Genetics

*** THIS ARTICLE SUMMARIZES PIGMENTS, AND OTHER PHYSICAL TRAITS FOR THE EUROPEAN GROUPS ***

VILLABRUNA MAN LIKELY HAD BLUE EYES AND DARK SKIN. THE SAMARANS (EHG) HAD LIGHT SKIN PIGMENT. LIGHT SKIN DEVELOPED AT LEAST 22,000 TO 28,000 YBP SPREADING WEST FROM THE EHG. BLUE EYES FROM AN ANCESTRAL H-1 AT LEAST 42,000 YBP IS PRE-WHG. WHG CAME FROM NEAR EAST AND WERE NEARLY ABSENT OF BOTH LIGHT PIGMENTS. SO MY OPINION IS WHG PICKED UP HIS BLUE EYE GENE FROM THE PURE EUROPEANS ALREADY PRESENT BECAUSE THE WHG BEFORE HE MIGRATED TO WEST EUROPE WAS NEAR EASTERN HAVING BROWN EYES EXCEPT FOR THE ANATOLIAN WHO WAS THE ONLY FARMER THERE WHO HAD BLUE EYES.

THUS BLUE EYE CAME FROM THE FIRST EUROPEANS OF NEANDERTHAL, OR CAME WITH THE FIRST PEOPLES WHO MIGRATED TO EUROPE AT LEAST 42,000 YEARS AGO...

Genomics of Mesolithic Scandinavia reveal migration routes and high-latitude adaptation

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/suppl/2017/07/30/164400.DC2/164400-1.pdf

S8.1 Pigmentation

Predicting human eye, hair, and skin pigmentation scales and color has recently been reported byanalyzing genetic variation at several genes and SNPs...Eye, hair, and skin color/pigmentation was assessed by screening two sets of pigmentation-associated markers recently validated in present-day human populations. Theprobability for certain eye and hair color for each ancient individual was computed using theenhanced version 1.0 Hirisplex Microsoft Excel macro, a SNP system originally designedfor forensic purposes. We attempted to predict skin pigmentation using the 8plex systemdescribed by Hart et al, but as previously reported, the results were inconclusivefor ancient samples using this panel. Similar to previous investigations of ancient humans, we provide skin-color predictions based on the genetic variants at thers16891982 (in the SLC45A2 gene) and rs1426654 (SLC24A5) SNPs. The derived allele atrs1426654 (SLC24A5) has the greatest effect on skin pigmentation among Europeans.

Moreover, this variant is part of a light skin haplotype termed “C11”, which is defined by a set of16 SNPs across 78kb within the SLC24A5 gene. In addition to rs1426654, we investigated thenon-synonymous SNP rs16891982 in the SLC45A2 gene, which is a second major-effectpigmentation locus in Europeans. The derived alleles at both rs1426654 and rs16891982positions are found at extremely high frequencies in present-day European populations (wherethe former allele is virtually fixed and the latter is ~90%), an observation that has beeninterpreted as the signature of recent positive selection in Europeans.

In studies of eye pigmentation, the derived allele at SNP rs12913832 (within the HERC2 gene)has been associated with iris depigmentation. Individuals carrying the homozygous derived variant exhibit a blue eye-color, whereas carriers of the heterozygote genotype or the homozygote ancestral allele display an intermediate or a brown eye-color phenotype. Across present-day Europeans populations from the 1000 genomes project, the blue eye colorassociated variant is found at an average frequency of 60%, and it reaches its highest frequencyin the Finnish population (90%) and the British population (81%). The SNP rs12913832 ispart of the h-1 haplotype, which is carried by 97% of blue-eyed individuals in a present-daystudy population from Turkey, Jordan, and Denmark.

Western hunter-gatherers (WHGs)

The Mesolithic La Braña, Loschbour WHGs, the Upper Palaeolithic Villabruna individual, andthe Neolithic KO1 individual, which has a genetic makeup of a WHGs, had dark skin and blue eyes based on their allelic states at the rs1426654, rs16891982 and rs12913832 SNPs; an observation supported by their high probabilities of blue eye color inferredby Hirisplex in this study.

The Upper Paleolithic Bichon from central Europe had likelydark-skin and brown eyes (Supplementary Table 1). The dark skin and blue eyes phenotypecombination was likely very common among WHGs and it has been inferred for four out of fiveMesolithic and Upper Paleolithic individuals in western and central Europe. Moreover, the allelic states at the h-1 defining positions suggest that La Braña, Loschbour and Villabruna carried this haplotype. The haplotype determination was inconclusive for the remaining individuals due toalternative alleles and missing data at informative positions. All individuals from this group werepredicted to have a dark hair color, where Loschbour, Villabruna and Bichon probably had blackhair, whereas La Braña and KO1 present similar probabilities of having brown or black hair(Supplementary Table 1)...

Eastern hunter-gatherers (EHGs)

The Karelian and Samaran Russian Mesolithic hunter gatherers are currently the bestrepresentatives of a group of EHGs that migrated and admixed with WHGs to form SHGs....The Karelian individual presents high probabilities of beingbrown-eyed (0.99), and having a dark hair (0.96). Without speculating about the geneticarchitecture of skin pigmentation, we suggest an intermediate skin-pigmentation phenotype forthe Karelia individual, as it carried the ancestral allele at rs16891982 and the derived allele atrs1426654 (Supplementary Table 1). The presence of the rs1426654 light-skin allele, in additionto five additional C11-associated alleles at haplotype defining SNPs (Supplementary Table 1)suggests that the Karelian individual carried the C11 light-skin haplotype. The Samaran individual exhibits high probabilities of being blue-eyed (0.88), light hair shade (0.99); mostlikely being blond (0.75). The two skin pigmentation SNPs suggest that the Samaran individualwas light-skinned.

In summary, the EHGs had high frequencies of the light-skin variants and intermediate frequencies of the blue-eye variants.

Scandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHGs)

Out of the four individuals with a Hirisplex prediction, both light and darkpigmentation phenotypes were observed. SBj and SF12 exhibited high probabilities of beingblue-eyed (0.91 and 0.88, respectively), while SF9 and Hum2 were predicted to have been browneyed... The common feature of the skin-pigmentation SNPs among these Scandinavian hunter-gathererswas a mix of light and dark skin alleles... Interestingly, the eye and light skin pigmentation phenotypes observed in all SHGs couldpotentially be explained by admixture between WHG and EHG groups. The high relative-frequency of the blue-eye color allele in SHGs, resembles WHG, while the intermediate frequencies of the skin color determining SNPs in SHGs seem more likely to have come from EHG, since both light-pigmented alleles are virtually absent from WHG. However, for all threewell-characterized skin and eye-color associated SNPs, the SHGs display a frequency that isgreater for the light-skin variants and the blue-eye variant than can be expected from a mixture ofWHGs and EHGs. This observation indicates that the frequencies may have increased due tocontinued adaptation to a low light conditions.

Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHGs)

Both Kotias and Satsurblia CHGs were predicted by Hirisplexto have brown eyes (>0.96)and a dark hair shade (>0.92). Looking at skin-pigmentation sites, both individuals carried thedark-skin allele at rs16891982 and the light-pigmentation allele at rs1426654...

Palaeolithic European hunter-gatherers (PEHG)

The Hirisplex eye and hair color prediction for the Paleoltihic European hunter gatherersElMiron, GoyetQ116-1, Vestonice16, Kostenki14 (dated from 18,000 to 36,000 ya), displayedhigh probabilities of being brown-eye color (> 0.99), and high probabilities of exhibiting a darkhair pigmentation (0.60-0.99). All four individuals presented only dark-skin alleles atrs16891982. The GoyetQ116-1 and Vestonice16 individuals missed information at thers1426654, while El Miron carried only dark-skin alleles at that position, and Kostenki14 hadfour dark-skin alleles and one light-pigmentation allele

Early European farmers (EEF)

The Hirisplex eye and hair color prediction of 37 Early Neolithic farmers sequenced acrossEurope and Anatolia revealed that four individuals presented high probabilitiesof being blue-eyed (p=0.55-0.91), 23 were predicted to be brown-eyed (p=0.76-0.99), and 10individuals did not have enough data to make a prediction. In total 23 individuals exhibit a highprobability for dark hair pigmentation (p=0.57-0.99), five had most likely a light hair shade; theremaining nine farmers lacked data for meaningful hair pigmentation prediction (SupplementaryTable 1). The Anatolian Barcin I1583 individual exhibited blue-eye color variants at thecore h-1 SNP rs12913832 and its linked rs1129038 variant. Interestingly, it also presented h-1-haplotype-defining alleles at rs7170852, rs2240203, rs916977, suggesting that this individualmight have harbored the blue-eye color founder haplotype as well. No other early farmerpresented direct evidence for the h-1 haplotype’s presence. While both pigmentation alleles were observed at rs16891982 (although the derived allele inmuch higher proportion, see below), virtually only the light-skin allele was observed at rs1426654. Unequivocal evidence for the presence of the C11-haplotype was observed for thecentral European Stuttgart sample, while (although at low coverage) only haplotype-associatedalleles were observed in the Anatolian Klei10 early farmer individual.

Summary

After investigating the presence of light-pigmentation alleles and haplotypes in different hunter-gatherers and early farmers across Europe and Anatolia, it seems as if eye and light skin pigmentation alleles entered Europe several times during different migration events. Inparticular, the light skin pigmentation variant arrived to Scandinavia already in the Mesolithicwith migrants from the northeast, whereas the blue-eye variants probably arrived in Scandinaviawith migrants from the south. Light eye pigmentation variants were present at high frequencies in WHG, SHG, EHG and EEF(not present in PEHG), while the blue-eye color founder haplotype h-1 was found in the LaBrana, Loschbour, Villabruna WHGs, SF12, Motala1 and Motala12 SHGs and at least one earlyfarmer. Such results suggest that the blue eye-color allele is rather old. Using an ABC modeling approach Nakagome et al, predicted that the light-pigmentation allele at rs12913832emerged around 42,000 years ago or earlier; a date close in time to the initial peopling of Europe. A plausible scenario of the origin of the blue-eye mutation that reconciles our results with findings from other studies is one where this variant appeared in an ancestral population before the ancestors of the WHG migrated from Near East into West and Central Europe. The large effect light-skin alleles at rs16891982 and rs1426654 were present in SHG, EHG,CHG and EEF but absent in WHG and PEHG. Similarly, the C11 haplotype is present in hunter-gatherers (SHG, EHG and CHG but not WHG and PEHG) throughout Europe, as well as in atleast two early farmers. This pattern is consistent with reports that the rs1426654 derived allele arose ~22,000-28,000 years ago, and that the light-pigmentation allele at rs16891982arose only once in Eurasians. A possible geographical origin for these two major light-skin alleles is West Asia or the Near East. Later migrations across the Caucasus (CHG) andEastern Europe would have brought it to Scandinavia, while EEF migrations introduced bothalleles into central Europe. Moreover, suggested that selective sweeps on rs1426654 and rs16891982 (light-pigmentation alleles), started at between ~15-19 kya (under a dominant model) and ~11-13 kya(under an additive model), respectively. In a comparison of SNP capture data of hunter-gatherersof mixed geographic origin, early farmers and modern-day Europeans, Mathieson et al suggested that while light-pigmented alleles frequencies in extant Europeans at rs1426654 couldbe explained by demography, variation at the rs16891982 locus produced the second highestgenome-wide selection signal observed in their study. These results, of a high frequency of rs1426654 light-skin allele in Mesolithic Scandinavia and Eastern Europe, at a time when it isnot seen in central Europe, supports a scenario of environmental adaptation to northern latitudes. To summarize the results of the skin and eye color section, we display the allele frequencies oflight-pigmentation alleles of the three SNPs rs12913832, rs16891982 and rs1426654 for eachgroup in Figure 3. Allele frequencies are estimated as the proportion of chromosomes carryingthe light pigmentation allele. A distinction was made between low coverage (haploid calls) sites(SNPs covered by less than five reads in a particular individual), versus higher coverage (diploidcalls) sites (SNPs covered by five or more reads in a particular individual). The maximum countof light-pigmentation alleles at haploid sites was 1, and 2 at diploid sites. Positions where bothalleles were observed contributed either 0.5 (haploid call) or 1 (diploid call) to light-color allelefrequencies in order to be consistent with only calling 2 alleles if we have 5 or more readscovering a site. Data from all individuals was used to calculate standard errors for each estimate....

