Macron wants Europeans to boost defense, be 'respected'
https://money.yahoo.com/macron-wants-europeans-boost-defense-100649542.html
French President Emmanuel Macron said Tuesday that Europeans must boost their defense plans and make themselves “respected,” as France opens talks with the United States to try to restore confidence after a submarine dispute led to a major diplomatic crisis. “Europeans must come out of their naivety,” Macron said Tuesday in a news conference in Paris, the first time he had spoken about the new Indo-Pacific defense deal announced this month by the U.S., Australia and Britain. In an unprecedented move, France recalled its ambassador to the U.S. in response.... "We must, as Europeans, take our part in our own protection,” he added. “It is not an alternative to the alliance with the U.S. nor a substitute for it,” he stressed, adding that European defense plans should come in addition to NATO.
The treatment of territory of indigenous peoples under international law.
The making of treaties and concepts of and displacement were the classical ways of terra nullius dispossession, whereby indigenous territories were 'legitimately' acquired. The position of indigenous peoples in today's society is mostly a consequence of the famous doctrine of the 'three Cs', civilization, Christianization and commerce, for which international law, as the legal instrument of colonial conquest, was largely culpable. Today the position of indigenous peoples can be subsumed in one idea: they are the first inHabitants of lands they are not allowed to own or use....
Although the UN system is elaborate,' there is no clear definition of the term indigenous peoples'. The definition proposed by Cobo in his Study of the Discrimination against Indigenous Peoples is usually accepted as aUthoritative. The definition proposed is a mix between 'objective' criteria, such as 'historical continuity', and 'subjective' factors including self-definition. Three criteria seem to be fundamental to this definition. First, indigenous peoples are descendants of original inhabitants of territories since colonized by foreigners with culture, language, ancestry and occupation of land all constitutive evidence of continuity. Second, they have distinct cultures, which set them apart from the dominant society. And, third, they have a strong sense of self-identity...
Thus, the link between land and indigenous peoples is the definitive factor that distinguishes them from other populations....
they form a non-dominant sector of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories. (Cobo para.1983:379)...
While international law is the main subject of this discussion, the first place of redressal for indigenous peoples is before national courts. Native titles are usually granted by national legislation. This state practice, via the consent of state parties, transmits directly in international law. This chapter concentrates mainly on the study of the law governing indigenous (or 'aboriginal' or 'native') titles. An 'indigenous title' for this purpose is understood as a right to land given to a community that occupied the land at the time of colonization. Thus, the focus will be on states where indigenous populations represent an important part of the population and they have been dispossessed by colonial settlement. Based on these interlinked criteria, the situations in Canada, Australia and Scandinavia will be closely examined...
A 'territory' refers to the totality of 'the environment of the areas which the peoples concerned occupy or otherwise use'? which is a broader concept than merely the land. Nevertheless, since international law and national laws usually refer to both terms without distinction,...
The legal environment of the conquest of indigenous territories was one where colonial powers developed theories in favour of a right to dispossess. These doctrines of discovery and unequal treaties between indigenous peoples and invaders were used to legitimate acquisition of indigenous lands. While terra nullius is no longer recognized as a legal tool for acquiring indigenous peoples' lands,'* it was historically a vital legal doctrine, justifying dispossession of indigenous peoples. Traditionally, the Christianization of indigenous peoples provided a doctrinal basis for non-recognition of the sacred importance of the land....
In this process, non-recognition of indigenous peoples' rights to own land collectively is part of the process of assimilation as states seek to create a homogeneous society. In some states indigenous peoples have no right to own land irrespective of dispossesion.
In countries where they have the right to occupy traditional lands, indigenous peoples are usually perceived as using public or national lands as a 'gift' from the government. In the British Commonwealth system though, indigenous peoples have exclusive use and occupancy of land though the respective governments are its owners. Thus even when indigenous peoples have a legal right to their lands this right is subject to the legal theory of 'the power to extinguish'. States have always had the power to extinguish if they perceive the 'need'....
US Supreme Court Judges echo these sentiments: No case in this Court has ever held that taking of Indian title or use by Congress required compensation. The American people have compassion for the descendants of those Indians who were deprived of their homes and hunting grounds by the drive civilization. They seek to have the Indians share the benefits of our society as citizens of this nation. Generous provision has been willingly made to allow tribes to recover for wrongs, as a matter of grace, not because of legal liability.
Via this decision taken in 1995 the Supreme Court recognized that the government is entitled to take Indian land without due process or compensation in direct contravention of the constitution. This decision is a direct consequence of the legal theory of 'plenary power' that allows the possibility for state control of the use of the land 'without regard for constitutional limits on governmental power that would otherwise be applicable' (Daes 2000: 16, para. 47). Thus the theory of plenary power differs marginally from the theory of extinguishments in that it requires prescribed legal procedures to be fulfilled. Nevertheless, both 'legal' theories are discriminatory and it is difficult to understand how such practices are used in states such as Canada, Australia and the USA in clear violation of basic human rights. Even when land agreements are based on treaties between indigenous peoples and states, governments often deny effect to these, violating them in the absence of legal remedies...
Having previously been an instrument in effect putting colonialism on a legal footing, international law is shifting to give voice to the victims of a legal system based on 'western concepts'. It was only during the 1970s that international human rights law rejected its assimilationist approach and started to recognize their unique existence and specific culture...
ILO: The Only Binding Protection... today the Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent CountriesQ remains the only universal binding standard on indigenous land rights.... The right of ownership and possession of the peoples concerned over the lands which they traditionally occupy shall be recognised. Use of the word 'recognize' implicitly suggests that the occupation of the land by indigenous peoples gives a right to possession that must be 'recognized' by the state.... Since no reference is made to temporal limitations, these procedures could arguably also include past claims....
Article 16 expresses the prohibition of removal of peoples from lands and seeks creation of minimum legal standards for 'relocation'. Article 1 6(2) stresses the fundamental conditions necessary in relocation, 'including consent and that such relocation must only be an exceptional measure....one of the most positive aspects of art. 16 is the recognition of the 'right to return' when the reason for removal ceases....
The Proposed American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples specifically deals with the right to land.47 This is recognized in the preamble (para.5):. . ..in many indigenous cultures, traditional collective systems for control and use of land,. . ...territory and resources are a necessary condition for their survival ...and...the form of such control and ownership is varied and distinctive and does not necessarily coincide the systems protected by the domestic laws of the states in which they live.
This proposed declaration highlights that ownership of traditional lands is part of the 'right to cultural integrity' of indigenous peoples. Article VII states that indigenous communities are entitled to 'restitution in respect of the property of which they have been dispos~essed.A'~c~c ording to art. XVIII 'Indigenous peoples have the right to the recognition of their property and ownership rights with respect to lands, territories and resources they have historically occupied, as well as to the use of those to which they have historically had access for their traditional activities and livelihood.' However, the document has no binding effects and remains a draft declaration. Thus, its contents are liable to change considerably before its possible adoption....
Article 27 of the covenant recognizes that minorities 'shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture'....
Highlighting the importance of the right to restitution, it calls on state parties to recognize and protect indigenous peoples' right to own, develop, control and use communal territories. In addition, it calls upon states to take steps to return territories that were taken away without free and informed consent. Dealing with restitution it states: Only when this [return] is for factual reasons not possible, the right to restitution should be substituted by the right to just, fair and prompt compensation. Such compensation should as far as possible take the form of lands and territories....
the IACHR... the commission in its report highlighted the need for adequate protective measures before the damage and recommended that: ...the State take the measures necessary to restrict settlers to areas which do not infringe upon the ability of indigenous peoples to preserve their traditional culture.
It is important to note, in the above cases, that the IACHR referred to specific rights,
for example, the right to life and the right to health, to condemn violations of indigenous land rights. This emphasizes the lack of specific and adequate toois to protect indigenous peoples' specific relationship with their homeland....
there is a fundamental rule in international law, applicable domestically, which states that it is illegal and discriminatory to deny indigenous peoples the right to occupy their traditional lands....
The repatriation of the Canadian constitution from London to Ottawa in 1982 offered aborigines an opportunity to claim more legal recognition. This resulted in s, 35(1) of the Constitution Act 1982 that states that 'existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognised and affirmed'.76 This section of the constitutional act transfers aboriginal rights from common to constitutional law. Prior to this Act, the Canadian parliament had the power to 'extinguish' natives' rights and titles, a possibility aborted by s. 35(1) of the 1982 Act. While it is still possible to extinguish native ritghts this can only be fulfilled with the consent of aboriginal peoples. Nevertheless even though the Act states that aboriginal rights are constitutionally protected, it does not discuss any substantive content of those rights....
