried in his hand a three-pronged symbol, the trident, doubtless an emblem of the three continents that were embraced in the empire of Atlantis. He founded many colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean; "he helped to build the walls of Troy;" the tradition thus tracing the Trojan civilization to an Atlantean source. He settled Attica and founded Athens...
...."Chronos visits the different regions of the habitable world." He gave Egypt as a kingdom to the god Taaut,...This not only connects the Phœnicians with Atlantis, but shows the relations of Egyptian civilization to both Atlantis and the Phœnicians.... Sanchoniathon tells us, after narrating all the discoveries by which the people advanced to civilization, that the Cabiri set down their records of the past by the command of the god Taaut, "and they delivered them to their successors and to foreigners, of whom one was Isiris (Osiris), the inventor of the three letters, the brother of Chua, who is called the first Phœnician." This would show that the first Phœnician came long after this line of the kings or gods, and that he was a foreigner, as compared with them; and, therefore, that it could not have been the Phœnicians proper who made the several inventions narrated by Sanchoniathon, but some other race, from whom the Phœnicians might have been descended....
The extent of country covered by the commerce of the Phœnicians represents to some degree the area of the old Atlantean Empire. Their colonies and trading-posts extended east and west from the shores of the Black Sea, through the Mediterranean to the west coast of Africa and of Spain, and around to Ireland and England; while from north to south they ranged from the Baltic to the Persian Gulf. They touched every point where civilization in later ages made its appearance...simply re-opened the path of commerce and colonization which had been closed when Plato's island sunk in the sea....Sanchoniathon claims that the learning of Egypt, Greece, and Judæa was derived from the Phœnicians. It would appear probable that, while other races represent the conquests or colonizations of Atlantis, the Phœnicians succeeded to their arts, sciences, and especially their commercial supremacy; and hence the close resemblances which we have found to exist between the Hebrews, a branch of the Phœnician stock, and the people of America....
'ST ANDREWS DAY NOVEMBER 30 SCOTLAND
HAPPY THORS DAY.
The British Edda
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/British-Edda.pdf
FIG. 117.- Adam.Thor as Andara (St Andrew), Bur, Geir, Goerdi or George, slaying the Dragon. From Hittite seal of about 2500 B,C. Note the X-cross on his hat. and his rayed Sun-cross symbol. His axe is of Hittite shape as opposed to the Babylonian scimitar.
FIG. 118.- Thor, Andara, Geir, Goerdi, or George, slaying the Dragon in Persian sculpture , c. 600 B.C. Note the Sun- hero is called by the Persians by his late Sumerian
title of Ahura·Mazdi ("Ormuzd " ), or .. Sage of the Sun," and his Dragon enemy is Ahriman (Eddic Hrimni ).
FIG. 1I9.--George slaying the Dragon in Phoenician seal, c. 1000 B.C. Note this later mounted form introduced into Britain by Phoenician Barats or " Britons " is that which
latterly was adopted in Britain and is still current .
FIG. 122.-Thor George snaring the Dragon. From Assyrio -Babylonia n seal, c. 1000BC.
FIG. I27.- Thor slaying Dragon on old British Runic Cross at Gosforth, Cumberland, .... AD. c. eighth century.
Thor! Thou the strong warden of Ygg's He-Goats, the Aryas of Asgard!...
Phrygia or "Land of the Lions" conquered by Adam Thor Dan
It was clearly this famous civilizing conquest of Phrygia or "The Land of the Lions" by Adam Adar Thor Dan, within the Phrygian region of the Lion tribe of the Dwarfs- a conquest that is celebrated in the Sumerian hymns and by Homer-which is represented
on the famous" prehistoric" magnificently carved ivory handle of a hunting-knife or dagger from" Syria," which now appears to have probably belonged to Adam Thor himself! ...