S8.8 Blood type

Alleles A and B arecodominant, while 0 is recessive.... The Rh(Rhesus) system is encoded by the RHD gene encoding for the D polypeptide. Rh+ denotespresence of the D antigen, while Rh- indicates absence of D... blood group variation in the investigated ancient individuals. There are numerous different SNPsin the AB0 gene encoding amino acid changes defining various AB0 alleles. ...

S10.2 Testing selection on known pigmentation SNPs

These results suggest that high latitude conditions exhibited a selection pressure on pigmentationphenotypes in SHGs. The polygenic architecture of skin pigmentation as well as the occurrenceof different combinations of depigmentation mutations in different parts of the world suggeststhat selection on skin pigmentation is mainly due to physiological advantages of lightpigmentation in high latitudes. Hair and eye-color pigmentation on the other hand couldhave been affected by drift and sexual selection as less mutations need to be involved....

S9 Genetic reconstruction of SF12’s face

Figure S9.1 Facial reconstruction of SF12 based on diploid genotype calls....

Neanderthal DNA in Modern Human Genomes Is Not Silent

https://www.the-scientist.com/features/neanderthal-dna-in-modern-human-genomes-is-not-silent-66299

Neanderthal in our skin:

Among the many links Kelso and Dannemann identified as they dug into data from more than 112,000 individuals in the UKB was, once again, an association between certain Neander-thal variants and aspects of skin biology. Specifically, the archaic sequences spanning the BNC2 gene—a stretch of the genome that Vernot and Akey had identified as having Neanderthal origin in some 70 percent of non-Africans—were very clearly associated with skin color. People who carried Neanderthal DNA there tended to have pale skin that burned instead of tanned, Kelso says. And the stretch that included BNC2 was just one of many, she adds: around 50 percent of Neanderthal variants linked with phenotype in her study have something to do with skin or hair color. ...

Neanderthal-derived immunity:

Another area of human biology tightly linked to Neanderthal variants in the genome is the immune system. Given that human ancestors were exposed to a menagerie of different pathogens—some of which came directly from the Neanderthals—as they migrated through Eurasia, the Neanderthal sequences introgressed into the human genome may have helped defend against these threats, to which Neanderthals had long been exposed. “Viral challenges, bacterial challenges are among the strongest selective forces out there,” says Kelso. Unlike changes in other environmental conditions such as daylight patterns and UV exposure, “pathogens can kill you in one generation.”...one-third of Neanderthal variants under positive selection were linked to genes encoding proteins that interact with viruses....

Blue-eyed humans have a single, common ancestor

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080130170343.htm

About 6000 to 10,000 years ago something happened which caused this one man or woman, or most likely both man and woman, to have Blue Eyes, and every one of this persons offspring carries the Blue Eye gene.

All Blue Eyed people are descendants from this one person, or from this one set of parents.

Blue eyes are a recessive trait, and the gene must be inherited from both parents. One, or both parents may not have blue eyes but they must carry the blue eye gene for blue eyes to appear in their child.

One can conclude since it requires the gene from both parents the original man and woman were both created at the same time with the same gene.

Eye color

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_color

Eye color is an inherited trait influenced by more than one gene. The genetics of eye color are complicated, and color is determined by multiple genes. So far, as many as 15 genes have been associated with eye color inheritance.

DNA studies on ancient human remains suggest that light skin, hair and eyes were present at least tens of thousands of years ago on Neanderthals, who lived in Eurasia for 500,000 years.

Blue Eye Wolves & Dogs + Wolf Evolution?

https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/genetics/Wolf%20%26%20Dog%20%20%2B%20Blue%20Eyes.rtf

Human Hair Color

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_hair_color

The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color. One phenotype (brown/blonde) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the non-red allele (which suppresses production of pheomelanin) is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair.

Natural blond hair is rare in adulthood, with some reports stating that only about 2% of the world's population is naturally blond. Natural blonds represent only about 16 percent of the population. Blond hair is most commonly found in Northern and Western Europeans and their descendants but can be found spread around most of Europe.

Auburn hair ranges along a spectrum of light to dark red-brown shades. It is most commonly found in individuals of Northern and Western European descent.

Chestnut hair is a hair color which is a reddish shade of brown hair. In contrast to auburn hair, the reddish shade of chestnut is darker. Chestnut hair is common among the native peoples of Northern, Central, Western, and Eastern Europe.

Red hair ranges from light strawberry blond shades to titian, copper and less commonly "true" red. At 1-2% of the population, it is the least common hair color in the world. It is most prominently found in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and England. Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads; 13 percent of the population has red hair and approximately 40 percent carries the recessive redhead gene.

The genetic causes, ethnic origins and history of red hair

http://www.eupedia.com/genetics/origins_of_red_hair.shtml

All Red Hair people share a common ancestry that can be traced back to a single Y-chromosomal haplogroup: R1b.... Red hair is a recessive genetic trait ...As a recessive trait it must be inherited from both parents to cause the hair to become red. Consequently there are far more people carrying the mutation for red hair than people actually having red hair... Red hair has long been associated with Celtic people....The Romans extended the description to Germanic people ...red hair is an almost exclusively northern and central European phenomenon... the frequency of red hair is highest in Ireland (10 to 30%) and Scotland (10 to 25%), followed by Wales (10 to 15%), ...It is now almost certain that native Irish and Scottish Celts were taken (probably as slaves) to southwest Norway by the Vikings, and that they increased the frequency of red hair there. ... If the mutation for red hair was inherited from Neanderthal, it would have been from a Central Asian Neanderthal, perhaps from modern Uzbekistan, or an East Anatolian/Mesopotamian one. The mutation probably passed on to some other (extinct ?) lineages for a few millennia, before being inherited by the R1b tribe. Otherwise, it could also have arisen independently among R1b people as late as the Neolithic period (but no later). ...

VAL92MET ALLELE IS NEANDERTHAL ORIGIN THAT CAN CAUSE RED HAIR...

Health status by gender, hair color, and eye color: Red-haired women are the most divergent

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5746253/

Red-haired women did worse than other women in ten health categories and better in only three, being particularly prone to colorectal, cervical, uterine, and ovarian cancer. Red-haired men showed a balanced pattern, doing better than other men in three health categories and worse in three. Number of children was the only category where both male and female redheads did better than other respondents. We also confirmed earlier findings that red hair is naturally more frequent in women than in men.... genetic incompatibilities associated with the allele Val92Met, which seems to be of Neanderthal origin and is one of the alleles that can cause red hair.... women are more likely than men to have red hair even when the genotype is the same ... eye color was more diverse in women than in men, with green eyes being more frequent in women and blue and brown eyes more frequent in men....

FRECKLES IS RELATED TO THE MC1R GENE WHICH IS THE SAME GENE THAT PRODUCES RED HAIR....

Freckles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freckle

Freckles are clusters of concentrated melaninized cells which are most easily visible on people with a fair complexion. Freckles do not have an increased number of the melanin-producing cells, or melanocytes, but instead have melanocytes that overproduce melanin granules (melanosomes) changing the coloration of the outer skin cells (keratinocytes).... Of the six Fitzpatrick skin types, they are most common on skin tone 1 and 2, which usually belong to North Europeans. However, it can be found in all ethnicities.

Biology: The formation of freckles is caused by exposure to sunlight. The exposure to UV-B radiation activates melanocytes to increase melanin production, which can cause freckles to become darker and more visible.... people with freckles generally have a lower concentration of photo-protective melanin, and are therefore more susceptible to the harmful effects of UV radiation...

Genetics: The presence of freckles is related to rare alleles of the MC1R gene, though it does not differentiate whether an individual will have freckles if they have one or even two copies of this gene. Also, individuals with no copies of the MC1R do sometimes display freckles. Even so, individuals with a high number of freckling sites have one or more of variants of the MC1R gene. Of the variants of the MC1R gene Arg151Cys, Arg160Trp, and Asp294His are the most common in the freckled subjects. The MC1R gene is also associated with red hair more strongly than with freckles. Most red-haired individuals have two variants of the MC1R gene and almost all have one. The variants that cause red hair are the same that cause freckling. Freckling can also be found in areas, such as Japan, where red hair is not seen. These individuals have the variant Val92Met which is also found in Caucasians, although it has minimal effects on their pigmentation. The R162Q allele has a disputed involvement in freckling.

The variants of the MC1R gene that are linked with freckles started to emerge in the human genotype when humans started to leave Africa. The variant Val92Met arose somewhere between 250,000 and 100,000 years ago, long enough for this gene to be carried by humans into central Asia. Arg160Trp is estimated to have arisen around 80,000 years ago while Arg151Cys and Asp294His have been estimated to arise around 30,000 years ago. The wide variation of the MC1R gene exists in people of European descent because of the lack of strong environmental pressures on the gene. The original allele of MC1R is coded for dark skin with a high melanin content in the cells. The high melanin content is protective in areas of high UV light exposure. The need was less as humans moved into higher latitudes where incoming sunlight has lower UV light content. The adaptation of lighter skin is needed so that individuals in higher latitudes can still absorb enough UV for the production of vitamin D. Freckled individuals tend to tan less and have very light skin, which would have helped the individuals that expressed these genes absorb vitamin D.

Blond

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blond

Based on recent genetic research carried out at three Japanese universities, the date of the genetic mutation that resulted in blond hair in Europe has been isolated to about 11,000 years ago during the last ice age. ...

Recent archaeological and genetic study published in 2014 found that, seven "Scandinavian hunter-gatherers" found in 7700-year-old Motala archaeological site in southern Sweden had both light skin gene variants, SLC24A5 and SLC45A2, they also had a third gene, HERC2/OCA2, which causes blue eyes and also contribute to lighter skin and blond hair. Genetic research published in 2014 and 2015 also indicates that, Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans who migrated to Europe in Bronze Age were overwhelmingly dark-eyed (brown), dark-haired and had a skin colour that was moderately light, though somewhat darker than that of the average modern European. Light pigmentation traits had already existed in pre-Indo-European Europeans (both farmers and hunter-gatherers) and long-standing philological attempts to correlate them with the arrival of Indo-Europeans from the steppes were misguided....

According to genetic studies, Yamnaya Proto-Indo-European migration to Europe led to Corded Ware culture, where Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans mixed with "Scandinavian hunter-gatherer" women who carried genetic alleles HERC2/OCA2, which causes combination of blue eyes and blond hair. Proto-Indo-Iranians who split from Corded ware culture, formed Andronovo culture and are believed to have spread genetic alleles HERC2/OCA2 that causes blonde hair to parts of West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia....

Geographic distribution

Europe:

Blond hair is most common in Scandinavia and Baltic Sea countries, where true blondism is believed to have originated. The pigmentation of both hair and eyes is lightest around the Baltic Sea,...

Folklore, mythology, and cultural attitudes

Southern Europe

The Greek gods are cited as varying in their appearances ....The Spartans are described as fair-haired ...

Roman literary records describe a large number of well-known Roman historical personalities as blond. In addition, 250 individuals are recorded to have had the name Flavius, meaning blond, and there are various people named Rufus and Rutilius, meaning red haired and reddish-haired, respectively. The following Roman gods are said to have had blond hair: Amor, Apollo, Aurora, Bacchus, Ceres, Diana, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Minerva and Venus.[65] An emperor, Nero, descended from an aristocratic family, is by the historian Suetonius described as: "... his hair light blond,... his eyes blue..." Augustus, founder of the Roman Empire, is by Suetonius described as having hair that was "... slightly curly and inclining to golden"....

According to Victoria Sherrow, those Romans who were fair-haired preferred to dye their hair dark in the early period of Ancient Rome; at one point in time blond hair was even associated with prostitutes. The preference changed to bleaching the hair blond when Greek culture, which practiced bleaching, reached Rome, and was reinforced when the legions that conquered Gaul returned with blond slaves. ...Juvenal wrote in a satirical poem that Messalina, Roman empress of noble birth, would hide her black hair with a blonde wig for her nightly visits to the brothel: ... Aeneid of Virgil, Maurus Servius Honoratus noted that the respectable matron was only black haired, never blonde....

From an ethnic point of view, Roman authors associated blond and red hair with the Gauls and the Germans:...

Northern Europe

In Norse mythology, the goddess Sif has famously blonde hair,... In the Poetic Edda poem Rígsþula, the blond man Jarl is considered to be the ancestor of the dominant warrior class. In Northern European folklore, supernatural beings value blonde hair in humans.

Mystery behind Biological Origin of Blonde Hair Solved

http://www.universityherald.com/articles/9703/20140602/blonde-hair-stanford-genetic-code-dna-brunette-gene.htm

Stanford University researchers have solved the mystery behind the biological origin of blonde hair.