Canada offers constitutional protection not only to practices and customs of aboriginal cultures that pre-dated the arrival of European colonizers but also to contemporary expression of such cultures. The judgment also established how the rights protected by s. 35(1)' could be extinguished. In this decision the court ruled that aboriginal rights are 'not absolute'. Thus if the government decided there is need to infringe upon such rights and if this is justified by needs of society, it can infringe on those constitutionally recognized rights....
Even though this decision recognized aboriginal titles as being protected by the constitution the case also provided the court with an opportunity to complete the theory of the power to 'extinguish' or 'adjust' aboriginals' titles. While in the Sparrow decision the court decided that in case of extinguishments, the government has to show 'clear and plain intention', in Delgamuukw the court specified that the legislation that could infringe aboriginal title must be based on the development of agriculture, forestry, mining and hydro-electric power, the general economic development of the interior, protection of the environment or endangered species, the building of infrastructures and the settlement of foreign populations to support those aims. Thus, in determining legality of extinguishment of aboriginal title, the judicial power is required to assess whether the infringement has been minimal enough, whether fair compensation has been paid and, finally, whether concerned aboriginal groups were consulted before the final decision.
Thus, the Canadian system highlights three major issues regarding indigenous peoples' rights to landB9F1 irst, that indigenous rights are inalienable and can only be surrendered by the Crown. Second, that indigenous titles arise from occupation of land prior to arrival of other settlers and not from any legal recognition (they are generis act). Thus aboriginal peoples have 'historical sovereignty' over their traditional lands, the proof of which is based on historical or physical occupation, and continuity and exclusivity of the occupation. Third, indigenous titles are collective and land cannot be used in a manner 'irreconcilable with the nature of the attachment to the land which forms the basis of the group's claim to aboriginal title'....
During colonial times, rules were based on the idea that white settlers had 'freehold title' over land. As a result, aborigines had no legal right to own land. However, the post-colonial period was equally turbulent due to the policy of resettlement of aborigines in reservations. In legal terms aborigines had no rights not even the right to be part of a treaty...
The Sami peoples, formerly, the inhabitants of Lapland, are divided between the boundaries of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia.ll4 Nowadays, in their relationship with the governments of Norway, Sweden and Finland, their situation is almost similar; in these three countries they have political expression within the 'Sami parliaments' which are advisory bodies to national parliaments and propose legislation regarding Sami issues. However, it is important to note that the Sami parliament does not have any role on the issue of ownership rights. In this regard, the Sami experience in Scandinavia highlights that granting a certain degree of political representaGon before, or without, domestically recognizing rights to land is illusory. Even though it is very important that indigenous peoples have political voice within their states, the land rights issue is of such importance that today in all these countries the political situation is frozen by the lack of development on this crucial issue.
The Inuit live in four areas: Canada, Alaska, Russia and Greenland (see Nuttall 1994). In 1992, in Northern Canada an 'Aboriginal-governed territory' called Nunavut was created after 15 years of negotiation between the government and the Inuit of the Northwest Territories. The Canadian federal parliament has delegated territorial powers to the public government of Nunavut. Via art. 19 of the agreement between Canada and the Tungavik Federation of Nunavut, lands within the new territory are established as 'Inuit-owned'. Such ownership is seen as a way of providing and promoting economic self-sufficiency. The title is owned collectively and vested in the Nunavut government. Thus the situation in Nunavut presents a good example of the manner in which states can deal with indigenous peoples' rights to title to territory....
Diversity is not, in itself, contrary to unity, any more than uniformity itself necessarily produces the desired unity. (Cobo1983: 54,para.402) International law as regards land rights of indigenous peoples is underdeveloped in comparison to national laws. The ILO Convention remains the only legally binding instrument specifically addressing this issue. Even though general protection is afforded by human rights law, this is only a protection by default... In all the case law studied explicit references to international law were made and such case law was of crucial importance for the evolution of national legislation....
In the future it is clearly essential to recognize the importance of the land rights issue for indigenous peoples. If there is no progress on this issue, international law will be unable to offer adequate protection, thus rendering previous declarations of concern expressed by the international community as empty rhetoric. It is clear that such development must be carried out in the face of a 'global market' that commercially values indigenous lands and seeks acquisition of territories where natural wealth is concentrated. Thus there is a real threat of increase in the claims of states, multinational companies and indigenous peoples for ownership of these territories. In this potential battle indigenous peoples in their precarious position are particularly poorly protected. As stated by Rapporteur Daes, 'the gradual deterioration of indigenous societies can be traced to non-recognition of the profound relationship that indigenous peoples have to their lands, territories and resources, as well as the lack of recognition of other fundamental human rights' (Daes 2000: 3)....
International law, as it had developed at the time, was clear that only unoccupied territory could be legally acquired (Jennings and Watt 1992: 567). All other acquisition of territory would need to take place via other means existing within international law, such as cession or treaties of accession....
since the powers themselves remained the ultimate gatekeepers of international law the process remained skewed in their favour.... One of the major problems with this particular regime of redressal is that it remains closed to non-state actors. Yet it is non-state actors who are in the forefront of the renegotiation of territorial rights....
As a result the body set up by the European Commission Committee on Yugoslavia to draw up a new constitution that would accommodate the different peoples of the state within a new structure was forced to 'creatively interpret' its own role (Terrett 2000). Thus the Badinter Arbitration Commission that had been set up to negotiate with different powers in the disintegrating state in a bid to agree on a constitution that would benefit and protect the rights of the different peoples was forced instead to rule on issues of territoriality within modern international law....
The second contemporary situation examined focused on the intricacies of the treatment of territory in a completely different setting. While studying different territories and different eras, it is easy to ignore, as has been done in the creation and sustenance of the sovereign state, indigenous peoples who have lived largely uninterrupted in particular territories. These peoples, sometimes oblivious to systems that are developing around them, are suddenly required to conform to alien systems for their possession of their land to be recognized internationally. In addition, more often than not, their right to the land that sustains them has been ovemdden by the propagation of settlers and settlements that contradict their ethos and render them bereft of the basic rights that they have been exercising for centuries....
Even in that particular era, the rights of indigenous peoples and other peoples who were in a non-dominant position within the transfer of power were rendered voiceless...
Past injustices such as colonization are usually protected from intense scrutiny by modern international law through this rule....While the validity of revisionist notions is being questioned in other forums, it is not the purpose of this book to question the rule itself. Rather the purpose of this book is to demonstrate the extent to which the rule is incoherently and often inappropriately applied to situations governing the treatment of territory in modern international law....
Further, in decolonizing these territories the need for 'international' order was considered so sacrosanct that it overruled the history and geography of the post-colonial entities. Rather than accommodating and negotiating with the diverse peoples that came
within the rigidly defined territories, the simplistic decision was taken to maintain colonial boundaries, an action that was bound to have longer term implications. This action, while nearly universally accepted by western-trained state leaders in Africa, failed to accommodate non-state actors who sought to gain legitimacy by seeking statehood themselves. The result has been numerous so-called conflicts of 'post-modern tribalism' (Franck 1993: 3) as attempts are made to reformulate artificial colonial boundaries (of significance for only fifty years or less) along more historical lines....
Thus in summarizing the propositions of this book the following points can be
made....
I ONLY OFFER THIS ARTICLE AS IT DOES OFFER SOME FACTS AND INFO, AS WELL AS AN OPPOSING VIEW TO MANY WELL PROVEN FACTS. I REFRAIN FROM USING REFERENCE HILITES HERE FOR THE FACT THIS ARTICLE IS AFTER ICE AGE, AND IT ATTEMPTS TO MERGE LANGUAGE, MIGRATIONS, SETTLEMENTS , DNA, ETC. MUCH TO LOOSELY TO COMPARE TO FACTS AFTER THE ICE AGE TO DESCRIBE ANCIENT EUROPE. IT TOUCHES ON FACTS BUT, THEN MISREPRESENTS THE FACTS TO REPRESENT HIS OWN BIAS AND IGNORANCE. LANGUAGE AND SETTLEMENTS DO NOT DEFINE GENETICS. IT CAN OFFER SOME AID IN UNDERSTANDING MIGRATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS BUT THATS ALL. GENETICS IS ULTIMATE PROOF OF A PEOPLE.