FIG. 36.-Thor or Dar conquering , taming or civilizing the Lion-totem tribes of Phrygia and Asia Minor and Chaldea, from carved ivory handle of stoneknife c. 3350 BC. Note his beard, Gothic dress and four-horned hat...
Thor's special emblem, and the bosses on it are presumably rowan berries, as Thor's Red Cross of" St George" was made of the rowan-tree...
Thor taming the lions is locally associated with a legend of Guenevere, the wife of King Arthur, who has a stone and hamlet in the neighbourhood named after him as " King Arthur's Stone"; and the original King Arthur as we shall find was King Her Thor. This Lion-conquering scene is also found represented in Ancient Briton monuments in which the
hero is " St Andrew," that is Thor's Eddic title of Eindri or Andvara, as at St Andrews in Scotland....
FIG 43.-Goths as Goats, under the sign of the X or St Andrew's Cross. entering houses. From two archaic Sumerian seals....
Adam-Thor bears therein his Sumerian title of AnDara or .. Lord Dara,' in the Eddic form of Andvara or Andvari, the source as I have shown of St Andrew the patron saint of the later Goths, Scyths and Scots. He is also called by many of his other titles, including
" George-the-Red. " His adversary is variously called Loki (i.e., Sutt or Seth-Abel), Apa, Faf and Fafni (also a title of Wodan). Adam Andvara is disclosed fishing in a ship or boat
off the coast-presumably a sailing-ship, of which he was the traditional inventor as Pro-Metheus, and in the Sumerian as Induru he is at home on the sea , an especial arena of the colonizing sea-going Sumerians....
ADAM-THOR'S BURG ATTACKED BY THE EDENITES OF VAN UNDER BALDR OR ABEL [The Central Lay resumes the narrative and tells of the plotting of the Eden Matriarch and her son-paramour Loki-Baldr, or "The Wolf of Fen or Van", for an attack on Adam-Thor's capital, which they carry out. (The Van tribe of Lake Van, east of Carchemish, are the Pani foes of Indra in the Veda.)...
what is the difference between st george cross and st andrews cross?
ST ANDREW IS SCOTTISH, AND ST GEORGE IS ENGLISH. ST ANDREW AND ST GEORGE MAY ONLY BE THE CHRISTIANIZING OF PAST PAGAN GOD THOR, INDRA, DARA, ETC...
Saltire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltire
Saint Andrew's Cross... diagonal cross... From its use as field sign, the saltire came to be used in a number of flags, in the 16th century for Scotland... The association with Saint Andrew is a development of the 15th to 16th centuries... Saint Andrew's Cross of Scotland was used in flags or banners (but not in coats of arms) from the 16th century, and used as naval ensign during the Age of Sail.... The Flag of Scotland, called The Saltire or Saint Andrew's Cross, is a blue field with a white saltire. According to tradition, it represents Saint Andrew, who is supposed to have been crucified on a cross of that form (called a crux decussata) at Patras, Greece. The Saint Andrew's Cross was worn as a badge on hats in Scotland, on the day of the feast of Saint Andrew....
The association with Saint Andrew develops in the late medieval period. The tradition according to which this saint was crucified on a decussate cross is not found in early hagiography. Depictions of Saint Andrew being crucified in this manner first appear in the 10th century, but do not become standard before the 17th century. Reference to the saltire as "St Andrew's Cross" is made by the Parliament of Scotland (where Andrew had been adopted as patron saint) in 1385, in a decree to the effect that every Scottish and French soldier (fighting against the English under Richard II) "shall have a sign before and behind, namely a white St. Andrew's Cross"....
Saint George's Cross
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Cross
In heraldry, Saint George's Cross, also called the Cross of Saint George, is a red cross on a white background, which from the Late Middle Ages became associated with Saint George, the military saint, often depicted as a crusader. Associated with the crusades, the red-on-white cross has its origins in the 10th century. It was used as the ensign of the Republic of Genoa perhaps as early as during the 10th century....