Researchers said that a single-letter switch in the genetic code is sufficient to generate blond hair in humans. The change from an "A" to a "G" in the four-letter DNA code is the factor that makes a person either blonde or brunette. In blondes, the switch reduces the activity of a gene called Kit ligand, which is associated with hair colour, by 20 percent as compared to brunettes.

Researchers also said that blonde hair is not related to any other characteristic or trait including eye color, skin color or intelligence - debunking the long-standing theory of blondes having lower aptitude. ...

"The genetic mechanism that controls blond hair doesn't alter the biology of any other part of the body. It's a good example of a trait that's skin deep-and only skin deep."

The Kit ligand gene not only plays a vital role in the development of pigment-producing cells, but also influences the behaviour of blood stem cells, sperm or egg precursors, and gut neurons....

Blond Hair Gene Identified

http://www.livescience.com/46036-blond-hair-gene-identified.html

The single mutation was found in a long gene sequence called KIT ligand (KITLG) and is present in about one-third of Northern Europeans. People with these genes could have platinum blond, dirty blond or even dark brown hair. ..."There's a half dozen different chromosome regions that influence hair color," ... . "This is one, but not the only one. The combination of variants that you have at all those different genes — that sets your final hair color." ...In population studies, blonds in Iceland were much more likely than brunettes to have the genetic variant. ...

When inserted into mice, the human blond hair mutation also gave mice lighter coat colors than the brunette version of the gene. It turned out that this tiny tweak of just one letter in the genetic code didn't change the structure or function of the protein. Instead, it acted like a tiny thermostat, subtly ramping up or down the production of pigment in the hair follicle and nowhere else,...

Who Do You Look Like?

http://www.ancestraljourneys.org/looks.shtml

Distribution maps of Y-chromosomal haplogroups in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/maps_Y-DNA_haplogroups.shtml

The maps on this page represents the distribution of Human Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups. A Y-DNA haplogroup is a group of men sharing the same series of mutations on their Y chromosome, which they inherited from a long line of common paternal ancestors. A few new mutations, known as SNP's, happen every generation. This allows to retrace the genealogical tree of humanity with great accuracy and see patterns in the distribution of shared historical lineages. Most major haplogroups are many thousands of years old, typically going back to the Bronze Age, Neolithic, Mesolithic or even Paleolithic. The deeper the subclade the more recent the shared ancestor. Classifying SNP's into a genealogical order is known as phylogenentics. You can see an example here. The following maps were compiled with all the latest available Y-DNA data for each country. The maps are frequently updated when new data becomes available.

Major Haplogroups of Native Europe:

I1 majority Scandinavian

R1a majority East Europe and Russian

R1b majority North West Europe

DNA Evidence Debunks the "Out-of-Africa" Theory of Human Evolution

http://wakeup-world.com/2013/12/16/dna-evidence-debunks-the-out-of-africa-theory-of-human-evolution

"The whole ‘Out of Africa’ myth has its roots in the mainstream academic campaign in the 1990’s to remove the concept of Race."

The human skull that challenges the Out of Africa theory

http://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/human-skull-challenges-out-africa-theory-001283

The ‘Petralona man’, or Archanthropus of Petralona, as it has since been called, was found to be 700,000 years old, making it the oldest human europeoid (presenting European traits) of that age ever discovered in Europe. Dr Poulianos’ research showed that the Petralona man evolved separately in Europe and was not an ancestor of a species that came out of Africa....

Re-Examining the “Out of Africa” Theory and the Origin of Europeoids (Caucasoids) in Light of DNA Genealogy

http://file.scirp.org/Html/19566.html

ABSTRACT

Seven thousand five hundred fifty-six (7556) haplotypes of 46 subclades in 17 major haplogroups were considered in terms of their base (ancestral) haplotypes and timespans to their common ancestors, for the purposes of designing of time-balanced haplogroup tree. It was found that African haplogroup A (originated 132,000 ± 12,000 years before present) is very remote time-wise from all other haplogroups, which have a separate common ancestor, named β-haplogroup, and originated 64,000 ± 6000 ybp. It includes a family of Europeoid (Caucasoid) haplogroups from F through T that originated 58,000 ± 5000 ybp. A downstream common ancestor for haplogroup A and β-haplogroup, coined the α-haplogroup emerged 160,000 ± 12,000 ybp. A territorial origin of haplogroups α- and β-remains unknown; however, the most likely origin for each of them is a vast triangle stretched from Central Europe in the west through the Russian Plain to the east and to Levant to the south. Haplogroup B is descended from β-haplogroup (and not from haplogroup A, from which it is very distant, and separated by as much as 123,000 years of “lat- eral” mutational evolution) likely migrated to Africa after 46,000 ybp. The finding that the Europeoid haplogroups did not descend from “African” haplogroups A or B is supported by the fact that bearers of the Europeoid haplogroups, as well as all non-African haplogroups do not carry either SNPs M91, P97, M31, P82, M23, M114, P262, M32, M59, P289, P291, P102, M13, M171, M118 (haplogroup A and its subclades SNPs) or M60, M181, P90 (haplogroup B), as it was shown recently in “Walk through Y” FTDNA Project (the reference is incorporated therein) on several hundred people from various haplogroups.

Native Americans and Northern Europeans more closely related than previously thought

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121130151606.htm

Using genetic analyses, scientists have discovered that Northern European populations -- including British, Scandinavians, French, and some Eastern Europeans -- descend from a mixture of two very different ancestral populations, and one of these populations is related to Native Americans. This discovery helps fill gaps in scientific understanding of both Native American and Northern European ancestry, while providing an explanation for some genetic similarities among what would otherwise seem to be very divergent groups.

"There is a genetic link between the paleolithic population of Europe and modern Native Americans. The evidence is that the population that crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia into the Americas more than 15,000 years ago was likely related to the ancient population of Europe."

...one of these ancestral populations was the first farming population of Europe,...The other ancestral population is likely to have been the initial hunter-gathering population of Europe. ...Today the hunter-gathering ancestral population of Europe appears to have its closest affinity to people in far Northeastern Siberia and Native Americans.

New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/11/041118104010.htm

Radiocarbon tests of carbonized plant remains where artifacts were unearthed last May along the Savannah River in Allendale County by University of South Carolina archaeologist Dr. Albert Goodyear indicate that the sediments containing these artifacts are at least 50,000 years old, meaning that humans inhabited North American long before the last ice age....

The fact that humans could have been in North America at or near the same time is expected to spark debate among archaeologists worldwide, raising new questions on the origin and migration of the human species....

"However, other early sites in Brazil and Chile, as well as a site in Oklahoma also suggest that humans were in the Western Hemisphere as early as 30,000 years ago to perhaps 60,000."...

(COMMENT: This is comical in that those who claim they are descendants from a single monkey in Africa migrated out of africa travelled all over the eastern hemisphere, and the time they got to the western hemisphere there were already people living in it. ???

The same holds true for Europe. Those monkeys coming out of africa met different peoples already living in Europe whose DNA was different, and whom scientific dating shows were there thousands of years before the monkeys arrived.)

Native Americans Descended From A Single Ancestral Group, DNA Study Confirms

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/04/090428223836.htm

“Our work provides strong evidence that, in general, Native Americans are more closely related to each other than to any other existing Asian populations, except those that live at the very edge of the Bering Strait,”...all modern Native Americans, Greenlanders and western Beringians descend from a common founding population. Furthermore, the fact that the allele was absent in other Asian populations most likely meant that America’s ancestral founders had been isolated from the rest of Asia for thousands of years before they moved into the New World:...

“There are a number of really strong papers based on mitochondrial DNA — which is passed from mother to daughter — and Y-chromosome DNA — which is passed from father to son — that have also supported a single ancestral population,” Schroeder said. “But this is the first definitive evidence we have that comes from DNA that is carried by both sexes.”...

If all humans came out of Africa then all humans would be linked genetically. But, DNA studies into mankind reveal the differences. In this study DNA proves Neanderthal was not the same as modern man, nor of cro-magnon man. If we were all the same as some claim then our DNA would be the same....

Cro-Magnon 28,000 Years Old Had DNA Like Modern Humans

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080715204741.htm

They conclude that the Neandertal people, who lived in Europe for nearly 300,000 years, are not the ancestors of modern Europeans. ...The Cro-Magnoid people long coexisted in Europe with other humans, the Neandertals, whose anatomy and DNA were clearly different from ours. ...The results demonstrate for the first time that the anatomical differences between Neandertals and Cro-Magnoids were associated with clear genetic differences.

Cro-Magnon

The first early modern humans (early Homo sapiens sapiens) that lived in the European Upper Paleolithic....

The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans are radiocarbon dated to 43-45,000 years before present that have been discovered in Italy and Britain, with the remains found of those that reached the European Russian Arctic 40,000 years ago....

Being the oldest known modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) in Europe, the Cro-Magnons were from the outset linked to the well-known Lascaux cave paintings and the Aurignacian culture, the remains of which were well known from southern France and Germany. As additional remains of early modern humans were discovered in archaeological sites from Western Europe and elsewhere...

Early human migrations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_human_migrations

Genetic history of the British and the Irish

http://www.eupedia.com/genetics/britain_ireland_dna.shtml

This page attempts to retrace the origins of the British and Irish people through the analyses of their genetic markers using Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) haplogroups, which are passed on nearly unaltered from father to son, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited only from one's mother, and complete genomic studies looking at all the chromosomes.

During the Paleolithic period, the British Isles were covered by a thick sheet of ice, which made them all but uninhabitable. Europe had been originally inhabited by Neanderthals, a close relative of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens). Neanderthals had been living in Ice Age Europe for over 250,000 years when Homo sapiens started to advanced into Europe from the Middle East from 45,000 years ago, reaching western Europe approximately 35,000 years ago. The last pure Neanderthals may have survived until 24,000 years ago around Gibraltar....

The Indo-European speakers from central Europe, and caused them to invade western Europe and destroy the Megalithic cultures that had lasted for several millennia. Equipped with bronze weapons and horses, these Indo-Europeans were not cereal farmers but cattle herders from the Pontic Steppe, north of the Black Sea. ...reaching Britain and western France by 2,200 BCE and Ireland by 2,000 BCE....

It is likely that these Proto-Celts who invaded the British Isles belonged to a great majority to the L21 subclade of R1b, as this haplogroup now makes up over two thirds of paternal lineages in Wales, Ireland and Highland Scotland....A latter Celtic migration took place around 500 BCE, when Central European Celts from the Hallstatt culture expanded over a large swathe of western Europe...the Celts colonised most of France, Belgium and the south-east of England. ...

In 43 CE, under the reign of Emperor Claudius, the Romans invaded Great Britain. Within two decades most of England and Wales had been conquered and would remain a province of the Roman Empire for over three centuries. For most of the second century Lowland Scotland was also Romanised....

It is very difficult to assess the genetic impact of Romanisation on the British population as the Roman citizens, soldiers and slaves who settled in Britannia were not merely people from the Latium or Italy, but could have come from anywhere in the empire....

Overall, the majority of immigrants to Roman Britain came from the Mediterranean region, with higher percentages from Italy and the Balkans ...

The analysis of the Hinxton genomes revealed that pre-Roman Celtic Britons did not have any West Asian or Southwest Asian genetic admixture in them. ...This suggests that the West Asian or Southwest Asian admixtures entered the British gene pool during the Roman and/or Norman period, since neither the Anglo-Saxons nor the Vikings could have contributed to such levels. ...The Italians have considerably higher levels of West Asian or Southwest Asian admixtures....

Using Central Italians as a proxy, and hoping that the Hinxton samples are representative of pre-Roman Britons, it is possible that approximately one third of the autosomal genes in the British population comes from Mediterranean people who settled in Britain during the Roman period....

this results in a maximum roughly 15% of male lineages of "Roman" origin for England, 10% for Wales, and 7% for Scotland. However, it would be reasonable to assume that at least half of these come from Alpine Celts and Normans. ...

from 410 to the middle of the 6th century, the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons, Germanic tribes from Denmark and north-west Germany, left their homeland and migrated to what would become England....from around 800, Danish Vikings started raiding the coastlines of the British Isles. ...Germanic people brought a whole new set of paternal lineages with them.... Those haplogroups now make up over half of all male lineages in England and Lowland Scotland. ...Nowadays, most English counties have between 55% and 65% of Germanic Y-DNA haplogroups, while Cornwall has 45% and Wales has much as 25%. ...

If we exclude Germanic lineages, Ireland is almost purely Insular Celtic...

Normans: a Viking contingent made up of Danes and Norwegians, Norse–Gaels and Anglo-Danes became Duchy of Normandy in France... Normandy conquered England...Norman noblemen left a greater number of offspring than the commoners, and as a result managed to leave a noticeable genetic impact....In Scotland, the Nomans founded several clans,...