THUS, MUCH HERE ARE SOME FACTS BUT, TWISTED INTO OPINION BASED MISTRUTHS. FOR ONE THE AUTHOR TOUCHES ON THE FACT THAT WEST EUROPE WAS NON INDO EUROPEAN BUT ASCRIBES THEM AS BEING NON R1 WHEN FACTS REVEAL R1 IN WEST EUROPE AT LEAST 40KYA. THAT R1B HAD SEVERAL MAJOR MIGRATIONS TO THE EAST AND TO THE WEST. MANY REFERENCES MAKE THIS CLEAR. THE ARTICLE PAINTS A PICTURE THAT THE POST NEOLITHIC R1B ARBINS EXTERMINATED AND STOLE EUROPE FROM OTHER HAPLOGROUPS OF E,F,G,J,I, AND K HG"s AS THEY INVADED FROM THE EAST BY IGNORANCE TO THE FACT THAT THE R1 PEOPLE WERE THE FIRST MODERN MAN IN EUROPE AT LEAST 40KYA, AND IT WAS THOSE OTHER HG"s WHO INVADED EUROPE DURING THE NEOLITHIC WHILE THE R1 PEOPLE WERE ALREADY IN EUROPE IN THE PALEOLITHIC. THE R1 PEOPLE HAD AT LEAST THE WEST EUROPE IBERIAN ICE AGE REFUGIA, AND THE SOUTHERN URAL ICE AGE REFUGIA. R1B HAD SEVERAL MAJOR MIGRATIONS TO WEST EUROPE BEGINNING IN AT LEAST THE PALEOLITHIC. IT HAS BEEN PROVEN THAT E IS FROM AFRICA, AND J AND I CAME FROM MID EAST BOTH DURING THE NEOLITHIC. G IS FROM THE CAUCASUS, AND F IS FROM SOUTH AND EAST ASIA, K IS SPLIT OFF THE IJK SO ITS ORIGINS ARE LINKED WITH THOSE PEOPLE AND CAME IN NEOLITHIC AND LATER. ONLY R1 IS PALEOLITHIC IN EUROPE. THUS, THIS ARTICLE IS ALMOST TOTALLY ABSURD. IF ANY GROUP HAS CAUSED MORE EXTERMINATIONS OF ANOTHER IT IS THE E,F,G,J,I,K PEOPLES WHO INVADED AND STOLE R1 TERRITORY FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA...
DNA Genealogy and Linguistics. Ancient Europe (2013)
https://www.academia.edu/4222630/DNA_Genealogy_and_Linguistics._Ancient_Europe
This article attempts to merge the data of contemporary linguistics and DNA genealogy in order to describe the migrations and settlement of peoples and languages in Europe after the last Ice Age....
THIS ARTICLE DEFINES CERTAIN WORDS WHICH IS VITAL TO FOLLOWING ITS DISCUSSION. "(Y-DNA haplogroups and subclades will be referred to as lineage. Common admixture components defined in recent papers will be referred to as ancestry.)"
THIS IS A LENGTHY PAPER WHICH GIVES BRIEF INSIGHTS TO OTHER THEORIES AND USING ONLY SELECT SOURCES WHILE OMITTING OTHERS THAT ADD MORE DETAILS. THIS PAPER OFTEN CONDRADICTS ITSELF.
MY UNDERSTANDING IS THE R-YDNA LINEAGE AND U-mtDNA LINEAGE IN PALEOLITHIC STRETCHED FROM THE ATLANTIC WEST EUROPE TO AT LEAST SIBERIA. BUT, THE ANCESTRIES (ADMIXTURES) OF THE R LINEAGE CHANGE WITH THEIR MIGRATIONS OVER TIME. THERFORE, THE SEVERAL R ANCESTRIES REMIGRATE AGAIN WITHIN THEIR ANCESTRAL LANDS MUCH LIKE ME MOVING TO MY GGGGGGGGREAT GRANDFATHERS TOWN. I HAVE A DIFFERENT ADMIXTURE THAN HE AND MAYBE DIFFERENT SUBCLADE BUT, THE SAME R LINEAGE.
THIS PAPER GOES ON TO THEORIZE THE VARIOUS MIGRATIONS OF R1b AND R1a, AND SOME OTHER LINEAGES. GOES ON TO SAY THE MORE RECENT ANCESTRIES OF THE R1 LINEAGE IS TODAYS WEST EUROPEAN. NEGLECTING THE INHERITANCE OF THE EARLIER WEST EUROPEAN R LINEAGE AND ITS ANCESTRIES AS IF THEY JUST DISAPPEARED. BUT WE KNOW FROM PREVIOUS GENETICS THAT NW EUROPEANS ARE 50% PALEOLITHIC R LINEAGE ANCESTRIES AND UPTO 85% R-YDNA LINEAGE COMBINED TODAY IN NW EUROPE. UNFORTUNATELY R PALEOLITHIC COMPANION U-mtDNA HAS BEEN REPLACED WITH THE NEOLITHIC INVADERS OF THE MID EAST IN EUROPE SUCH AS H-mtDNA.
THE FIRST MODERN MAN IN EURASIA AND EUROPE PALEOLITHIC R LINEAGE R-M207 (45-65KYA) HAS LESS ANCESTRY FROM THE PALEOLITHIC EURASIAN R-M207 SAMPLES OF UST'ISHIM (45KYA) AND OASE1 IN MODERN EUROPEANS AND DO NOT SHARE ANCESTRY WITH MALTA CLUSTER. HOWEVER, THE PALEOLITHIC WESTERN EURASIAN AND EUROPEAN R-M207 SAMPLES OF KOSTENKI14 (35KYA) AND OTHER SAMPLES DO FORM THE ANCESTRY OF PRESENT DAY EUROPEANS. "(Haplogroup R-M207 is itself descended from a common ancient lineage shared with the Ust’-Ishim man (ca. 43070 BC), probably belonging to the first wave of humans to migrate out of Africa into Eurasia (Fu et al. 2014). Samples from the earliest modern humans (arrived ca. 43000 BC), who probably displaced Neanderthals (and maybe drove them to extinction), and are related to the Ust’-Ishim and Oase1 samples, seem not to have contributed substantially to the ancestry of modern Europeans.
Palaeolithic samples from ca. 35000 BC (Kostenki14) to ca 12000 BC (Villabruna) seem to have descended from a single founder population, do not share ancestry with the Mal’ta cluster, and form part of the ancestry of present-day Europeans.)"
THIS CAN IMPLY SEVERAL THEORIES. R-M207 LINEAGE ITSELF WENT IN AT LEAST 2 DIRECTIONS ONE IN THE EAST TO SIBERIA AND ANOTHER IN THE WEST TO THE ATLANTIC WEST EUROPE GIVING EACH DIFFERENT ANCESTRIES WITH THEIR MIGRATORY ADMIXTURES. THIS MAY HAVE OCCURRED AT THE SAME TIME OR AT LATER AGES. IT MAY ALSO MEAN JUST LACK OF SAMPLES TO SHOW A CONTINUOUS INDIGENOUS R HOMELAND WHICH STRETCHED FROM WEST EUROPE TO SIBERIA IN THE PALEOLITHIC WHICH CREATED MANY SUBCLADES OF R.
THE IJK-YDNA LINEAGE FROM THE NEAR EAST SPLITS AND I-YDNA MIGRATE THRU EUROPE IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC FROM THE NEAR EAST OR BALKANS UP TO SCANDINAVIA CREATING A NOTICEABLE BELT OF I-YDNA TODAY IN CENTRAL EUROPE AND OUTWARDS WITH HEAVIEST CONCENTRATIONS IN CENTRAL EUROPE INVADING THE INDIGENOUS R HOMELAND SPLITTING R1b IN THE WEST AND R1a IN THE EAST.
IN SUMMARY, THIS PAPER IS JUST ANOTHER THEORY AND EXPLAINS OTHER THEORIES OF TIMETABLES AND EVENTS OF THE CLANS. R HG LINEAGE ARE THE NATIVE EUROPEANS AND Q HG LINEAGE ARE THE NATIVE AMERICANS BOTH SHARING EURASIA WITH R TO THE WEST AND Q TO THE EAST, GENERALLY SPEAKING....
Indo-European demic diffusion model 3rd ed. 2017
https://indo-european.eu/2017/10/indo-european-demic-diffusion-model-3rd-ed-revised-october-2017/
The Indo-European demic diffusion model advances the theory that the expansion of Indo-European languages from the steppe was linked to the expansion of R1b1a1a2-M269 lineages Eurasia. A North-West Indo-European group most likely expanded directly with western Yamna migrants into the East Bell Beaker culture, and the Corded Ware culture was probably not associated with the expansion of Indo-European languages. That challenges previous archaeological and linguistic theories concerning the dialectal evolution of Late Proto-Indo-European....