Saint George became associated as "patron saint" of England after the English reformation. Since the early modern period, his flag came to be identified as the national flag of England....
Saint George's Day
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day
Saint George's Day is normally celebrated on 23 April. However, Church of England rules denote that no saints' day should be celebrated between Palm Sunday and the Sunday after Easter Day so if 23 April falls in that period the celebrations are transferred to after it. 23 April is the traditionally accepted date of the saint's death in the Diocletianic Persecution of AD 303....
Roman Slave of Britannia, Shackled, And Thrown In A Ditch To Die
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/roman-slave-0015417
This is how one British Roman slave died at the hands of Roman invaders....
The enslaved man’s ankles were bound together with heavy, locked iron fetters, and he was thrown into a ditch, face first, and left to die in the most undignified manner imaginable...between 226 AD and 427 AD....
it is estimated that as a whole during the period 260–425 AD, “the slave population of the Roman Empire was just under five million, representing 10–15% of the total population of 50–60 million inhabitants.”...
King Arthur: A Very British Messiah?
https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/king-arthur-0015521
After the cruel Saxons decimated the British and took their land from them, the survivors rallied behind their champion and fought to reclaim their lands, culminating in victory at the Battle of Badon Hill. This idealized image of the defender and savior of the British people against the evil greed of the conquering Saxons gathered momentum in the Middle Ages, as other authors took up the tradition and the name Ambrosius became Arthur. The 9th century eclectic history known as the Historia Brittonum paints the “magnanimous” Arthur as leader of all the kings of Britain and their armed forces, famously listing the twelve battles against the Saxons...
Arthur, while certainly one of God’s “chosen” warriors, was also protected by the Virgin Mary , and this made him more unusual. According to the History of the Kings of Britain... The Historia Brittonum also recounts Arthur’s victory over the Saxons through the power of the Holy Mother... There is a similar passage in the Welsh Annals (the Annales Cambriae ) in which Arthur is described as carrying the cross of Jesus Christ on his shoulder for three days and nights.... Arthur became associated with Glastonbury Abbey after the claimed discovery of his bones in the church graveyard in 1191, and following on from that the Abbey’s chronicles began to write Arthur into their history and draw closer links between him and their patroness, Mary. The 14th century Chronicles of Glastonbury Abbey...
The story is a familiar one, first appearing in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History... Uther enlisted the help of Merlin, a being of supernatural power and the son of an incubus and a human woman, who magically transformed Uther to appear as Gorlois so he could gain entry to the castle and Igerna. Thus Arthur was conceived....
Saxons were depicted in the Historia as a warrior people. The Saxons are consistently referred to as “wicked”, of “evil repute”, or “treacherous pagans” in the History of the Kings of Britain... The image of Arthur as Messiah was so strong in the medieval Welsh cultural zeitgeist that parts of Wales and Cornwall self-identified as “Arthur’s country”. When the Anglo-Norman conquest began to spread into Wales...
In Geoffrey’s tale, Arthur is mortally wounded by the treacherous Mordred in the battle at Camlann and carried to the Isle of Avalon, where his blood relative Morgana was to heal his wounds. There he awaits the time foretold by Merlin that God has ordained for the Britons to rule, in which Arthur will return....
RACE MIXING IS GENOCIDE. MIGRANTS ALLOWED TO MIX WITH LOCAL POPULATION EVENTUALLY WILL GENETICALLY HYBRIDIZE, OR GENETICALLY REPLACE THE ORIGINAL PEOPLE...
Who were the Anglo-Saxons? Peaceful Settlers or Barbarians?
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/were-anglo-saxons-0015504
Studying the skeletal remains of Anglo-Saxons, particularly skull shapes, researchers have now revealed these legendary warriors were “a melting pot of people from both migrant and local cultural groups and not one homogenous group from Western Europe.”... The study mostly looked at remains from the early Medieval period in England, between the 5th-11th centuries AD, revealing “migration occurring throughout all but the final 100 years (ie. 410-560 AD),” according to the new study. Professor Keith Dobney said the team's results indicate that the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of early Medieval Britain were “strikingly similar to contemporary Britain - full of people of different ancestries sharing a common language and culture.”...