Y-DNA by country

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/european_y-dna_haplogroups.shtml

Human Y-chromosome DNA can be divided in genealogical groups sharing a common ancestor.

R1b is derived from a pure population of the M173 Y chromosome found in Iberia/Southern France 40,000 years ago....

Iberian Peninsula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula

About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France. Here, this genetically homogeneous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to Haplogroup R1b, still the most common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males....

IT IS POSSIBLE R1b HAD MORE THAN ONE ICE AGE REFUGIA'S. HE MAY HAVE HAD THE URAL AREA OF WEST EURASIA, AND WEST EUROPE. M173 (R1) IN WEST EUROPE 30KYA TO 40KYA. R1 COULD HAVE ORIGINATED IN EITHER PLACE. R1 THE FIRST PEOPLE OF WEST EUROPE AFTER NEANDERTHAL...

Haplogroup R1 (R-M173)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1

Haplogroup R1, or R-M173, is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. A primary subclade of Haplogroup R (R-M207), it is defined by the SNP M173. The other primary subclade of Haplogroup R... Males carrying R-M173 in modern populations appear to comprise two subclades: R1a and R1b, which are found mainly in populations native to Eurasia (except East and Southeast Asia)...

Ancestor: R (R-M207). Descendants: R1a (M420), R1b (M343).

The origins of haplogroup R1 remain unclear. It and its sibling clade R2 (R-M79) are the only immediate descendants of Haplogroup R (R-M207). R is a direct descendant of Haplogroup P1 (P-M45), and a sibling clade, therefore, of Haplogroup Q (Q-M242).

There were few areas in which Haplogroups P-M45, Q-M242 and R-M207 were all common amongst prehistoric populations. R-M207 and its subclades were most common along an axis from Western Europe to South Asia[citation needed], whereas Q-M242 was the most common Y-DNA lineage among Native Americans. However, both P-M45 and its immediate descendants also appear to have been relatively common in Central Asia and Siberia.

Haplogroup R1 is very common throughout all of Eurasia except East Asia and Southeast Asia. Its distribution is believed to be associated with the re-settlement of Eurasia following the last glacial maximum. Its main subgroups are R1a and R1b. One subclade of haplogroup R1b (especially R1b1a2), is the most common haplogroup in Western Europe and Bashkortostan (Lobov 2009), while a subclade of haplogroup R1a (especially haplogroup R1a1) is the most common haplogroup in large parts of South Asia, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Western China, and South Siberia.

Individuals whose Y-chromosomes possess all the mutations on internal nodes of the Y-DNA tree down to and including M207 (which defines Haplogroup R) but which display neither the M173 mutation that defines haplogroup R1 nor the M479 mutation that defines Haplogroup R2 are categorized as belonging to group R* (R-M207).

IF I UNDERSTAND CORRECTLY:

R* (R-M207) = R - R1 - R2 ; R = M207; R1 = M173; R2 = M479

R* has been found in 10.3% (10/97) of a sample of Burusho and 6.8% (3/44) of a sample of Kalash from northern Pakistan...

The split of R1a (M420) is computed to ca 25,000 years ago (95% CI: 21, 300–29, 000 BP), or roughly the last glacial maximum. ...

R1b (R-M343): Haplogroup R1b probably originated in Eurasia prior to or during the last glaciation. It is the most common haplogroup in Western Europe and Bashkortostan.(Lobov 2009) It may have survived the last glacial maximum, in refugia near the southern Ural Mountains and Aegean Sea.

R-M343 (previously called Hg1 and) is the most frequent Y-chromosome haplogroup in Europe. It is an offshoot of R-M173, characterised by the M343 marker. An overwhelming majority of members of R-M343 are classified as R-P25 (defined by the P25 marker), the remainder as R-M343*. Its frequency is highest in Western Europe (and due to modern European immigration, in parts of the Americas). The majority of R-M343-carriers of European descent belong to the R-M269 (R1b1a2) descendant line....

THIS AUTHOR THINKS R1b IS A GENOCIDAL RAPIST WHO CAME INTO EUROPE IN THE BRONZE AGE. THAT R1b KILLED OFF EVERYONE ELSE AND RAPED THE WOMEN WHICH IS WHY R1b IS MAJORITY IN WEST EUROPE NOW. AUTHOR THINKS THE I MALE HG IS THE AUTOCHNOUS EUROPEAN AND R1b STOLE AND MURDERED HIM.

R1b ORIGINATES IN WEST EUROPE WHICH DESCENDED FROM R1 WHICH ORIGINATES FROM R WHICH ORIGINATED IN NORTH ASIA. R WAS A MAMMOTH HUNTER RANGING FROM SIBERIA TO WEST EUROPE DURING THE PALEOLITHIC.

THIS ARTICLE REALLY BEGINS IT DEEPER DISCUSSION FROM THE NEOLITHIC ONWARD NEGLECTING THE DOMINATE MAJORITY OF R1, AND OR R1b IN THE WEST EUROPEAN REFUGIA DURING THE PALEOLITHIC. THIS ARTICLE IS MISLEADING AS IT CONCENTRATES ITS DISCUSSION OF THE MORE RECENT MIGRATIONS OF R1b BRANCHES FROM THE EAST WHO MET NEOLITHIC AND RECENT PEOPLES.

A NEOLITHIC BRANCH OF R1b SENDS A MAJOR WAVE OF MORE R1b FROM ANATOLIA AND PONTIC STEPPE INTO WEST EUROPE WHICH IS ALREADY PREDOMINATELY R1b. THE FACT R1b RANGE WAS A BROAD AREA FROM PALEOLITHIC TIMES TO THE RECENT, THE R1b PEOPLES OFTEN MIGRATED INTO EACH OTHER. FROM NEOLTHIC R1b MEETING PALEOLITHIC R1b, AND BRONZE AGE R1b MEETING NEOLITHIC R1b, ETC., ETC., .... ALTHOUGH MAJOR WAVES OF R1b MOVED AROUND, SO ALSO DID MINOR WAVES OF R1b AS WELL AS INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES, CLANS, ETC... THEN THE EASTERN R1b BRANCHES MIGRATE WEST IN THE NEOLITHIC, BRONZE AGE, AND RECENT MEETING THE EARLIEST OF WESTERN R1, AND/OR R1b BRANCHES IN WEST EUROPE AND ELSEWHERE. LIKEWISE THERE WAS ALSO A EASTWARD MIGRATION FROM THE WESTERN R1b BRANCHES. THERE MUST HAVE BEEN UNRESTRICTED MOVEMENTS OF R1b FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA SINCE PALEOLITHIC TIMES. THIS EXPLAINS WHY PALEOLITHIC WESTERN R1b DID NOT SPEAK INDO EUROPEAN, AND THE PRESENCE OF R1, AND R1b IN PALEOLITHIC TIMES FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA. ALSO EXPLAINS WHY R1b IS TODAY STILL DOMINATE R1b BECAUSE MORE RECENT R1b BRANCHES MIGRATED INTO THE EXISTING ELDER R1b BRANCHES IN THE WEST MAINTAINING THE R1b LINEAGE. ACCORDING TO SOME, MANY ANCIENT R1 AND/OR R1b WERE WIPED OUT IN WHOLE OR IN PART SOMEHOW BY DISEASE, GENOCIDE, ETC BY THE NEWER INCOMING MIGRANTS OF R1b, AND OTHER HAPLOGROUPS FROM THE EAST CHANGING THE DOMINATE PALEOLITHIC R1, AND R1b LANDSCAPE TO A MORE NEOLITHIC R1b THEN MORE CHANGE DURING THE BRONZE AGE AS MORE EAST R1b BRANCHES ENTER WEST EUROPE FROM THE EASTERN R1b BRANCHES AS WELL AS OTHER FOREIGN HAPLOGROUPS. FROM OTHER ARTICLES THE MORE PALEOLITHIC THE MORE NORTH WEST. THE MORE MORE NEOLITHIC AND RECENT THE MORE TOWARDS THE SOUTH EAST WHERE TODAY THE NEAR EAST IS ENTIRELY NEOLITHIC AND RECENT. SOME THEORIES CLAIM R1b WERE BACK MIGRATIONS FROM WEST EUROPE TO THE EAST, AND THEN BACK TO THE WEST FROM SINCE THE PALEOLITHIC TO RECENT. A CONTINUOUS OPEN TERRITORY OF R1b FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA WHICH WENT SOUTH TO MID EAST, INDIA, AND AFRICA DURING NEOLITHIC TIMES BUT WHICH BEGAN IN PALEOLITHIC WEST EUROPE.

THIS ARTICLE DOES NOT AGREE WITH MANY OTHER RESEARCH ON SEVERAL TOPICS. FOR ONE L21 IS PROVEN IT DID NOT COME FROM THE INSULAR CONTINENT MIGRATING INTO BRITAIN AND IRELAND. L21 WERE AN ATLANTIC SEA PEOPLE WHO FOUNDED BRITAIN AND IRELAND FROM THE SEA FROM IBERIA. THEY THEN MIGRATE INTO CONTINENT EUROPE FROM BRITAIN. OPPOSITE OF WHAT THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES.

I SENSE AUTHORS BIAS AGAINST THE R1, AND/OR R1b PEOPLE AS THE FIRST INDIGENOUS OF WEST EUROPE DURING PALEOLITHIC YET CONTRADICTS ITSELF SAYING R LINEAGE ROAMED PALEOLITHIC EUROPE AND SIBERIA CONTRIBUTING MOSTLY TO MODERN EUROPEANS WITH R1b IN WEST AND R1a I N EAST EUROPE. THIS ARTICLE CLAIMS GENETICS OF R1b IS INDO EUROPEAN YET ARCHAEOLOGY HAS SHOWN R1b PRESENSE IN ITALY AND IBERIA 14KYA, AND 19KYA RESPECTIVELY. AND R1 IN WEST EUROPE 40KYA. THIS AUTHOR IS LEAVING OUT ALOT OF GENETIC DATA IN SUPPORT OF R1 AND R1b AS PALEOLITHIC NATIVES OF EUROPE....

Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)

https://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_R1b_Y-DNA.shtml

R1b is the most common haplogroup in Western Europe, reaching over 80% of the population in Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, western Wales, the Atlantic fringe of France, the Basque country and Catalonia.

Origins & History

Paleolithic mammoth hunters: Haplogroup R* originated in North Asia just before the Last Glacial Maximum (26,500-19,000 years ago). This haplogroup has been identified in the remains of a 24,000 year-old boy from the Altai region, in south-central Siberia (Raghavan et al. 2013). This individual belonged to a tribe of mammoth hunters that may have roamed across Siberia and parts of Europe during the Paleolithic. Autosomally this Paleolithic population appears to have contributed mos tly to the ancestry of modern Europeans and South Asians, the two regions where haplogroup R also happens to be the most common nowadays (R1b in Western Europe, R1a in Eastern Europe, Central and South Asia, and R2 in South Asia). The oldest forms of R1b (M343, P25, L389) are found dispersed at very low frequencies from Western Europe to India, a vast region where could have roamed the nomadic R1b hunter-gatherers during the Ice Age...

The southern branch, R1b1c (V88), is found mostly in the Levant and Africa. The northern branch, R1b1a (P297), seems to have originated around the Caucasus, eastern Anatolia or northern Mesopotamia, then to have crossed over the Caucasus, from where they would have invaded Europe and Central Asia. R1b1b (M335) has only been found in Anatolia.

Neolithic cattle herders

It has been hypothetised that R1b people were the first to domesticate cattle in northern Mesopotamia some 10,500 years ago.... Cattle herders probably maintained a nomadic or semi-nomadic existence, while other people in the Fertile Crescent (presumably represented by haplogroups E1b1b, G and T) settled down to cultivate the land or keep smaller domesticates....The earliest evidence of cattle domestication dates from circa 8,500 BCE in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures in the Taurus Mountains. The two oldest archaeological sites showing signs of cattle domestication are the villages of Çayönü Tepesi in southeastern Turkey and Dja'de el-Mughara in northern Iraq, two sites only 250 km away from each others. This is presumably the area from which R1b lineages started expanding - or in other words the "original homeland" of R1b.