Language and culture expansion is explained by two main alternative models: the demic diffusion model, which involves mass movement of people; and the cultural diffusion model, which refers to cultural impact between populations, and involves limited genetic exchange between them. Language transfer since ancient times seems to be associated with an expansion of people (Mikhailova 2015), which is demonstrated, in most cases, by a significant replacement of patrilineal Y-DNA. Investigation of Y-DNA haplogroups help demonstrate e.g. the expansion of Han people in Northern and Southern China (Wen et al. 2004; Zhao et al. 2015), and the expansion of Arabs in the Arab peninsula (Chiaroni et al. 2010), and into Southern Levant and North Africa (Nebel et al. 2002). Recently, the genetic history of Europe – including the expansion of hunter-gatherers and farmers – has been more precisely shaped thanks to ancient DNA research (Fu et al. 2016).
The recent expansion into Europe and Asia of Eurasian pastoralists, commonly identified with Indo-European speakers in mainstream diffusion models (Gimbutas 1993; Mallory 2014), was linked to haplogroup R1a (Semino 2000; Wells et al. 2001; Zerjal et al. 1999) due to the correlation of its modern geographic distribution with the ancient Corded Ware culture, and modern Balto-Slavic, Germanic, and Indo-Iranian speaking areas (Mirabal et al. 2009; Underhill et al. 2010).
Haplogroup R1b, which shows a modern western European distribution peaking in the British Isles and around historically Basque-speaking regions (Myres et al. 2011; Lucotte 2015), was until recently associated with a Palaeolithic western European origin (Morelli et al. 2010; Semino 2000). With decreased age estimates of haplogroup R1b in Europe, a more recent spread with farming has been suggested (Myres et al. 2011; Chiaroni,
Underhill, and Cavalli-Sforza 2009; Cruciani et al. 2011; Balaresque et al. 2010).
Following these genetic frameworks, Indo-European languages would have spread with an Indo-European-speaking, R1a-dominated, invasive, eastern (Corded Ware culture) population into a non-Indo-European-speaking, R1b-dominated, western Atlantic (Bell Beaker culture) population. This connection was the weakest link between the supposed archaeological and the attested historical European linguistic landscapes, needing
explanatory models that included some kind of cultural diffusion model – e.g. technologically- or economically-based (Brandt et al. 2015).
Ancient DNA (aDNA) investigation allows us to disentangle complex human history (Slatkin and Racimo 2016). The most recent research of ancient genetics (Haak et al. 2015; Allentoft et al. 2015; Mathieson et al. 2015), concerned with general population movements of Eurasians westwards from the steppe, has shown with their published data that haplogroup R1b was almost absent from Western Europe until after the expansion of Eurasian pastoralists. It has also shown that the origin of most of its modern descendants in western Europe is probably to be traced to the Pontic-Caspian steppes, and therefore that its expansion into central Europe happened at nearly the same time as haplogroup R1a, i.e. from the east and after ca. 3000 BC (Haak et al. 2015). In these studies, R1a was almost absent from samples of the Yamna horizon, most of which belonged to haplogroup R1b-M269....
Ancestry of any selected population is likely to be a mixture of several ancient groups, which is reflected on the genetic structure (Haak et al. 2010; Skoglund et al. 2012; Malmström et al. 2009; Lazaridis et al. 2014). However, the genetic landscape for ancient populations is limited by the number of ancient DNA samples and ancient populations studied (Hellenthal et al. 2014). For simplicity purposes, results of published papers will be taken into account in this study, including admixture analyses and SNPs of ancient and modern Y-DNA samples, since mtDNA samples involve a more complex analysis in demic diffusion models – where the paternal lineage of the invaded territory is believed to be replaced or displaced to a certain extent. Y-DNA haplogroups and subclades will also be referred to as lineage, whereas common admixture components defined in recent papers will be referred to as ancestry....
III.1. Palaeolithic
A sample from the Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer Mal’ta boy dated ca. 22350 BC shows that his paternal lineage diverged from haplogroup R-M207* shortly before its split into R1-M173 and R2-M479 subclades (Raghavan et al. 2014). His so-called Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) ancestry contributed substantially to the genetic ancestry of Siberians, Native Americans, and Bronze Age Yamna individuals (Lazaridis et al. 2014), being close to modern-day Native Americans, Kets, Mansi, Nganasans, and Yukaghirs (Flegontov et al. 2016).
Haplogroup R-M207 is itself descended from a common ancient lineage shared with the Ust’-Ishim man (ca. 43070 BC), probably belonging to the first wave of humans to migrate out of Africa into Eurasia (Fu et al. 2014).
Samples from the earliest modern humans (arrived ca. 43000 BC), who probably displaced Neanderthals (and maybe drove them to extinction), and are related to the Ust’-Ishim and Oase1 samples, seem not to have contributed substantially to the ancestry of modern Europeans.
Palaeolithic samples from ca. 35000 BC (Kostenki14) to ca 12000 BC (Villabruna) seem to have descended from a single founder population, do not share ancestry with the Mal’ta cluster, and form part of the ancestry of present-day Europeans. Four population turnovers (see Figure 2 and Figure 3) are distinguished (Fu et al. 2016):
•First, the Goyet cluster appears associated with the Aurignacian cultural complex.
•Second, the Vestonice cluster of western Gravettian culture is associated with the eastern Upper Palaeolithic Gravettian cultural complex, being closely related to individuals from Kostenki (14 and 12) and especially Sungir, which shows that its culture may have spread at least in part by population movements (Sikora et al.
2017).
•Third, the El Mirףn cluster shows the re-emergence of a deep branch of the Goyet cluster in Iberia, associated with the Magdalenian culture, potentially representing a post-Ice Age expansion from south-western European refugia.
•Fourth, the Villabruna cluster, which shows affinity to the Near East, contributes to the ancestry of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of south-eastern Europe, coinciding with the Bרlling-Allerרd interstadial – the first significant warming period after the Ice Age – and the transition within the Epigravettian in southern Europe and the Magdalenian-to-Azilian transition in western Europe.
The Villabruna cluster may therefore reflect migrations or population shifts within Europe at the end of the Ice Age, consistent with the replacement of mitochondrial DNA sequences found. This may be explained by a population expansion from south-eastern European or west Asian refugia after the Ice Age. Within the Villabruna cluster, some individuals have affinity to East Asians, which is not driven by Basal Eurasian ancestry.
III.1.1. R1b-M343 and Western Hunter Gatherer ancestry
Haplogroup R1b-M343 was deemed to have originated ca. 16400 BC in Western Asia (Karafet et al. 2008), and it was proposed that these lineages survived the Last Glacial Maximum in refugia near the southern Ural Mountains and the Aegean Sea (Lobov 2009). It was also proposed that its latest westward migration happened during the Late Neolithic (Myres et al. 2011).
However, an Epigravettian individual of haplogroup R1b1a-L754, dated ca. 12030 BC, was found in Villabruna (Fu et al. 2016). Based on the most recent data of modern populations, an origin of R1b1a-L754 ca. 16900 BC is suggested, with a time to MRCA ca. 15100 BC. Another old European sample classified as R1b-M343 comes from a western hunter-gatherer in Iboussieres.
Hunter-gatherers from the Iron Gates prove the regional continuity of haplogroup R1b1a-L754 (xR1b1a1a-P297, xR1b1a1a2-M269). These samples were probably from branches that have not survived in modern populations, and they cover an extensive period spanning from the first half of the 10th millennium to the first half of the 6th millennium BC, with the latest samples showing already Middle East farmer ancestry (Mathieson et al. 2017; Gonzבlez-Fortes et al. 2017).
More samples possibly related to these ancient branches are found later in Ukraine, Iberia (see below), and central European Neolithic in Quedlinburg as R1b1a-L754 (xR1b1a1a2-M269) ca. 3590 BC (Haak et al. 2015). These samples, coupled with R-M207 samples found in Ganj Dareh (Iranian Neolithic) in the first half of the 9th millennium might suggest a southern Eurasian migration route for R1b1-L278 lineages, through the Iranian plateau.
The samples of basal R1b-M343* lineage in modern populations of southern Kazakhstan (Myres et al. 2011) and Iran (Grugni et al. 2012) give further support to the southern migration route into Europe. Basal R1b1-L278* lineage was found in five cases out of 5,326 cases studied – 3 Italians, 1 West Asian, 1 East Asian (Cruciani et al. 2010) –, which also point to a potential ancestral migration into Europe.