The team collected 3D cranium data from remains excavated in both Britain and Denmark. With these they estimated the ancestry of the Anglo-Saxon individuals and found that between two-thirds and three-quarters of early Anglo-Saxon individuals were of continental European ancestry, while between a quarter and one-third were of local ancestry.... This change in migration rate was revealed when they looked at skeletons dated to the Middle Anglo-Saxon period, which was several centuries after the original migrants arrived. It was found, according to Plomp, that “50 to 70 percent of the individuals were of local ancestry, while 30 to 50 percent were of continental European ancestry”....
WHEN THE I HG PEOPLE INVADED PALEOLITHIC EUROPE FROM NEAR EAST THEY CONCENTRATED IN BALKANS. ABOUT 19KYA TO 14KYA THE I PEOPLE EXPANDED INTO R/K TERRITORY OF CENTRAL AND WEST EUROPE REACHING SCANDINAVIA AND EURASIA ABOUT 10KYA. THIS STUDY LOOKS AT INDIVIDUALS BURIED IN THE MEGALITHS. THE INDIVIDUALS DATE FROM 4825BCE TO 2580BCE. WHEN THE NEOLITHIC FARMERS INVADED EUROPE IT BEGAN IN ANATOLIA ABOUT 7000BCE REACHING NW EUROPE ABOUT 4000BCE. THEY USED 2 MAIN PATHS, ONE INLAND MAINLY ALONG THE DANUBE, AND THE OTHER WAS MEDITERANEAN COASTAL. THESE FARMERS ADMIXED WITH HUNTER GATHERERS IN VARIOUS DEGREES. THE MED ROUTE GENOMES SHOW MORE AFFINTY BETWEEN IBERIANS AND BRITISH ISLES WHICH EXCLUDES THE CENTRAL EUROPEAN FARMER. SCANDINAVIAN /BRITISH ISLES ALSO CONTAIN EXCLUSIVE AFFINITY WHICH EXCLUDES THE CENTRAL EUROPEAN FARMER. THE MED ROUTE WENT BEYOND THE BRITISH ISLES INTO SCANDINAVIA BUT IN LESSER AMOUNT. THE FEMALES WERE DIVERSE WHILE THE MALES WERE EXCLUSIVELY I HG MAINLY I2a. THE I2 OF THE EARLY NEOLITHIC IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM THE MESOLITHIC BUT, FREQUENT IN THE 4TH MILLENIUM BCE. THE MEGALITH BURIALS REPRESENT A PATRILINEAL SEGMENT OF THE SOCIETY RATHER THAN A RANDOM SAMPLE OF THE ENTIRE SOCIETY. I WOULD ALSO ADD THOSE BURIED MAY OR MAY NOT BE THE SAME GENETICS AS THE BUILDER SOCIETY. BURIALS MAY HAVE COME AT A DIFFERNET AGE, DIFFERNET PEOPLE...
Megalithic tombs in western and northern Neolithic Europe were linked to a kindred society
www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1818037116
The various individuals buried in megaliths show genetic affinities with local farming groups within their different chronological contexts. Individuals buried in megaliths display (past) admixture with local hunter-gatherers, similar to that seen in other Neolithic individuals in Europe. In relation to the tomb populations, we find significantly more males than females buried in the megaliths of the British Isles. The genetic data show close kin relationships among the individuals buried within the megaliths, and for the Irish megaliths, we found a kin relation between individuals buried in different megaliths. We also see paternal continuity through time, including the same Y-chromosome haplotypes reoccurring. These observations suggest that the investigated funerary monuments were associated with patrilineal kindred groups....