The early R1b cattle herders would have split in at least three groups. One branch (M335) remained in Anatolia, but judging from its extreme rarity today wasn't very successful, perhaps due to the heavy competition with other Neolithic populations in Anatolia, or to the scarcity of pastures in this mountainous environment. A second branch migrated south to the Levant, where it became the V88 branch. Some of them searched for new lands south in Africa, first in Egypt, then colonising most of northern Africa, from the Mediterranean coast to the Sahel. The third branch (P297), crossed the Caucasus into the vast Pontic-Caspian Steppe, which provided ideal grazing grounds for cattle. They split into two factions: R1b1a1 (M73), which went east along the Caspian Sea to Central Asia, and R1b1a2 (M269), which at first remained in the North Caucasus and the Pontic Steppe between the Dnieper and the Volga. It is not yet clear whether M73 actually migrated across the Caucasus and reached Central Asia via Kazakhstan, or if it went south through Iran and Turkmenistan. In any case, M73 would be a pre-Indo-European branch of R1b, just like V88 and M335....

The Levantine & African branch of R1b (V88)

Like its northern counterpart (R1b-M269), R1b-V88 is associated with the domestication of cattle in northern Mesopotamia. Both branches of R1b probably split soon after cattle were domesticated, approximately 10,500 years ago (8,500 BCE). R1b-V88 migrated south towards the Levant and Egypt.... The maternal lineages associated with the spread of R1b-V88 in Africa are mtDNA haplogroups J1b, U5 and V, and perhaps also U3 and some H subclades...

The North Caucasus and the Pontic-Caspian steppe : the Indo-European link

domestication of the horse should be attributed to the indigenous R1a people, or tribes belonging to the older R1b-P297 branch, which settled in eastern Europe during the Late Paleolithic or Mesolithic period. Samples from Mesolithic Samara (Haak 2015) and Latvia (Jones 2017) all belonged to R1b-P297. Autosomally these Mesolithic R1a and R1b individuals were nearly pure Mesolithic East European, sometimes with a bit of Siberian admixture, but lacked the additional Caucasian admixture found in the Chalcolithic Afanasevo, Yamna and Corded Ware samples.

It is not yet entirely clear when R1b-M269 crossed over from the South Caucasus to the Pontic-Caspian steppe. This might have happened with the appearance of the Dnieper-Donets culture (c. 5100-4300 BCE)....Over 30 DNA samples from Neolithic Ukraine (5500-4800 BCE) were tested by Mathieson et al. (2017). They belonged to Y-haplogroups I, I2a2, R1a, R1b1a (L754) and one R1b1a2 (L388). None of them belonged to R1b-M269 or R1b-L23 clades, which dominated during the Yamna period. Mitochondrial lineages were also exclusively of Mesolithic European origin (U4a, U4b, U4d, U5a1, U5a2, U5b2, as well as one J2b1 and one U2e1). None of those maternal lineages include typical Indo-European haplogroups, like H2a1, H6, H8, H15, I1a1, J1b1a, W3, W4 or W5 that would later show up in the Yamna, Corded Ware and Unetice cultures. Indeed, autosomally genomes from Neolithic Ukraine were purely Mesolithic European (about 90% EHG and 10% WHG) and completely lacked the Caucasian (CHG) admxiture later found in Yamna and subsequent Indo-European cultures during the Bronze Age.

The first clearly Proto-Indo-European cultures were the Khvalynsk (5200-4500 BCE) and Sredny Stog (4600-3900 BCE) cultures in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe..... It is at the turn of the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog periods that R1b-M269's main subclade, L23, is thought to have appeared, around 4,500 BCE. 99% of Indo-European R1b descends from this L23 clade. The other branch descended from M269 is PF7562, which is found mostly in the Balkans, Turkey and Armenia today, and may represent an early Steppe migration to the Balkans dating from the Sredny Stog period.

Another migration across the Caucasus happened shortly before 3700 BCE, when the Maykop culture, the world's first Bronze Age society, suddenly materialised in the north-west Caucasus, apparently out of nowhere....Without DNA testing it is impossible to say if these two populations were an Anatolian R1b group and a G2a Caucasian group, or whether R1a people had settled there too....

The Yamna period (3500-2500 BCE) is the most important one in the creation of Indo-European culture and society. Middle Eastern R1b-M269 people had been living and blending to some extent with the local R1a foragers and herders for over a millennium, perhaps even two or three....

Combined with advanced bronze weapons and their sea-based culture, the western branch (R1b) of the Indo-Europeans from the Black Sea shores are excellent candidates for being the mysterious Sea Peoples, who raided the eastern shores of the Mediterranean during the second millennium BCE...

The rise of the IE-speaking Hittites in Central Anatolia happened a few centuries after the disappearance of the Maykop and Yamna cultures. Considering that most Indo-European forms of R1b found in Anatolia today belong to the R1b-Z2103 subclade, it makes little doubt that the Hittites came to Anatolia via the Balkans, after Yamna/Maykop people invaded Southeast Europe. The Maykop and Yamna cultures were succeeded by the Srubna culture (1600-1200 BCE), possibly representing an advance of R1a-Z282 people from the northern steppes towards the Black Sea shores, filling the vacuum left by the R1b tribes who migrated to Southeast Europe and Anatolia....

The European & Middle Eastern branch:

The Indo-Europeans's bronze weapons and the extra mobility provided by horses would have given them a tremendous advantage over the autochthonous inhabitants of Europe, namely the native haplogroup C1a2, F and I (descendants of Cro-Magnon) and the early Neolithic herders and farmers (G2a, H2, E1b1b and T1a). This allowed R1a and R1b to replace most of the native male lineages (=> see How did R1b come to replace most of the older lineages in Western Europe?), although female lineages seem to have been less affected. [THIS THEORY IS IN DISAGREEMENT WITH MANY OTHER RESEARCH. IT IS FIRST OF ALL TOTALLY RIDICULOUS THAT R1b GENOCIDES C, F, AND I TO BECOME THE MAJORITY. IF IT IS TRUE THEN IT WOULD BE A RECLAMATION OF THEIR OWN LANDS. IT WOULD IMPLY R1 AND/OR R1b OF THE PALEOLITHIC HAD THEIR LANDS STOLEN BY THE OTHER NEOLITHIC HAPLOGROUPS THEN THE R1b RECLAIM THEIR LANDS BACK IN THE BRONZE AGE. SECONDLY ARCHAEOLOGY SHOWS R1 AND R1b PRESENCE IN WEST EUROPE IN THE PALEOLTHIC. I HG WASNT IN EUROPE UNTIL THE NEOLITHIC.]

None of the Spanish or Portuguese individuals associated with Bell Beaker pottery possessed any Steppe admixture, and none belonged to the Indo-European haplogroup R1b-L23 or its subclades. Instead they belonged to typical Megalithic lineages like G2a, I2a1, I2a2 and the Neolithic R1b-V88. The paper also confirmed a high frequency of R1b-L51 lineages in central Europe during the Beall Beaker period. In Britain, Megalithic individuals belonged exclusively to Y-haplogroup I2 (mostly I2a2 and I2a1b-L161), but were entirely replaced by R1b-L51 (mosly L21 clade) in the Early Bronze Age. [THEN WHERE DID ALL THE FIRST MODERN HUMAN R1 OF THE PALEOLITHIC WEST EUROPE DISAPPEAR TO? ALL RESEARCH I HAVE READ THUS FAR DESCRIBE R1 THEN R1b AS THE FIRST AND DESCENDANTS IN WEST EUROPE WHO ALSO HAD AN IBERIAN ICE AGE REFUGIA THAT WAS THEN INVADED BY THE NEOLITHIC HAPLOGROUPS OF I, E, J, G, ETC.... IF G, AND I HAPLOGROUPS WERE THE MAJORITY DURING THE NEOLITHIC AGE THEN THOSE GROUPS REPLACED THE FIRST INDIGENOUS PALEOLITHIC R1 AND R1b IN WEST EUROPE BEGINNING IN THE NEOLITHIC. THEN THE EAST BRANCHES OF R1b REPLACE THE NEOLITHIC I AND G INVADERS DURING THE BRONZE AGE TAKING BACK INDIGENOUS R1b TERRITORY IN EUROPE.]

The Germanic branch (S21/U106/M405)

The principal Proto-Germanic branch of the Indo-European family tree is R1b-S21 (a.k.a. U106 or M405). This haplogroup is found at high concentrations in the Netherlands and north-west Germany....

Asian branch

Haak et al. (2015) tested six Y-DNA samples from the eastern reaches of Yamna culture, in the Volga-Ural region, and all of them turned out to belong to haplogroup R1b. Four of them were positive for the Z2103 mutation. IN all likelihood, R1b-Z2103 was a major lineage of the Poltavka culture, which succeeded to the Yamna culture between the Volga River and the Ural mountains.... R1b-Z2103 would have become an Indo-Iranian lineage like R1a-Z93. This is true of two Z2103 subclades in particular: L277.1 and L584. The former is found in Russia to Central Asia then to India and the Middle East, just like the R1a-L657 subclade of Z93. It can be associated with the Andronovo culture and Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, as well as the Indo-Aryan migrations. R1b-L584 is found especially in Iran, northern Iraq, the South Caucasus and Turkey, and correlates more with the Iranian branch of Indo-Europeans, which includes Persians, Kurds and Scythians.

Anatolian branch

The Hittites (c. 2000-1178 BCE) were the first Indo-Europeans to defy (and defeat) the mighty Mesopotamian and Egyptian empires. There are two hypotheses regarding the origins of the Hittites. The first is that they came from the eastern Balkans and invaded Anatolia by crossing the Bosphorus. That would mean that they belonged either to the L23* or the Z2103 subclade. The other plausible scenario is that they were an offshoot of the late Maykop culture, and that they crossed the Caucasus to conquer the Hattian kingdom (perhaps after being displaced from the North Caucasus by the R1a people of the Catacomb culture). In that case the Hittites might have belonged to the R1b-Z2103 or the R1b-PF7562 subclade....

There is substantial archaeological and linguistic evidence that Troy was an Indo-European city associated with the Steppe culture and haplogroup R1b. The Trojans were Luwian speakers related to the Hittites (hence Indo-European), with attested cultural ties to the culture of the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. The first city of Troy dates back to 3000 BCE, right in the middle of the Maykop period....most likely of the two Indo-European paternal haplogroups would be R1b-M269 or L23.

The Phrygians and the Proto-Armenians are two other Indo-European tribes stemming from the Balkans. Both appear to have migrated to Anatolia around 1200 BCE,... Nowadays 30% of Armenian belong to haplogroup R1b, the vast majority to the L584 subclade of Z2103.

Most of the R1b found in Greece today is of the Balkanic Z2103 variety. There is also a minority of Proto-Celtic S116/P312 and of Italic/Alpine Celtic S28/U152. Z2103 could have descended from Albania or Macedonia during the Dorian invasion... The Mycenaeans might have brought some R1b (probably also Z2103) to Greece, but their origins can be traced back through archaeology to the Catacomb culture and the Seima-Turbino phenomenon of the northern forest-steppe, which would make them primarily an R1a tribe.

1200 BCE ...In the Pontic Steppe, the Srubna culture make way to the Cimmerians, a nomadic people speaking an Iranian or Thracian language.... In the central Levant the Phoenicians start establishing themselves as significant maritime powers and building their commercial empire around the southern Mediterranean. But the most important event of the period was incontestably the destruction of the Near-Eastern civilizations, possibly by the Sea Peoples. The great catastrophe that ravaged the whole Eastern Mediterranean from Greece to Egypt circa 1200 BCE is a subject that remains controversial. The identity of the Sea Peoples has been the object of numerous speculations... The Hittite capital Hattusa was destroyed in 1200 BCE, and by 1160 BCE the empire had collapsed, probably under the pressure of the Phrygians and the Armenians coming from the Balkans.... The Mycenaean cities were ravaged and abandoned throughout the 12th century BCE, leading to the eventual collapse of Mycenaean civilization by 1100 BCE. The kingdom of Ugarit in Syria was annihilated and its capital never resettled. Other cities in the Levant, Cyprus and Crete were burned and left abandoned for many generations. The Egyptians had to repel assaults from the Philistines from the East and the Libyans from the West - two tribes of supposed Indo-European origin. The Lybians were accompanied by mercenaries from northern lands (the Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden and Shekelesh), whose origin is uncertain, but has been placed in Anatolia, Greece and/or southern Italy. The devastation of Greece followed the legendary Trojan War (1194-1187 BCE). It has been postulated that the Dorians, an Indo-European people from the Balkans...

Other migrations of R1b

Other migrations occured from Europe to the Near East and Central Asia during the Antiquity and Middle Ages. R1b-S28 (U152) was found in Romania, Turkey, northern Bashkortostan (a staggering 71.5% of the local population according to Myres et al.), and at the border of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Some of it was surely brought by the La Tène Celts, known to have advanced along the Danube, and created the Galatian kingdom in central Anatolia. The rest could just as well be Roman, given that R1b-S28 is the dominant form of R1b in the Italian peninsula....