Mesolithic R1b-M343 lineages from Villabruna (Italy ca. 12000 BC) to the latest south- eastern European hunter-gatherers cluster closely together. Their ancestry is defined as of Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG), which includes hunter-gatherer individuals from Bichon (Switzerland ca. 11700 BC), Loschbour (Luxembourg ca. 6100 BC), as well as samples from La Braסa (Iberia ca. 5865 BC), and Koros (Hungary ca. 5710 BC). Ancient individuals from France, Sicily, Croatia, France, and Germany share this ancestry, which suggests that WHG was distributed widely in Europe for at least six thousand years, and probably expanded from a south-eastern European refugium following the last Ice Age ca. 13000 BC (Mathieson et al. 2017).
III.1.2. Indo-Uralic and Afroasiatic
Indo-European has been described as “a branch of Indo-Uralic which was transformed under the influence of a Caucasian substratum” (Kortlandt 2002), which would imply an invasion of Indo-Uralic-speaking peoples to a territory of previous Caucasian hunter-gatherers. Such Caucasian influence has been supported recently by the finding of a genetic contribution (probably during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the steppe, see below) of a pocket of Caucasus hunter-gatherers, who seem to have weathered much of the last Ice Age in apparent isolation (Jones et al. 2015).
Long-ranging language relationships are difficult to prove. If Uralic and Indo-European shared a common ancestor – Indo-Uralic (Kloekhorst 2008) –, its ancestor could be associated to the post-Swiderian east European communities with a majority of WHG ancestry and R1b1a1a-P297 lineages, similar to the Balkan hunter-gatherers from the Iron Gates. If these people and their language expanded from central and south-east European communities of the Villabruna cluster with a majority of R1b1a-L754 lineages, certain hypothetic linguistic communities can be proposed:
It would be conceivable but controversial (Prףsper 2013), for example, to give credit to the nature of Proto-Basque as of Pre-Indo-European substratum (Forni 2013; Blevins 2015) – beyond pre- and post-Roman IE superstrata (Koch 2013). This is supported by the presence of an Iberian Eneolithic sample of R1b1a-L754 (xR1b1a1a2-M269, V88-equivalent) at Els Trocs ca. 5180 BC (Haak et al. 2015), and its potential continuity in north Iberia at least until the Bell Beaker expansion (Mathieson et al. 2017).
Proto-Afroasiatic has been proposed to have emerged in the southern fringe of the Sahara in an “upside-down” view (Bender 2007), while R1b1a2-V88 lineages (and specifically its subclade R1b1a2b1b1a-V69) have been found in north and central Africa, mainly in Chadic-speaking populations, but also in west Egypt and in the Middle East (Cruciani etal. 2010). That lineage, probably related to the Villabruna cluster, could have crossed the Mediterranean into northern Africa quite easily before the end of the Ice Age, possibly through the southern Italian Peninsula. Such an early migration into Africa is supported by the presence of R1b1a-L761 (equivalent to L754, as the sample from Villabruna) at high frequencies among the Toubou population (34%), inhabiting Chad (Haber,Mezzavilla, Bergstrצm, et al. 2016).
The ancestry coming from outside of Africa, related to Eurasian herders (Schlebusch et al. 2017) – found in 20%-30% in the Toubou –, is potentially linked to this migration, since a good proxy for this ancestry (before the recent study of ancient Levantine ancestry) were present-day Sardinians (Pickrell et al. 2014). From northern Africa they could have travelled south and then east, since the Sahara was an important site of occupation and crossing of hominids during the Holocene, with Fezzan-Chad-Chotts, and Chad-Chotts-Ahnet-Moyer megalake green corridors connecting northern and central Africa – with gradual desiccation of the desert, until ca. 4000 BC (Drake et al. 2011).
This old environment could have allowed the for a west-east migration, and for a sizeable population expansion in central Saharan territory. This model would agree with Chadic languages being the most divergent of the Afroasiatic group, excluding Omotic – whose population has been shown to be mainly of sub-Saharan ancestry, in contrast with other Afroasiatic peoples (Baker, Rotimi, and Shriner 2017).
A migration of this R1b1a2-V88 lineage through Iberia seems unlikely, because there is some long-term continuity of an endemic (probably Epipaleolithic) element in Morocco until about the Neolithic expansion associated with the arrival of a Levantine Natufian hunter-gatherer component, and the appearance of haplogroup E-M96 (Fregel et al. 2017), whose continuity in North Africa since then is attested from east to west (Rodrםguez-Varela et al. 2017). A migration through eastern Europe seems still less likely, given the continuity of haplogroups and the ancestry components found in samples from Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt, although it seems to be still today the preferred model of expansion of this haplogroup (Haber, Mezzavilla, Bergstrצm, et al. 2016).
Haplogroup R2a-M124 seems to be prevalent among (ancient and modern) Dravidians, and is also found in the Caucasus, while haplogroup Q-M242 has links to Asian and Native American populations (Huang et al. 2017).
There are thus potential links of linguistic macro-groups to the expansion of certain lineages: one could thus make a simplistic association of Indo-Uralic (and Paleo-Siberian) with R1a-M420 lineages, Dravidic (and potentially Kartvelian and Altaic) with R2-M479 lineages, and Afroasiatic with R1b-M343 lineages, all departing from an older Nostratic language (Bomhard 2008), associated then with R-M207.
However, macro-languages are speculative, and their relationships highly controversial, with such ancient archaeological evolutions – and their relationship to population movements – quite difficult to ascertain. A still more speculative relation with an older Borean macro-family (Gell-Mann, Peiros, and Starostin 2009), for example, could be explained by certain expansions of P1-M45 lineages, which should in turn help determine dialectal evolutions.
III.2. Palaeolithic-Mesolithic transition
The end of the last Ice Age ca. 14000-12000 BC brought instability to the Pontic-Caspian zone: meltwater flew torrentially from the northern glaciers and the permafrost into the Khvalynian Sea (the Caspian Sea is a small remaining part of it). A shoreline between the middle Volga and the Ural River restricted east-west movements south of the Ural Mountains (Anthony 2007). By 11000-9000 BC water may have poured into the Black Sea (Major et al. 2006; Ryan 2007), enlarging it and creating the Sea of Azov. Although the magnitude and rapidity of this flow remains controversial (Yanko-Hombach, Gilbert, and Dolukhanov 2007), it is agreed that meltwater created unstable shores in north-eastern Europe (Patton et al. 2017).
Deglaciation and palaeoclimatic changes were probably more important in their potential for environmental, cultural, social and historical changes of this region, though. A significant deterioration is found during the Younger Dryas – Pre-Boreal period caused by climate aridisation and reduction of overall biomass density in the region, with large group segmentation, local population dispersion, increase in population mobility, and decrease in population density (Smyntina 2016).
In the Boreal period, the Pontic-Caspian steppe became stable with an increase in climatic humidity, and a growth of biomass density. Hunters – probably from eastern and western regions – settled there and population density increased. The different migration times and paths of R1a-M420 and R1b-M343 lineages put the Ural-Caspian frontier as a linguistic and cultural barrier that might have been crossed during this period....
III.2.1. R1a-M420 and Eastern Hunter-Gatherer ancestry
Haplogroup R1a-M420 originated ca. 25000 BC, and was proposed to diverge initially in the vicinity of present-day Iran based on a study of modern populations (Underhill et al. 2015). Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) ancestry is represented by two individuals from Karelia – one of haplogroup R1a1a1-M417 (ca. 6425 BC) and the other of haplogroup J (ca. 5250 BC) – and one individual from Samara (ca. 5600 BC), of haplogroup R1b1a1a-P297 (Mathieson et al. 2017). It has more ANE ancestry than any other ancient or modern population (Haak et al. 2015), being close to the sample from Afontova Gora (ca. 15980 BC), to the west of Lake Baikal....
R1b-M343 lineages may have thus brought WHG ancestry to the north Pontic steppe during the Mesolithic, either from south-eastern Europe or from the Swiderian culture (see above). Supporting this eastern migration, samples of R1b1a1a-P297 (xR1b1a1a2-M269) lineage have been found in Latvian hunter-gatherers continuously in different periods, dated from the end of the 9th millennium BC to the end of the 4th millennium BC, including Kunda and Narva cultures (Jones et al. 2017; Mathieson et al. 2017). These Baltic samples show an intermediate ancestry between western and eastern hunter-gatherers, of ca. 70% WHG and 30% EHG, before an increase in EHG is seen during the Neolithic Comb Ware culture expansion (see below Forest Zone)....