Investigations of the genetic relationships among humans from multiple Neolithic sites across western Eurasia have shown that Neolithic lifeways dispersed across Europe via a large-scale process of migration starting from Anatolia and the areas of the Aegean at ca. 7000–6500 (cal) BCE. In Europe, migrating people and Neolithic lifeways dispersed along two main routes: an inland route (partly along the Danube River) and a route along Mediterranean coastal areas. Around 4000 BCE, Neolithic farming communities reached the north western fringes of Europe, including the British Isles and Scandinavia. A marked hunter-gatherer (HG) admixture has been observed in the later farmer groups compared with the Early Neolithic farmers on the continent....
The similarities in the construction and design of some types of megaliths (i.e., dolmens and passage graves) from Iberia to southern Scandinavia, Britain, and Ireland is compelling... Some assemblages include males, females, juveniles, and children, implying familial burials... the groups did not seem to have been organized matrilineally... These individuals were all radiocarbon-dated to between 4825 and 2580 cal BCE... The individuals buried in these megaliths from the British Isles and Scandinavia show an ancestry similar to other contemporaneous farmer groups, with a majority of their ancestry related to early Neolithic farmers and a partial admixture component related to European Mesolithic HGs... However, some tests indicated similar trends as shown in our principal component analysis (PCA) and previous studies and suggested a demic connection among western European Neolithic groups to the exclusion of central European Neolithic groups, as well as a connection between the British Isles and Iberian groups... Interestingly, we also found a significant farmer-specific genetic affinity between the British Isles Neolithic populations and the Scandinavian populations to the exclusion of central European farmers...
We found greater macrohaplogroup mtDNA diversity than Y-chromosomal (YDNA) diversity. Whereas mtDNA lineages from megalith burials harbor haplogroups K, H, HV, V, U5b, T, and J (among others), males from megalith burials belong almost exclusively to YDNA haplogroup I, more specifically to the I2a sublineage... Males from the present study belonged to YDNA haplogroup I, and those who could be resolved beyond this level were characterized as belonging to the I2a2a or I2a1b branch.... The high frequency of the HG-derived I2a male lineages among megalith as well as nonmegalith individuals suggests a male sex-biased admixture process between the farmer and the HG groups...
Here we provide evidence of a genetic connection among Scandinavian, British, and Irish Neolithic populations. This signal is weaker than the signals observed between the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles, however, suggesting that migration between the British Isles and Scandinavia along the Atlantic coast was less frequent than that between Iberia and the British Isles... The I2 YDNA lineages that are very common among European Mesolithic HGs are distinctly different from the YDNA lineages of the European Early Neolithic farmer groups, but frequent in the farmer groups of the fourth millennium BCE, suggesting a male HG admixture over time....
The distinction of specific paternal lineages among the megaliths, a greater fraction of males than females in some megaliths, and their kindred relationships suggest that people buried in the megalithic tombs belonged to patrilineal segments of the groups/societies rather than representing a random sample from a larger Neolithic farmer community living in close vicinity. The sex ratio in the Irish megaliths is also in line with this finding. If one of the main functions of the tombs was to contain the remains of the deceased of a patrilineal segment, this would explain the inclusion of more males than females in the tombs. However, the finding that three of the five kinship relationships in these megaliths involved females indicates that female kindred members were not excluded. The observation of paternal continuity across time at the Gotlandic Ansarve megalith and at the Irish megaliths is a strong indication that specific family groups used these stone constructions for burial and other funerary practices....
PALEOLITHIC EUROPEAN FIRST PEOPLE ARE R/K/CRO-MAGNON/NEANDERTHAL IS DISPLACED BY THE I HG FROM THE BALKENS IN NEOLITHIC/MESOLITHIC. EEF A G2 HG DISPLACES THE NEOLITHIC PEOPLES THEN MID NEOLITHIC WHG TAKE BACK THEIR TERRITORIES, AND BRONZE AGE SEE YAMNAYA THE R1b DESCENDANTS OF THE FIRST R/K LINEAGE TAKE BACK THEIR WEST EUROPEAN TERRITORY....
Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9
Genome-wide ancient DNA studies indicate predominantly Aegean ancestry for continental Neolithic farmers, but also variable admixture with local Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Neolithic cultures first appear in Britain circa 4000 bc, a millennium after they appeared in adjacent areas of continental Europe.... Our analyses reveal persistent genetic affinities between Mesolithic British and Western European hunter gatherers. Unlike other European Neolithic populations, we detect no resurgence of hunter-gatherer ancestry at any time during the Neolithic in Britain. Genetic affinities with Iberian Neolithic individuals indicate that British Neolithic people were mostly descended from Aegean farmers who followed the Mediterranean route of dispersal....
Aegean ancestry (Aegean Neolithic Farmers (ANF)). ANF-derived populations dispersed throughout Europe via two major routes: one along the Mediterranean and
the other through Central and into Northern Europe.... Our Mesolithic samples date from 8750–8459 calibrated (cal.)bc (Early Mesolithic Aveline’s Hole, Somerset, England) to 4256–3803 cal. bc (Late Mesolithic Cnoc Coig, Oronsay, western Scotland). Our Neolithic samples date from 3951–3780 cal. bc (Early Neolithic McArthur Cave, western Scotland) to 2570–2347 cal. bc (Late Neolithic Isbister, Orkney, Scotland)....
All British Mesolithic individuals cluster with Western and Scandinavian hunter-gatherers in a principal components analysis. By contrast, all directly dated individuals who post-date 4000 bc and undated individuals associated with Neolithic monuments cluster tightly near Iberian and Central European Middle Neolithic individuals...we were able to attribute these confidently to the WHG group....most closely resemble Loschbour... Loschbour, Ranchot88 and the British Mesolithic samples do not form separate clusters... The genomes of all British Mesolithic individuals can be explained almost entirely by WHG ancestry, the remainder (<7.3%) probably stemming from poorly matching portions of the genome. Most of the ancestry in all British Neolithic individuals could be attributed to ANFs (>56%, ~74% on average), indicating a substantial shift in ancestry with the transition to farming....
We found similar patterns of donor haplotype matching in the British Neolithic genome to those inferred for other high-coverage Neolithic genomes from Ireland and Iberia....connection between the British, Irish and Iberian Neolithic and are consistent with the same ancestral populations bringing the Neolithic to Britain and Ireland... We inferred some notable geographic structure in WHG admixture proportions among the British Early Neolithic individuals; those from Wales retain the lowest levels of WHG admixture, followed by those from South-West and Central England. Neolithic individuals from South-East England and Scotland show considerably higher WHG admixture proportions. These proportions remain stable from the Early into the Middle/Late Neolithic.... ANF ancestry suggests that continental farmers arrived in Britain by 3975–3722 cal.bc...
We infer that Cheddar Man mostly probably had blue/green eyes, dark brown (possibly black) hair and dark or dark to black skin, whereas our highest coverage
Early Neolithic individual had brown eyes, black (possibly dark brown) hair and dark to intermediate skin. Together with the pigmentation prediction outcomes we obtained for Loschbour and La Braña, these results imply that different pigmentation levels co-existed in Europe by around 6000 bc.