The lactase persistence allele and R1b cattle pastoralists

Some people possess a genetic mutation that allows the production of lactase through adulthood. This is called lactase persistence (LP). Lactase persistence is particularly common among Northwest Europeans, descended from the ancient Celtic and Germanic people, and in parts of Africa where cattle herding has been practiced for thousands of years. The highest incidence for the lactase persistence alleles, known to geneticists as -13,910*T (rs4988235) and -22018*A (rs182549), are found among Scandinavian, Dutch, British, Irish and Basque people.... the -13910*T allele has been found only in Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Age individuals....present at low frequencies in the human gene pool for tens of thousands of years before it underwent postive selective pressure among cattle-herding societies....Nowadays, the LP allele is roughly proportional to the percentage of R1b, and to a lower extent R1a, found in a population....The lowest incidence of LP in Europe are found in South Italy, Greece and the Balkans, the regions that have the least R1b lineages.... -13,910*T allele originated with the first R1b cattle herders in the Near East, who are the ancestors of both the Indo-Europeans and of African R1b-V88 tribes.

R1 populations spread genes for light skin, blond hair and red hair

There is now strong evidence that both R1a and R1b people contributed to the diffusion of the A111T mutation of the SLC24A5, which explains apporximately 35% of skin tone difference between Europeans and Africans, and most variations within South Asia. The distribution pattern of the A111T allele (rs1426654) of matches almost perfectly the spread of Indo-European R1a and R1b lineages around Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia. The mutation was probably passed on in the Early neolithic to other Near Eastern populations, which explains why Neolithic farmers in Europe already carried the A111T allele (e.g. Keller 2012 p.4, Lazaridis 2014 suppl. 7), although at lower frequency than modern Europeans and southern Central Asians....

A111T allele was already present among all R1b people before the Pre-Pottery Neolithic split between V88 and P297. R1a populations have an equally high incidence of this allele as R1b populations. On the other hand, the A111T mutation was absent from the 24,000-year-old R* sample from Siberia, and is absent from most modern R2 populations in Southeast India and Southeast Asia. Consequently, it can be safely assumed that the mutation arose among the R1* lineage during the late Upper Paleolithic, probably some time between 20,000 and 13,000 years ago.

Fair hair was another physical trait associated with the Indo-Europeans. In contrast, the genes for blue eyes were already present among Mesolithic Europeans belonging to Y-haplogroup I. The genes for blond hair are more strongly correlated with the distribution of haplogroup R1a, but those for red hair have not been found in Europe before the Bronze Age, and appear to have been spread primarily by R1b people....

https://www.23andme.com/you/labs/haplogroup_tree_mut_mapper/

https://www.23andme.com/you/labs/haplogroup_tree_mut_mapper/results/?lineage_type=paternal&haplogroup

R1b1b2 rs9786153 T->C R1b-M269

R1b1b2a rs9786142 T->A R1b-L49

R1b1b2a1 rs9786140 G->A R1b-L51

R1b1b2a1a rs13304168 C->T L52 (phylogenetically equivalent to L11/S127, L151, P310/S129, P311/S128

R1b1b2a1a1 rs16981293 C>T (M405/S21/U106) R1b-U106

R1b1b2a1a1a rs17222279 G->A (M467/S29/U198) downstream of R1b-U106

R1b1b2a1a1d rs13303755 G->T (L48) downstream of R1b-U106

R1b1b2a1a1d1 rs34283263 G->A (L47) downstream of R1b-U106

R1b1b2a1a1d1a rs34738655 G->A L44

R1b1b2a1a1d1a1 rs35760092 T->G L45, L46, L164

R1b1b2a1a2 rs34276300 C->A (P312) not tested in v3 or v4

R1b1b2a1a2b i3000029 A->T M153 downstream of DF27

R1b1b2a1a2c i3000043 G->A M167/SRY2627 downstream of DF27

R1b1b2a1a2d rs1236440 C->T (S28) R1b-U152 downstream of P312

R1b1b2a1a2d3* rs2566671 C->T R1b-L2 downstream of R1b-U152

R1b1b2a1a2d3a rs7067305 G->A R1b-L20 downstream of R1b-L2

R1b1b2a1a2f rs11799226 C->G (L21) R1b-L21 downstream of P312

R1b1b2a1a2f2 rs20321 G->A R1b-M222 downstream of R1b-L21

U mt HG's CLADES WERE THE PALEOLITHIC FIRST PEOPLE OF EUROPE SUCH AS U8, U, U2, U6 IN N.AFRICA, U5,... THE OTHER mt HG's WERE FROM NEOLITHIC AND MORE RECENT...

Mitochondrial DNA lineages associated with the Bronze Age Indo-Europeans

https://www.eupedia.com/genetics/maternal_lineages_of_the_proto-indo-europeans.shtml

Hundreds of mtDNA samples from Neolithic, Mesolithic and even Paleolithic Europe have been tested to date. These ancient DNA studies revealed that haplogroup R1b lineages were widespread in Mesolithic Southeast and Northeast Europe. Hunter-gatherer tribes where R1b was the dominant (or only) paternal lineage were found in Latvia, around the so-called Iron Gates on the Danube between Serbia and Romania, as well as in Ukraine (both Mesolithic and Neolithic) and in the Middle Volga region of Russia. The maternal lineages they carried were typical of Mesolithic Europeans. Like other tribes belonging to other Y-DNA lineages (C1a2, I*, I2a, I2c, R1a) these R1b tribes belonged primarily to mtDNA haplogroups U5a and U5b, with minorities of U2, U4.

The Scythians in particular are thought to have hybridised extensively with the descendants of Neolithic southern Central Asians, as ancient Scythian mtDNA contain a lot of these haplogroups (alongside H2a1, U2, U5 and East Asian lineages). But all Scythian Y-DNA so far turned out to be R1a, although they surely included R1b, J1 and J2 lineages too....

R1b-M269 evolved in isolation for thousands of years, presumably in the area between eastern Anatolia and northwestern Iran, and came back to Eastern Europe with the additional L23 mutation during the Chalcolithic period. Nowadays men carrying the M269 mutation without the L23 mutation are practically all found around Armenia and the southern edge of the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan and northern Iran. R1b-L23 brought copper metallurgy to the Pontic-Caspian Steppe and became an elite lineage within the nascent Proto-Indo-European society, quickly replacing a big share of other Steppe lineages (I2a, J2b2a, Q1a, R1a, R1b) probably through the practice of polygamy.

Many female lineages in the Yamna culture were in fact different from the previous Mesolithic and Neolithic lineages found in the Steppe, and clearly originated in West Asia and the Caucasus. The new female lineages now included H2b, H6a1, H15, K1b2, I1a, J2b, T1a, T2c1, W3, W6 and X2h, in addition of the previous lineages. As expected, most of these lineages were also found in other Bronze Age cultures associated with Proto-Indo-European speakers, including the Corded Ware and Unetice cultures. Out of 46 Yamna mtDNA samples tested as of June 2017, Mesolithic U2, U4 and U5 only represented 28% of the total. It's possible that some H and K samples also had a Mesolithic or at least Neolithic origin in the Steppe....

If we exclude the haplogroups of Neolithic farmers, those found principally in R1a countries today, and Middle Eastern lineages that rare in Europe, what is left as the potential maternal lineages of Bronze Age R1b men are H2b, H5a, H6, H8c, H15, I, J1b1a, K1c1, K2b, T1a1, T2, U2e, U4, U5, U8, V7 and W. It is likely that H4, H5a, H6, K2b, U2, U4, U5 and U8 came from the indigenous Mesolithic and Neolithic Steppe population. Haplogroups H1b, H5a, T2b and U8b1 were found in the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture and at least some of them probably entered the Steppe gene pool by intermarriage....

All these elements combined support the hypothesis that U2 was one of the original lineages of basal Y-haplogroup R, and that U2 was spread alongside R1a, R1b and R2. Note that the 24,000-year-old Mal'ta boy belonged to mt-haplogroup U and Y-haplogroup R*....

Haplogroups U4 and W are the two lineages most typical of Balto-Slavic countries. Along with U5 and V, these were probably native Paleolithic European lineages linked to Y-DNA haplogroup I that were assimilated by the R1a mammoth hunters from North Asia.

[I YDNA WAS NEOLITHIC IN EUROPE SO CANNOT BE THE MALE COMPANION OF THE PALEOLITHIC EUROPEAN FEMALE. U5 WAS SAAMI, AND BASQUE IN IBERIAN ICE AGE WHICH DURING POST GLACIAL MIGRATED NORTH AND EAST MIXING WITH I AND R1a BUT, NOT IN THE PALEOLITHIC. THE U FEMALES IN WEST EUROPE WOULD HAVE BEEN WITH R1 MALES, AND THEN R1b.]

UPDATE:

https://www.eupedia.com/forum/threads/25613-Identifying-the-original-Indo-European-mtDNA-from-isolated-settlements

Here is a summary of mtDNA haplogroups that were probably part of the Indo-European migrations during the Bronze Age.

R1a1a correlates best with mt-haplogroups: H1b, H1c, H2a1, H6, H7, K1b1b, K1c, K2b, T1a1a1, T2a1b1, T2b2, T2b4, U2e, U4, U5, and some W subclades (W3, W4, W5, W6). Minor mt-haplogroups also include C4a, C5, H27 and V7a.

R1b1b correlate best with mt-haplogroups: H5a, H8, H15, I1a1, J1b1a, K1a3, K2a6, U5 and some V subclades (like V15). Minor mt-haplogroups also include U3 and X2.

Some H1 and T2 subclades might also be associated with both R1a and R1b.

Haplogroup I1 (Y-DNA)

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_I1_Y-DNA.shtml

Haplogroup I is the oldest major haplogroup in Europe and in all probability the only one that originated there...

Cro-Magnons most probably belonged to IJ and I... Men belonging to this haplogroup I1 all descend from a single ancestor who lived between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. ...The oldest attested evidence of postglacial resettlement of Scandinavia dates from 11,000 BCE with the appearance of the Ahrensburg culture...

The cold climate was actually a barrier to the expansion of farmers from the continent. This is why Scandinavians retained a greater percentage of Mesolithic ancestry than virtually all other Europeans, apart from the Samis, Finns, Balts and Russians....

Scandinavian paternal lineages (I1, R1b, R1a) ...The first Indo-Europeans to reach Scandinavia were the Corded Ware people from modern Russia, Belarus and Poland, who are thought to have belonged predominantly to haplogroup R1a. ...

The second major Indo-European migration to Scandinavia was that of haplogroup R1b, the branch that is thought to have introduced Proto-Germanic languages, as an offshoot of the Proto-Celto-Germanic speakers from Central Europe. R1b probably entered Scandinavia from present-day Germany as a northward expansion of the late Unetice culture (2300-1600 BCE)....

Finnish I1 is found in all the country, where hardly any Germanic Y-DNA is present. This is another confirmation that the I1 in Finland is pre-Germanic, pre-Bronze Age, and consequently of Mesolithic origin....

All Germanic tribes expanded from a small geographic core around Denmark and southern Sweden within the last 2500 years....