V. Conclusion
Careful cross-disciplinary investigation of ancient DNA samples recently published supports a demic diffusion model for the expansion of Indo-European-speaking peoples directly into central and western Europe through the Bell Beaker culture, challenging previous archaeological and linguistic theories based on the expansion through the Corded Ware culture. Potential consequences of this new model in archaeological and linguistic investigation have been outlined in this paper, among them the development of a stable framework of time and space for Indo-European dialectal classification, allowing for a more precise dating of Indo-European branches and their splits and expansions, and why and how they might have occurred.
Mystery of 2,100-year-old Death Mask Found to Contain Ram’s Skull
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/death-mask-0013579
Ancient Race of White Giants Described in Native Legends From Many Tribes
Several Native American tribes have passed down legends of a race of white giants who were wiped out. We’ll take a look at a few such legends, including those among the Choctaw and the Comanches of the United States down to the Manta of Peru....
De-faced Skulls and Babies Were Buried in Viking Homes
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/viking-homes-0013668
While the glorified elites of the Viking world were often burned in boats wooden longboats, day to day, the bodies of common Norse people were often discarded crudely... Hem Eriksen thinks Norse people placed great value in having parts of dead bodies, especially bits of skulls, close to daily life...protecting properties and possessions against evil spirits and powers... The later idea is supported by the famous Ribe skull which was discovered in Ribe, Denmark, dating from the Iron Age. Marked with ancient runes and the names of Norse Gods Odin and Tyr a hole drilled in the top of the skulls suggests to archaeologists that it had been used as a form of “amulet to help with pain and disease,” according to the paper. This skull might be associated with beliefs regarding Norse mythology and the giant Mimir, who in the 2007 book Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway , was described as beheaded in the wars with gods and his skull was carried by Odin who consulted it for secret, arcane universal knowledge....
Hem Eriksen said that in the Viking world children were perceived “as magical objects” and her research indicates it was a tradition to bury children's bodies in the house “for generations”....
New evidence suggests Stone Age hunters from Europe discovered America
New archaeological evidence suggests that America was first discovered by Stone Age people from Europe – 10,000 years before the Siberian-originating ancestors of the American Indians set foot in the New World. A remarkable series of several dozen European-style stone tools, dating back between 19,000 and 26,000 years, have been discovered at six locations along the US east coast....
THIS ARTICLE CLAIMS BRAZIL HAVING THE OLDEST HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE AMERICAS. THIS MEANS THAT THE FIRST PEOPLE OF AMERICAS MUST HAVE COME FROM ATLANTIS, OR THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA, OR WEST COAST OF EUROPE...
Evidence grows that peopling of the Americas began more than 20,000 years ago
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02137-3
A study of radiocarbon dating of early archaeological sites by Becerra-Valdivia and Higham reveals that interior regions of Alaska, Yukon in Canada and the continental United States were already widely populated before 13,000 years ago. For decades, that time frame was widely considered to mark the earliest possible date of initial entry, until data from sites more than 13,000 years old in North and South America, first reported in the 1970s, raised the possibility of earlier arrivals. Archaeological excavations in Chiquihuite Cave in northern Mexico by Ardelean and colleagues provide evidence of human occupation about 26,500 years ago. This Mexican site now joins half a dozen other documented archaeological sites in northeast and central Brazil that have yielded evidence suggesting dates for human occupation between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago....
YAKUTS ARE PATERNALLY 61% N1c (Ht1 AND Ht2). MATERNALLY MORE DIVERSE BUT, MOSTLY 30% C4 AND 13% D5 WITH D5 MORE RECENT. A SMALL GROUP OF TURC SPEAKING N1c CATTLE AND HORSE BREEDERS CAME FROM THE CIS-BAIKAL AREA, AND/OR NORTH MONGOLIA MIXING MOSTLY WITH THE EVENKS WOMEN. THIS FIRST GROUP OF YAKUTS SETTLED IN YAKUTIA SOMETIME BETWEEN 10TH TO THE 15TH CENTURY. MORE RECENT BUT LIMITED ADMIXTURES WITH BURYATS, TUNGUS, MONGOLS, CHINA, KALMYKS, CENTRAL ASIAN, MANSIS, EURASIANS, AND FEW OTHERS...
Human evolution in Siberia: from frozen bodies to ancient DNA
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-10-25
The Yakuts contrast strikingly with other populations from Siberia due to their cattle- and horse-breeding economy as well as their Turkic language. On the basis of ethnological and linguistic criteria as well as population genetic studies, it has been assumed that they originated from South Siberian populations. However, many questions regarding the origins of this intriguing population still need to be clarified (e.g. the precise origin of paternal lineages and the admixture rate with indigenous populations). This study attempts to better understand the origins of the Yakuts by performing genetic analyses on 58 mummified frozen bodies dated from the 15th to the 19th century, excavated from Yakutia (Eastern Siberia)....
Conclusion
We were able to trace the origins of the male lineages to a small group of horse-riders from the Cis-Baïkal area. Furthermore, mtDNA data showed that intermarriages between the first settlers with Evenks women led to the establishment of genetic characteristics during the 15th century that are still observed today....
archaeological data currently agree with the appearance of the Yakut culture around the 14th century A.D.. Recent population genetics data tend to support a dual origin for the maternal lineages of the Yakuts and admixture with the Tungus, and demonstrate that the paternal lines observed today result from a strong bottleneck that led to the restriction of these lineages in the Yakut population...
Y-chromosomal analyses
Twelve different haplotypes were observed....Sixty one percent (8 out of 13) of the haplotypes (Ht1, Ht2, Yaka56, 65, 71, 80, 81, 86) were affiliated to the N1c haplogroup...
Sample YAKa26 was affiliated to haplogroups K.... The Y STR haplotypes of YAKa17 and YAKa26 were found in present day Mongols, Buryats, Kalmyks and Central Asians....
Mitochondrial DNA analysis
We observed 30 different haplotypes among the 60 studied individuals, and 19 were found only once. Twenty nine haplotypes were assigned to different haplogroups with the near matching method. The subject YAKa83, plausibly a young shaman from the early 18th century, was affiliated to haplogroup H6... the ancient Yakuts present high frequencies of haplogroups C and D. Haplogroup C and specifically the lineage C4 represents the most abundant haplogroup in our ancient sample set with a frequency of 30%.... Among haplogroup D, the D5 lineage is present in seven out of 13 individuals and represents 12.5% of the ancient sample set...the two most frequent D5 haplotypes seem to share a recent common ancestor... YAKa23 belonged to haplogroup A4b, that is present at low frequencies in Western and Middle Siberian populations such as the Mansis, Tuvans and Evenks. YAKa78 was assigned to the novel haplogroup A8, found in the Kalmyks and Buryats. Two haplotypes were assigned to haplogroup B: YAKa24 to subhaplogroup B4, which is dispersed throughout Mongolia and China and the sequences of YAKa52 and YAKa53 to subhaplogroup B5... Two sequences belonged to the F1b lineage (YAKa22 and YAKa68), widespread in populations from South Siberia. The haplotype of YAKa71 was affiliated to the M13a subhaplogroup present in Buryats, Khamnigans and Mongols. The proportion of the sequences affiliated to the West Eurasian haplogroups (H, J, K, T and W) was low in our ancient sample set, as the merged frequencies corresponded to 8.3% (5 samples). The sequence of YAKa83 was affiliated to subhaplogroup H6 which is characteristic for Central Asians and less frequent in Western Europe....
The haplotypes belonging to haplogroup C are shared with various populations but most specifically with Buryats (6 out of 11 haplotypes), Evenks (5 out of 11) and Tuvans (6 out of 11). On the contrary the sequences assigned to haplogroup D appear to be more restricted to the Yakut population. This specificity is even higher for the D5 lineages since they are shared only with two Yakut speaking Evenks, one Buryat, one Mongol and one Daur.... the major genetic contribution to the maternal lineages of the Yakuts came from the Evenks....
First presence of the Yakutian ancestors and demographic data:
The first Yakut graves discovered are dated from the 15th and 16th century. From this period until 1689, only male graves with horse riding equipment (children and adults) and weapons from the steppe area (in most adult ancient graves) are found. The funerary ritual was influenced more by Turkish than by Mongolian culture (although this changed at the beginning of the 18th century). It is unlikely that these graves are the first graves of the new settlers, and it is more probable that this period corresponds to the first time with a relatively high population density. During this early period, Y chromosomal Ht1 and Ht2 are already present. Simulations suggest two possibilities: either a very small group arrived around the 10th century, or a more important one arrived between the disintegration of the Mongol empire (around 1294 AD) and the discovery of the first graves....