The six British Mesolithic genomes examined here are typical of WHGs, indicating that this population spread to the furthest northwestern point of Early Holocene Europe after moving from southeastern Europe, or further east, from approximately 12000 bc. This genetic similarity among British and European Mesolithic individuals spans a period in Britain (circa 8500–4000 bc) that includes the cultural transition to the Late Mesolithic and the separation of Britain from continental Europe. Our analyses indicate that the appearance of Neolithic practices and domesticates in Britain circa 4000 bc was mediated overwhelmingly by immigration of farmers from continental Europe, and strongly reject the hypothesized adoption of farming by indigenous hunter-gatherers as the main process. British farmers were substantially descended from Iberian Neolithic-related populations whose ancestors had expanded along a Mediterranean route, although with a minority portion of their ancestry from populations who took the Danubian route. The affinities we find between Neolithic individuals from the British Isles and modern individuals from France are consistent with populations sharing ancestry with Neolithic groups in Iberia moving into northern France via the Atlantic seaboard and/or southern France, mixing to a limited degree with Neolithic populations from Central Europe before travelling across the English Channel.
A single population moved across Britain from a western entry point and progressively admixed with local hunter-gatherers. This scenario is consistent with the western distribution of megalithic cultures along the Atlantic seaboard, and is supported by radiocarbon evidence suggesting a marginally earlier date for the arrival of ANF ancestry in the west of Britain. However, the lack of evidence for substantive WHG introgression into British Neolithic populations—outside of western Scotland—favours this cline, reflecting multiple source populations with variable proportions of WHG admixture having entered different parts of Britain. This interpretation is consistent with archaeological evidence for regional British Neolithic cultures showing links to varied parts of mainland Europe and our qpGraph analysis indicating geographically structured Neolithic Central European admixture. Overall, the regional variation in ancestry of British Neolithic populations probably reflects both differing degrees of admixture between farmers and local foragers (for example, western Scotland) and multiple continental source populations carrying variable WHG and Neolithic Central European ancestry...
Conclusion:
In contrast to other European regions, the transition to farming in Britain occurred with little introgression from resident foragers—either during initial colonization or throughout the Neolithic. This may reflect low Late Mesolithic population density in Britain and/or an introduction of farming by populations who had mastered the technologies needed to thrive in northern and western continental Europe during the previous two millennia....
SACRED GROUNDS OF THE FIRST PEOPLES MAKE A WONDERFUL HIWAY SAYS THE INVADING MODERN MONKEYS WHO HAVE NO REAL GENETIC CLAIMS TO THE LAND, AND HAVE GENOCIDED AND PUSHED OUT THE FIRST FOUNDERS OF THE LAND....
Bronze Age Graves Uncovered At Stonehenge During Tunnel Excavations
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/stonehenge-graves-0014894
Archaeologists digging at England’s controversial Stonehenge A303 tunnel site have unearthed Neolithic pottery, Bronze Age burials and a mysterious C-shaped enclosure. The area has been suffering from increasingly heavy traffic causing serious congestion on the 8 mile (13 kilometer) long A303 between Amesbury and Berwick Down that runs past the 4,500-year-old Stonehenge UNESCO World Heritage Site in Wiltshire, England. The proposed solution is the Stonehenge tunnel project: a highly-controversial 2-mile-long (3.3 kilometer) twin-bore tunnel being built beneath the iconic ancient monument. ... In a January 2020 Ancient Origins news article I explained that a wave of English archaeologists voiced their concerns about Highways...that the planned tunnel “might cause irreparable damage.”...“the loss of hundreds of thousands of artifacts.” ...
UPDATE:
Stonehenge Tunnel Ruled “Unlawful”
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/stonehenge-tunnel-0013175
A judge has just ruled on the heavily criticized proposal for a tunnel beneath Stonehenge. He’s quashed the British government’s plans. Campaigners working to save Stonehenge are delighted at the court case results, but is this truly the end of the tunnel vs Stonehenge battle? ...
But these holy places and the nearby Neolithic sites are an “incomparable testimony to prehistoric times,” says UNESCO. The Stonehenge monument , being over 4,500 years old, is one of the best-preserved ancient structures left, anywhere. However, no less important is the Wiltshire chalk landscape around the monument which is as crucial to the mechanics of the astronomical observatory as the stones are themselves....
“If you’re allowed to dig up a World Heritage Site to build new roads, then is anything safe?” ...