Geographic spread and ethnic origins of European haplogroups

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/origins_haplogroups_europe.shtml#prehistory

(Distribution map of Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroup in and around Prehistoric Mesolithic Europe circa 8000 BCE)

Y DNA HAPLOGROUPS chronological development:

K => 40,000 years ago (probably arose in northern Iran)

T => 30,000 years ago (around the Red Sea or around the Persian Gulf)

J => 30,000 years ago (in the Middle East)

R => 28,000 years ago (in the Central Asia)

E1b1b => 26,000 years ago (in Northeast Africa)

I => 25,000 years ago (in the Balkans)

J1 => 20,000 years ago (in the Taurus/Zagros mountains)

J2 => 19,000 years ago (in northern Mesopotamia)

E-M78 => 18,000 years ago (in north-eastern Africa)

R1b => 18,000 years ago (around the Caspian Sea or Central Asia)

R1a => 17,000 years ago (in southern Russia)

G => 17,000 years ago (in the Middle East)

I2 => 17,000 years ago (in the Balkans)

E-V13 => 15,000 years ago (in the southern Levant or North Africa)

I2b => 13,000 years ago (in Central Europe)

N1c1 => 12,000 years ago (in Siberia)

E-M81 => 11,000 years ago (in Northwest Africa)

I2a => 11,000 years ago (in the Balkans)

G2a => 11,000 years ago (in the Levant or Anatolia)

R1b1b2 => 10,000 years ago (north or south of the Caucasus)

I2b1 => 9,000 years ago (in Germany)

I2a1 => 8,000 years ago (in Southwest Europe)

I2a2 => 7,500 years ago (in Southeast Europe)

I1 => 5,000 years ago (in Scandinavia)

R1b-L21 => 4,000 years ago (in Central or Eastern Europe)

R1b-S28 => 3,500 years ago (around the Alps)

R1b-S21 => 3,000 years ago (in Frisia or Central Europe)

I2b1a => less than 3,000 years ago (in Britain)

mt DNA HAPLOGROUPS chronological development:

N => 75,000 years ago (arose in North-East Africa)

R => 70,000 years ago (in South-West Asia)

U => 60,000 years ago (in North-East Africa or South-West Asia)

pre-JT => 55,000 years ago (in the Middle East)

JT => 50,000 years ago (in the Middle East)

U5 => 50,000 years ago (in Western Asia)

U6 => 50,000 years ago (in North Africa)

U8 => 50,000 years ago (in Western Asia)

pre-HV => 50,000 years ago (in the Near East)

J => 45,000 years ago (in the Near East or Caucasus)

HV => 40,000 years ago (in the Near East)

H => over 35,000 years ago (in the Near East or Southern Europe)

X => over 30,000 years ago (in north-east Europe)

U5a1 => 30,000 years ago (in Europe)

I => 30,000 years ago (Caucasus or north-east Europe)

J1a => 27,000 years ago (in the Near East)

W => 25,000 years ago (in north-east Europe or north-west Asia)

U4 => 25,000 years ago (in Central Asia)

J1b => 23,000 years ago (in the Near East)

T => 17,000 years ago (in Mesopotamia)

K => 16,000 years ago (in the Near East)

V => 15,000 years ago (arose in Iberia and moved to Scandinavia)

H1b => 13,000 years ago (in Europe)

K1 => 12,000 years ago (in the Near East)

H3 => 10,000 years ago (in Western Europe)

Irish Genetics: Abstracts and Summaries

http://www.khazaria.com/genetics/irish.html

Scientists sequence first ancient Irish human genomes

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/12/151228161249.htm

The team sequenced the genome of an early farmer woman, who lived near Belfast some 5,200 years ago, and those of three men from a later period, around 4,000 years ago in the Bronze Age... These ancient Irish genomes each show unequivocal evidence for massive migration. The early farmer has a majority ancestry originating ultimately in the Middle East, where agriculture was invented. The Bronze Age genomes are different again with about a third of their ancestry coming from ancient sources in the Pontic Steppe.

"There was a great wave of genome change that swept into Europe from above the Black Sea into Bronze Age Europe and we now know it washed all the way to the shores of its most westerly island,"...

Whereas the early farmer had black hair, brown eyes and more resembled southern Europeans, the genetic variants circulating in the three Bronze Age men from Rathlin Island had the most common Irish Y chromosome type, blue eye alleles and the most important variant for the genetic disease, haemochromatosis. The latter C282Y mutation is so frequent in people of Irish descent that it is sometimes referred to as a Celtic disease.

"Genetic affinity is strongest between the Bronze Age genomes and modern Irish, Scottish and Welsh, suggesting establishment of central attributes of the insular Celtic genome some 4,000 years ago,"

Scandinavians Are Descended From Stone Age Immigrants, Ancient DNA Reveals

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090924141049.htm

Today's Scandinavians are not descended from the people who came to Scandinavia at the conclusion of the last ice age but, apparently, from a population that arrived later, concurrently with the introduction of agriculture.

The hunter-gatherers who inhabited Scandinavia more than 4,000 years ago had a different gene pool than ours,"..."Our findings show that today's Scandinavians are not the direct descendants of the hunter-gatherers who lived in the region during the Stone Age. This entails the conclusion that some form of migration to Scandinavia took place, probably at the onset of the agricultural Stone Age. The extent of this migration is as of yet impossible to determine."

Native Americans and Northern Europeans more closely related than previously thought

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121130151606.htm

Using genetic analyses, scientists have discovered that Northern European populations -- including British, Scandinavians, French, and some Eastern Europeans -- descend from a mixture of two very different ancestral populations, and one of these populations is related to Native Americans. This discovery helps fill gaps in scientific understanding of both Native American and Northern European ancestry, while providing an explanation for some genetic similarities among what would otherwise seem to be very divergent groups.

"There is a genetic link between the paleolithic population of Europe and modern Native Americans. The evidence is that the population that crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia into the Americas more than 15,000 years ago was likely related to the ancient population of Europe."

...one of these ancestral populations was the first farming population of Europe,...The other ancestral population is likely to have been the initial hunter-gathering population of Europe. ...Today the hunter-gathering ancestral population of Europe appears to have its closest affinity to people in far Northeastern Siberia and Native Americans.

Europeans descended from at least three, not two, groups of ancient humans

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/09/140917131720.htm

Hunter-gatherers were replaced in many places by sedentary farmers,... the transition to a farming lifestyle in central Europe occurred around 7,500 years ago...

Their surprising finding was that present-day Europeans trace their ancestry back to three and not just two ancestral groups: The first is indigenous hunter-gatherers; the second is Near Eastern farmers that migrated to Europe around 7,500 years ago; and a novel third is a more mysterious population that spanned North Eurasia and genetically connects Europeans and Native Americans....

"We had previously found an ancient genetic link of present-day Europeans and Native Americans," adds Nick Patterson from the Broad Institute in Boston. "To our surprise this component was not present in the ancient hunter-gatherer from Luxembourg, nor was it present in the first European farmers."...

"It seems clear now that the third group linking Europeans and Native Americans arrives in Central Europe after the early farmers,"... "We are however not sure yet when the Northern Eurasian component enters central Europe"..."Nearly all Europeans have ancestry from all three ancestral groups,"...

"Differences between them are due to the relative proportions of ancestry. Northern Europeans have more hunter-gatherer ancestry -- up to about fifty percent in Lithuanians -- and Southern Europeans have more farmer ancestry." ...

The researchers also analyzed genes with known phenotypic association and show that some of the hunter-gatherers likely had blue eyes and darker skin, whereas the early farmers had lighter skin and brownish eyes....

Early Near Eastern farmers carried genetic material that falls outside the typical non-African variation. "The finding of an ancient lineage that is present in Europeans and Near Easterners but not elsewhere in Eurasia was a major surprise of our study.

Fourth Strand of European Genetic Ancestry

https://www.genomeweb.com/scan/fourth-strand-european-genetic-ancestry

A Trinity College Dublin-led team of researchers has sequenced the genomes of two ancient hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus,...These ancient samples hail from western Georgia at the eastern boundary of Europe, and one was traced back to the Late Upper Paleolithic, or about 13,300 years ago, and the other to the Mesolithic, or about 9,700 years ago... These Caucasus hunter-gatherers, the researchers say, belong to a distinct clade that split from western hunter-gatherers about 45,000 years ago, giving insight into the ancestral sources of modern Europeans.

"Modern Europeans are a mix of ancient ancestral strands... "The only way to untangle the modern weave is to sequence genomes from thousands of years ago, before the mixing took place." These Caucasus hunter-gatherers might represent a fourth strand — in addition to western hunter-gatherers, early farmers, and ancient North Eurasians — that has contributed to the genetic makeup of Europeans,

Genetics: Abstracts and Summaries

http://www.khazaria.com/genetics/

Various nations (Frisian, dutch, czechs, estonia, finns, french, jew, Swede, etc....)

Blood type distribution by country

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type_distribution_by_country

Blood group B has its highest frequency in Northern Asia and neighboring Central Asia, and its incidence diminishes both towards the west and the east, falling to single digit percentages in Spain. It is believed to have been entirely absent from Native American and Australian Aboriginal populations prior to the arrival of Europeans in those areas.

Blood group A is associated with high frequencies in Europe, especially in Scandinavia and Central Europe, although its highest frequencies occur in some Australian Aboriginal populations and the Blackfoot Indians of Montana, the US.

RACIAL & ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION of ABO BLOOD TYPES

Sorted by Population Groups , Countries

http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html

Blood Type Frequencies by Country including the Rh Factor

http://www.rhesusnegative.net/themission/bloodtypefrequencies/

Blood & Diversity | Rare Blood Types

http://www.redcrossblood.org/learn-about-blood/blood-and-diversity

Red blood cells carry markers called antigens on their surface that determine one’s blood type. There are more than 600 known antigens besides A and B. Certain blood types are unique to specific racial and ethnic groups....For example, U-negative and Duffy-negative blood types are unique to the African-American community. So Sickle cell patients with these blood types must rely on donors with matching blood types in the African-American community.

Some Rare Blood Types by Ethnic Group:

Ethnic Group Rare Blood Type

African-American U-, Fy(a-b-)

Native American,-

Alaskan Native RzRz

Pacific Island,-

Asian Jk (a-b-)

Hispanic Di(b-)

East European/-

Russian Jews Dr(a-)

Caucasian Kp(b-), Vel-

Blood type

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type

A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence and absence of antibodies and also based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).

Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 35 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen;

Across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found...

Rhesus Negative Blood Type Origins

https://youtu.be/j_eu9MLGz2k

AB blood type (genetics)

https://youtu.be/wSKk1olojvo

Although evolutionary theory is used by many authors when describing ideas. In this case of blood types it appears blood groups are time related but, not evolutionary.

Blood groups does not prove evolution any more than a different creation of a people, or peoples at a different time period. A and B Blood Groups as theorized originated much later than group O just as blue eye color originated much later than brown eyes.

I do not believe in evolution from a single monkey ancestor out of africa that populated the entire world. The world has seen many mankind species, and races all proven by science to be genetically different.

On this topic of blood groups alone across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found. How many more were there before the extinction of all the other mankind the planet has had?

Blood group types does not prove evolution from a single ancestor. In fact it proves at least 3 different ancestors just looking at the groups O, A, and B. Add in the Rh D and you get 8. But many more not mentioned here since it is complicated, and numerous.

I would add that dadamo makes good points but, alot of unproven theories.

He kind of gives the impression that A is european, B is asian, and o is african. While using this to guide his way thru the evolution theory. But, you can look at the distribution of blood groups with many other explanations. For one, look at B group and it shows the greatest population in the very north Russia, and then in North India with lesser amounts in between. I can conclude form this map that it is not oriental that it is originated from the a people who were created in the North most parts of Russia, and had a north to south migration pattern with the ice age. Leaving B group populations in this region over time.

To prove my point since Native Amerinds are asian then they should have the B blood group according to damato theory but, they have O. This proves that B is not oriental based on a race. But B must be time specific of a people who lived in North Russia, and migrated south.

Another monkey evolution contradiction is the Rh factor. If all people came from this single monkey then everyone would have the Rh+ and also be O blood group. Yet we find for example the Basques who are majority Rh- and also majority O blood group. This this alone refutes the monkey evolution. We can also consider the fact that humans are 97% similar in DNA with the chimpannzee. But, you can see the difference in just 3% of our DNA.

So just because a certain sugar appears on a blood cell does not make Rh+ descendants of monkeys. It only is a similarity as just as DNA similarities are.

ANd since all this stuff is theory only we can add to the many opinions. Such as maybe Blood Group is not even time related in origins but, only time related to events of the time. Perhaps pre ice age the different races and species of mankind lived in an entirely different climate so that the ice sheets of the ice age , and even today were actually the opposite and were a warmer lush green environment full of plant and wildlife to sustain mans survival there. Then as the ice age progressed forced those people southward . SO that the people of the north were of the B and/or A blood group while the rest of the peoples in the south were O group. During the course of the migrations the peoples mixed.

One can also look at the Blue eye and hair color origins to see the appearance of their emergence corroborating with the emergence of A and B blood group.

So one can conclude perhaps this unique people of A and B blood group may have been pre ice age and lived what is now ice and/or very cold. It is possible it is those people who are the A and B blood group peoples, and not a mutation of a monkey.

Thus , the presence of A and B blood group is a reflection of the migratory mixing in the countries that the A and B group went into, and not its origin.

Blood Group itself is a proof of how different we are just touching on the most widely used ABO Rh while many more contain much more evidence of the differences. Why does it matter some say. For one If you receive the wrong blood group it can kill you. It can also kill your baby, and it passes on traits that are prone to disease and other maladies. Another proof B group is not Oriental origin is if were then even among the oriental peoples B group would be its majority. But, B group world wide is the minority in every country. B group appears a little more in some of those countries only because the original B group from the North Russia to India central Eurasian areas migrated into those countries.