The high frequency of the haplogroup N1c, which is present from the most ancient graves, and the non-significant Fst values between ancient and present day Yakuts, indicates their stability through time. Thus, this genetic result corroborates the assumption that the Yakuts are a highly homogenous population not only geographically but also from a chronological standpoint. The origin of the most frequent Y-chromosomal haplotypes (Ht1 and Ht2) was difficult to establish on the basis of genetic information. Indeed, these two lineages belonging to haplogroup N1c seem to be restricted to Yakut populations, and were probably present since the period they were first located in Central Yakutia...
Therefore, archaeological data could bring interesting information in tracing back the origin of these enigmatic male lineages. Indeed, the grave goods of the 15th/17th centuries (weapons and horse harnesses) and the construction of coffins with an empty trunk from the 18th century are similar to the burial customs of the Cis-Baïkal area and of the Egyin Gol Necropolis during the 3rd century BC. This suggests that the male ancestors of the Yakuts were probably formed of a small group of horse-riders originating from Northern Mongolia or the Baïkal Lake. Later, the patrilineal clan organization of the Yakuts would have facilitated the diffusion of male lineages borne by the individuals of high social rank. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the Y-chromosomal haplotypes identified by the warriors of the 15th/17th centuries were transmitted to the tojons of the 18th century....
Conversely, the results obtained from the mtDNA analyses revealed a more important diversity and varying origins of the maternal lineages. Indeed, the gene diversity observed in our ancient sample is intermediate compared with the diversity found in small and isolated Siberian groups such as the Chukchi and Mongolian, Buryatian or Central Asian populations. The haplogroup distribution observed in our sample matched that found in present day Yakuts and is constituted by distant haplogroups found in Siberian, Mongolian
and Central Asian populations. The major haplogroup, C4, indicates more specific affinities with the Evenks. Nevertheless, the individual comparison of maternal lineages with data from literature allowed us to precise that four out of the six lineages belonging to the C4 haplogroup were present in the Buryat population. Therefore, the Buryat origin of some of the D5 sub-haplogroups found in the Yakuts as demonstrated by Pakendorf et al. could be expanded to the C4 haplogroup.
The influence of both Buryat and Evenk populations is clearly visible in the mtDNA lineages of the ancient Yakuts. Concerning the contribution of the Evenks to the Yakut’s mtDNA gene pool, the admixture might have mostly occurred between Yakut men and Evenk women according to the high frequency of the C4 haplogroup in these two groups, and since the Y-chromosomal lineages are highly specific to the Yakuts and the genetic diversity indices are lower for Y chromosome than for mtDNA. Moreover, the number of first settlers who arrived in Central Yakutia was certainly limited and the patrilocal exogamy practiced by the traditional Yakut society corroborates the inclusion of autochthonous women. This assumption is further confirmed by linguistic data that reveals intermarriages between the Yakuts and Evenks. Finally, the stability through time demonstrated by the Y chromosome is also observed in the maternal lineages. Indeed, most of the sequences present in our ancient sample (83%) have been transmitted to the present day population....
Based on the analyses of the maternal and paternal lineages of ancient Yakuts, we were able to demonstrate that the formation of this population started before the 15th century, with a small group of settlers composed of horse-riders from the Cis-Baïkal region and a small number of women from different South Siberian origins.... The early expansion of the Yakuts was accompanied by intermarriages between Yakut men and Evenk women as evidenced by the migration rates. Our data also suggest that the genetic characteristics of the Yakuts were already well established in the Central Yakutian population during the 15th century and have remained stable until the present day....
The samples were distributed across five periods archaeologically dated according to changes in the funerary ritual and the grave artifacts found: the first period spans from the
15th century (the most ancient Yakut graves discovered in Yakutia) to 1689 when the trading post of Nertchinsk between Yakutia and China was created, influencing the traditional Yakutian culture to include many Chinese and/or Mongolian traditions; the second period spans from 1689 to 1728, representing the golden age of Yakutia with Mongolian influences; the third period spans from 1728 to the late18th century, a cultural
decline since a new trading post in Kiakhta partially excluded Yakutia from the travel roads; and the latest period begins from the 19th century (Christianization)....
The Vinland Map: A Most Non-European Artifact
https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/vinland-map-0014296
As has been established, the Chinese arrived on Newfoundland Island around early autumn, 1417. Along with the Norse, whom the Chinese rescued from Greenland in 1418, a multi-religious medieval civilization that included elements of both cultures was founded. The Norse called it Vinland. There are clear references in various histories to indicate that the Vatican not only knew about it, but was also receiving tributes from Vinland from as early as the 1400s....
Experts have established that a communications channel existed between Vinland and Rome. For this to occur, a map would have been needed to indicate to the officials at Rome the approximate location of the new Vinland spiritual vineyard (Vinland was known for its wild grapes which led to its name which translates as “land of wine”)....
the lettering on the map was made by a German hand. This deduction about a “German hand” may be close to correct and an astute observation, but that particular German hand was not writing in Germany, but in Vinland....
As has been detailed, a Chinese fleet on a mapping expedition, arrived at Newfoundland Island in 1417. The island was at that time empty of people. The fleet continued north, mapped Hudson Bay, and proceeded south along the western coast of Greenland. Finding the Greenland Norse on the verge of starvation, the Chinese rescued them all and took them to Newfoundland Island, the mythical Vinland the Good of the Greenland Norse people. The Norse, all of whom were Christians, delighted to find themselves in the land of milk and honey, began to send tributes of thankfulness to God, personified in the guise of the Holy See.
[IF THE ISLAND WAS EMPTY OF PEOPLE WHEN THE CHINESE ARRIVED HOW WAS IT THEY FOUND GREENLAND NORSE ON VERGE OF STARVING? AND THE LAND THEY TOOK THEM TO NEWFOUNDLAND ISLAND WAS NAMED VINLAND THE GOOD OF THE GREENLAND NORSE PEOPLE?
THUS THE TIME CHINESE ARRIVED THE NORSE ALREADY HAD A CIVILIZATION ESTABLISHED AND THE AREA WHERE THE CHINESE LANDED WAS NOT POPULATED EXCEPT A FEW STARVING NORSE.]
Wali (administrative title)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wali_(administrative_title)
Wāli, Wā'lī or vali (from Arabic: والي Wālī) is an administrative title that was used in the Muslim World (including the Caliphate and Ottoman Empire) to designate governors of administrative divisions....
In Algeria, a wāli is the "governor" ...In Iran the term is known as Vāli and refers to the governor-general..."Vali" was the title in the Ottoman Empire of the most common type of Ottoman governor...Wāli is the governor of one of the twelve regions of Morocco....In Pakistan, the rulers of the former princely state of Swat were given the title of Wali....
In the Philippines, the term Wa'lī is the name for the titular head of Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao...In Turkey a Vali is a provincial governor of one of the 81 Turkish provinces...
The Last of the Siberian Unicorns: What Happened to the Mammoth-Sized One-Horned Beasts of Legend?
Elasmotherium, also known as the Giant Rhinoceros or the Giant Siberian Unicorn, is an extinct species of rhino that lived in the Eurasian area in the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene eras. They have been documented from 2.6 million years ago, but the most recent fossils come from around 29,000 years ago. The best known of this species, the E. sibiricum , was the size of a mammoth, covered in hair, and is thought to have had a large horn protruding from its forehead, hence the title “Siberian Unicorn”. According to early estimated descriptions, the beast stood around 2 meters (6.56 ft.) tall, 4.5 meters (14.76 ft.) long, and weighted an impressive 4 tonnes....
In March 2016, a beautifully preserved skull was found in the Pavlodar region of Kazakhstan proving that the animal lived until the Pleistocene era, some 29,000 years ago, instead of the previously held belief that they had died out 350,000 years ago.... the beasts were herbivores... While males would have fought for their territory, their habitat spanned from the Don River to the east of modern Kazakhstan. Residue findings show a long habitation of these ancient rhinos in the southeast of the West Siberian Plain....
Legends of the unicorn, or a beast with a single horn, have been around for millennia in China and Eastern Europe.... Cave art from Rouffignac, France, thought to depict the extinct Elasmotherium.... From medieval Northern Russia comes a collection of ballads, called “Golubinaia kniga” or “The Book of the Dove,” coming from Zoroastrianism, but with Christian overtones. These ballads show a righteous unicorn battling a lion...