Then as the new mixed bloods migrated and conquered new lands the mixed bloods spread the B group to even more people in other lands. B group is such minority because it was not in the world as everyone else. B group must have lived isolated from others in its origin, and only spred into the known world probably by the ice age pushing them south. Thus, the original homeland of the B blood type Turkic people stretch from India all the way north as the Ice Age permits.

The Blood Type Diets: Blood Groups and the History of Peoples

http://www.dadamo.com/txt/index.pl?1010

blood group O (40-45%) and A (35-40%) versus much lower rates of groups B (4-11%) and AB (0-2%)?

An almost continuous belt of mountainous terrain extends from the Urals in Russia to the Caucasus in Asia, and then onto the Pyrenees of southern France. This barrier split the migrations of the blood groups into two basic routes; a northern stream and a southern one. The invaders taking the southern approach became the ancestors of the Mediterranean people and western Europeans, and carried with them the gene for blood group A. The Ural Mountains prevented a large migration westwards from Asia, although small numbers of Caucasians entered eastern Europe, carrying with them the gene for blood group B that they picked up by intermingling with the Asian Mongolians. This barrier served to divide blood groups into a western group, A; and an eastern group, B.

Blood group B Mongolians continued to travel northward, toward present day Siberia. They developed a different culture, dependent on herding, and emphasizing the use of cultured dairy products. These nomadic people were expert horsemen, and wandered extensively over the Siberian flat lands, the great Steppes.

Blood Group O The Ancestral Foundation:

The extraordinarily high percentage of blood group O in "ancient" or otherwise isolated populations also testifies to its great age. (6) Even though the early migrations dispersed the gene for group O blood throughout the world, there are some extraordinary examples of "old" populations existing in our world today. Because of their geographic locations, these societies have remained isolated from interaction with other populations. If A, B and O had developed simultaneously, the isolated population groups would have had all of them. But these "old societies" are group O because genes for the later blood groups never had the opportunity to enter into their populations. They have remained unchanged.

The Basque language, the only western European language not connected by Indo-European roots, appears to be related to several dialects found in small isolated populations in the valleys of the Caucasus Mountains. Although they look much like their French and Spanish neighbors, Basques possess the lowest frequency of blood group B---originally having no group B at all---and the highest frequencies of blood group O in Europe.

More than fifty percent of the Basque population is Rh negative, as opposed to sixteen percent for the rest of Europe.

It has often been asserted that all full-blooded American Indians are group O, and recent studies on largely intermingled Amerindian populations show a very high (sixty-seven to eighty percent) predominance of O

As with the Basques, few Native Americans are group B, so they must have migrated to the Americas late enough to pick up the Rh positive gene, but too early to pick up the gene for B.

Among the Nomads of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Berbers of the Atlas Mountains, two old populations, the frequency of the blood group O gene is high. Africans, on average, have more O genes and less A genes than do Europeans. So it can be seen that the gene carried by people who are blood group O is ancient by evolutionary standards.

Blood Group A Urban:

There is good evidence to support the link between the ascendancy of blood group A and the development of the urban society. As discussed, many areas of the world that have long histories of urbanization and frequent outbreaks of plague, cholera, and smallpox show a predominance of group A over group O. This statistic clearly proved that group A was more resistant to and able to survive the infections common to densely populated areas. One might well wonder how blood group O survived at all-much less how it has remained to this day the most ubiquitous blood group on the planet. One reason might be the sheer amount of group O in the gene pool; it is recessive in A and B and thus remains self-replicating.

Blood group A is found in the highest concentrations among western Europeans. Unlike blood groups B and O, there are many varieties of group A. The major grouping, A1, accounts for about ninety-five percent of all A blood. The largest subgroup, A2, is found principally in Northern Caucasians. A2 is found in very high concentration in Iceland and Scandinavia, particularly among the Lapps, ancient settlers of the area. They are almost unique in their high frequency of A, and have the highest frequency of A2, registering forty-two percent in one group. The A2 gene is almost entirely confined to Caucasian populations.

The European frequency of group A decreases as we head eastwards. Over much of Europe the frequency of the A gene is greater than twenty-five percent. It is also found in considerable numbers around the entire Mediterranean Sea, particularly in Corsica, Sardinia, Spain, Turkey, and the Balkans. It is clear that humankind most often laid down permanent settlements in those areas where conditions offered them the best chance of survival.

Blood Group B The Nomadic Mutation:

To modern day anthropologists, blood group B continues to this day to be an "Eastern" blood group. It is found in high numbers among Asians such as the Chinese, Indians, and Siberians. In Europe, blood group B is more frequently found in Hungarians, Russians, Poles, and other eastern Europeans. It is not found in large numbers among western Europeans. Among pre-Neolithic people, such as the Basques and Amerindians, group B is practically nonexistent.

Of all the ABO blood groups, B shows the most clearly defined geographic distribution. Stretching as a great belt across the Eurasian plains and down to the Indian subcontinent, blood group B is found in increased numbers from Japan, Mongolia, China and India, up to the Ural Mountains. From there westward, the percentages fall until a low is reached at the extreme western end of Europe.

Blood group B is a distinctly non-Indo-European blood type. In Europe, only two areas with a high rate of blood group B appear: one among the group of non-Indo-European peoples known as the Finno-Ugrics (such as the Hungarians and the Finns), the other among the central Slavic peoples (Czechs, Southern Poles, and Northern Serbs). The Viking invaders may have also had a relatively high percentage of B gene, since many of the towns of Britain and western Europe that are linked to the coast by internal lines of communication such as large rivers, have a disproportional amount of blood group B when compared to the surrounding territory.

The small numbers of blood group B in old and Western Europeans represents western migration by Asian nomadic peoples. This is most clearly seen in the easternmost Western Europeans, the Germans and Austrians, who have an unexpectedly high incidence of blood group B blood compared to their western neighbors. The highest frequency of blood group B in Germans occurs in the area around the upper and middle Elbe River, an important natural boundary between "civilization" and "barbarism" in ancient and medieval times.

Modern subcontinental Indians, a Caucasian people, have some of the highest frequencies of blood group B in the world.

Nowadays, blood group B accounts for about ten percent of the world's population.

Blood Group AB The Intermingling:

Blood group AB is found in less than five percent of the population. It is certainly the most recent blood group. Unlike the other Abo blood groups, group AB resulted from the intermingling of group A Caucasian people and group B Mongolian people. Some of this may have been peaceful, some must have been part of the violent turmoil that marked the great "Migration of Peoples" at the end of the Ancient Period (300AD-800AD).

Little evidence for the occurrence of group AB extends beyond 900 to 1,000 years ago, when a large western migration of Eastern peoples took place. Blood group AB is rarely found in European graves prior to 900 A.D. Studies of prehistoric grave exhumations in Hungary indicate a distinct lack of this blood group into the Langobard age (fifth to seventh century A.D.). This would seem to indicate that, up until that point in time, European populations of blood groups A and B did not come into common contact. If they did, they neither mingled nor intermarried.

Blood-type-B _ Characteristics-of-people _ Type-B

https://youtu.be/MQYA1C9lZvA

Peter D'Adamo Blood Type

https://youtu.be/91688UM3kKg

Blood Type B (Official Website Of Dr. Peter J. D'Adamo)

http://www.dadamo.com/txt/index.pl?1006

It first appeared in India or the Ural region of Asia among a mix of Caucasian and Mongolian tribes. This new blood type was soon characteristic of the great tribes of steppe dwellers, who by this time dominated the Eurasian Plains. ...

The small numbers of Type B in Western Europeans represents western migration by Asian nomadic peoples. This is best seen in the easternmost western Europeans, the Germans and Austrians, who have an unexpectedly high incidence of Type B blood compared to their western neighbors. ...

My belief (which may be wrong is only personal theory based on my current understanding), is that B blood group represents the original Turkic people from ancient North Eurasia, Siberia, central Eurasia, all the way down to India, and everything in between. B Blood type probably is not originated from the oriental type people. If B blood group had origins from south eastern oriental people then the American Indian would have B blood types as well since they mixed with those peoples prior to arriving in North America. Another point is the B blood group was spread into the east and south Asian countries as the northern Eurasian tribes migrated into those SE Asian lands, and the Oriental type peoples were migrating north and west. And since A and B blood groups are more aggressive it replaced a portion of O blood type in the east and south Asian countries. B blood type in foreign countries is most likely the result of migration of the Turkic peoples into the foreign lands.

I disagree with parts of the following article, and agree with other parts of this following article....

BLOOD TYPES

http://s155239215.onlinehome.us/turkic/63_Blood_Types/Blood_TypesEn.htm

Type B group blood predominate in the Türkic peoples....

The concept of the nomadic mutation contributes to the resolution of the Scythian enigma, adding yet another layer to the complex of the direct and indirect evidence in respect to the Indo-Europeanism of the Scythians and their descendents. It also allows perusing the ethnical composition of the contemporary Germans, Italians, descendents of the Vikings, and other people with islands of the elevated proportion of the B group in the population....

…The people of Asia and those of Africa generally have higher frequencies of the B gene than other people do. They differ from each other in the Rh series. The Asian peoples have a high frequency of a gene called Rhz to distinguish it from the other genes of the Rh series. The African peoples, on the other hand, have a high frequency of another Rh gene called Rho....

…the American, Australian, and Asiatic groups have little or no rh gene. The African group contains a small quantity of rh gene. The inhabitants of Europe (including Americans and Australians who are descended from Europeans), however, have a good deal of the rh gene; about one out of seven among them is Rh-negative….

* The genes for O and A are so widespread among all groups of people that they are nearly useless in racial classification.

The Near East Farmer invasions into Northern European homelands had some major impacts on the native northern population. Aside from the genocides, and enslavements the Northern European natives endured by the southern invaders, the hunter gatherer diet was being replaced in part by grains grown by farmers.

Turns out the Native North European physical and mental were being destroyed by the new farmers industry. One such problem of diet is Celiac Disease that the native north European face due to the integration with foreign people. Neanderthal, the original native European, became extinct due to integration with the migrations of foreign monkey people calling themselves Modern Man. Neanderthal became extinct because the gene sharing made Neanderthal infertile over time.

The A blood type originated and evolved from the near east farmers who had evolved from their grain diet.

The O and B blood types were evolved from a meat and plant diet. So as the A blood type farmer invasion increased into Europe, the O and B blood group were the ones to get Celiac Disease whether they know it, or not. Today since the peoples mixed A blood group may have a gene from the other blood types that might pass to them...

Northern Europeans gene potential for celiac disease:

If you are of north European extraction (since 33% of north Europeans have the gene potential to get celiac--that and Italians probably due to interbreeding during Roman times as well as Viking incursions previous to that). ...from pre-Agrarian times and thus developed before grains became such a large part of the human diet. Glutenous grains were introduced to North Europeans roughly 1200 to 1500 years later than in the rest of Europe. The original "bread basket" was in Mesopotamia. Back then barley was the first glutenous grain used. It and the early forms of wheat had far less gluten than what is produced today. Ironically grain produced in the north has more gluten in it due to the shorter growing season.

Descended from the same group of hunter-gatherers, will do best on the "paleo diet". Which means meat, veggies, and fruit. Period. No grains.

The evolutionarily recent over-reliance on wheat-based products could be a reason behind the current increases in dietary problems related to gluten, according to an expert in digestive disorders. ...

Fact Sheet: Celiac Disease

http://irishamerica.com/2013/08/fact-sheet-celiac-disease/

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder that is characterized by an intolerance for gluten (a protein most commonly found in wheat, barley, and rye). Consuming gluten triggers an immune response that causes inflammation in the lower intestine that can permanently damage the intestinal lining....

It is very common among people of Northern European descent, and is very prevalent in Ireland. Studies have shown that in Belfast one in 122 have the disease.... The Coeliac Society of Ireland (where celiac is sometimes spelled with an “oe”) estimates that for every person who is diagnosed, between five and ten more people have it, leading some to call it the silent disease....

B blood type, the Pure Tur blood group, becoming extinct from intermixing foreign bloods?

If B blood group is the result of intermixing as Dadamo theorizes, then why hasn't B blood type increased.

The amount of worldwide intermixing has never been higher than it has been over the past several generations.

According to Dadamo's theory B group should have become the majority, or at least be increasing dramatically.

The opposite appears to be happening. The increased intermixing is causing another extinction of a human kind as has been happening throughout the ages with the majority of all mankinds now extinct.

B blood group is the rarest in the world. The combined evidence suggests that B blood group clearly defines the Turkic race that has spread with their migrations probably originating from the central Asian belt.