The Northern Mysteries Current: Futhark and Mystery Schools of the Viking Age
https://www.ancient-origins.net/opinion-guest-authors/schools-viking-age-005971
The Ancient Germanic rune alphabet contains keys which make it possible to trace the origins of the Northern mysteries to shortly after the last Ice Age, 11,000 years ago; more properly the Late Glacial Maximum, lasting from 13,000 to 10,000 years ago....
Ask and Embla are the names of the first man and woman, created by a triad of gods and made from wood. Askr means ‘ash’ and embla ‘elm’....Elm trees practically disappeared around 6,000 years ago...
The Fall of Atlantis: According to esoteric literature, the fall of Atlantis covered a period ranging from 25,000 to 12,000 years ago. Theosophy claims that the final destruction happened at 9,564 BCE. The Atlanteans are said to have fled their sinking continents and relocated to Eurasia. According to Cayce, they fled in three migrations. Similarly, Dion Fortune explains how three migratory waves established the roots of the three great mystery currents. The first wave moved along Northern Europe into Asia. The second went more south and the third even more south, producing the mystery schools of Ancient Egypt. Steiner refers to the people of the first wave as the Hyperborean.
HALF of the Men Found in Medieval Paupers’ Cemetery Had Broken Bones
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/medieval-broken-bones-0014935
Life in Europe during the Middle Ages was difficult and dangerous for the majority of the population. Poverty, disease, and warfare were common, and the poor and working classes bore the brunt of these hardships including more broken bones. In one medieval cemetery, more than half of all the men and 40 percent of the women had broken bones! ...
Forbearers of the Aryan Legacy: The Gurjars (HILITES)
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscellaneous3/The%20Gurjars%20Aryans.rtf
Hilites of this book...
Chapter 1: The Gurjars ..................................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Origins of the human race ................................................ 51
Chapter 3: Origin of Cro-Magnons (Proto-Aryans) .............................. 57
Chapter 4: The Aryans ...................................................................... 63
Chapter 5: Rise of the Aryans and the Age of Empires ........................ 73
Chapter 6: Agricultural Development ................................................ 87
Chapter 7: Impact of Aryans over major religions............................... 99
Chapter 8: Impact of Aryans over major Civilizations........................ 121
Chapter 9: The Luvi and Kushi tribes ............................................... 143
Chapter 10: World War Zero........................................................... 149
Chapter 11: In the Anatolian region ................................................ 161
Chapter 12: In the Levant region ..................................................... 171
Chapter 13: Egypt .......................................................................... 183
Chapter 14: Europe ........................................................................ 293
Chapter 15: The Scythians or Sakas ................................................. 209
Chapter 16: Persia or Iran ............................................................... 215
Chapter 17: The Caucasus .............................................................. 229
Chapter 18: Afghanistan (Bactria-Margriana-Sogdiana-Takshshila).... 233
Chapter 19: Kingdoms in China ....................................................... 239
Chapter 20: Migration into India and Development of Sanskrit ......... 263
Chapter 21: The Kushan Kingdom ................................................... 271
Chapter 22: Huns ........................................................................... 283
Chapter 23: Gurjar dynasties after the Huns .................................... 299
CIRCLE OR CUP-MARK SUMER SCRIPT
SOURCE: POEN https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/britain/POEN.pdf
O = 1 or 10 (A, Ana, As U, Un, etc.). God as Monad, Ana, "The One," Lord, Father-god I-a (or Bel), or In-duru, Sun-god Mas or Mashtu ("Hor-Mazd"). Earth, Heaven and Sun.
OO = 2 or 20 (Tab, Tap, Dab, Man, Min, Nis).
or O Sun-god as "Companion of God," also called
O Buzur, Ra or Zal (= "Sol"), also Nas-atya in Hittite and Sanskrit. Is dual-or 2-faced-the visible Day Sun and Night or "returning" Sun, and origin of Dioscorides. Frequent on Briton monuments and coins.
OOO = 3 or 30 (Es, Ushu) Moon, Moon-god Sin. Also(?) Death (Bat or Mattu) and
Earth (Matu), Sib or Batu or "Fate" = The Three Sybils or Fates.
OOOO = 4 or 40 (Gar Gadur, Nin, Madur).
or OO Mother Goddess Ga-aa(=Gaia) or Ma-a(=Maia,
OO Maya or May) and numerically = "Four" (quarters), "Totality" and "Multitude."
OOO = 5 or 50 (Ia, Ninni, Tas-ia).
OO Archangel messenger Ta's-ia, Ta's or Tesu(b), "man-god of Induru," "Son of the Sun," "Son of Ia" (Mero-Dach or "Mar-duk," "Illil," Adar"). Also his temple.
OOO = 6 or 60 (As, Akkad Sissat).
OOO Sea-storm god or spirit, Mer, Muru or Marutu (Akkad Ramman, Adad and Sanskrit Maruta).
OOOO = 7 or 70 (Sissu, Imin, Akkad Siba).
OOO "Field of Tas" Capital city. (=?Himin or "Heaven" of Goths and "7th Heaven"?).
OOOO = 8 or 80 (Ussa).
OOOO "Field of Ts' [8 was number of Dionysos].
OOOOO = 9 or 90 (Ilim).
OOOO "He-Goat." God Elim (Bel, "En-Sakh" or "En-Lil" or Dara ?) [9 was number of Prometheus].
O = 3600 (Sar, Di) "Perfect, complete, Goodness." God Ana ("The One"). Sun-god Sur (Asur or Bil). Highest Judge (Di) Heaven, Paradise.
O [O with inner circle] = 36,000 (Saru, Infinity).
OO = (Ia) God, Ia or Induru (Indara.)
Simple numerals were written by the Early Sumerians by strokes, such as / for 1, // for 2, /// for 3 and so on up to 9 - a system which has survived in the Roman numerals up to IIII, and on the dials of modern clocks and watches. But when engraved on stones, these lower numeral strokes were at first formed by the easier process of drilling, by the jewelled drill worked by a bowstring fiddle, thus forming circular holes, O, the so-called "cups." The numeral One was called by the Sumerians Ana, Un or As, which is now seen to be the Sumerian origin of our English "One" (Scot Ane, Anglo-Sax. An, Old English Oon, Gothic Ein and Ains, Scand. Een, Greek Oinos, Lat. Unus, French Un); whilst As is now disclosed to be the Sumerian origin of our English "Ace" (Old English As, Greek Eis, Latin As, "unity"). And it is of great significance that this word As, which the Sumerians also used for "God" as "Unity," is the usual title As or Asa, for the Father-god, in the Gothic epics, the Eddas, which, as we have seen, are now believed to have been
largely composed in Ancient Britain. Similarly, the numeral "Two" was called by Sumerians Tab or Dab, which is now disclosed as the Sumerian origin of our English word "Two" (Scot and Anglo-Sax. Twa, Gothic Tva or Tvei, Scand. Tva, Tu, Greek and Latin Duo, Sanskrit Dva- B and V or W being often interchangeable dialectically, as we have seen. The Sumerian reading for "Three" is uncertain; but the numeral "Four" reads Gar and Ga-dur, which thus equate with the Indo-Persian Car, Latin Quatuor, Fr. Qatre, Sanskrit Catur, Gaelic Ceithov and our English Quart and Quarter). Six is As and in Akkad Sissu; Seven is Sissina (or "Six" plus "One") and Sibi in Akkad; and Eight is Ussu, which equates with the Breton Eich, Eiz1 and fairly with the Sanskrit Asta and Scot and Gaelic Acht. And the Sumerian names of other numerals may also prove, on reexamination, to be more or less identical with the Aryan.
The Migration of Symbols by Goblet d'Alviella [1894]
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/miscell
Chapter I. On Symbols Common to Different Races
CHAPTER II. ON THE GAMMADION OR SWASTIKA. (geography, origin, interpretation,)
Chapter III. On the Causes of Alteration in the Meaning and Form of Symbols (great goddess, thunderbolt, st george dragon,)
Chapter IV. Symbolism and Mythology of the Tree (acolytes, semitic, aryan)
Chapter V. On the Transmutation of Symbols (wheel, triscele, cone, key of life)
CHAPTER VI. THE WINGED GLOBE, THE CADUCEUS, AND THE TRISULA.
FUK ROME....
Roman Executions in the Colosseum: The Stories of Laureolus and Androcles
https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-ancient-traditions/roman-executions-0015378
morning fights between different pairs of animals, as well as hunting games known as venationes. Lunch time was around noon, and this was when people could watch the executions of those who had committed serious crimes. In the afternoon the beloved gladiator fights took place. Roman executions of those sentenced to death were staged publicly as a deterrent, so that everyone (including youngsters – whose presence in the Colosseum was encouraged) could see the consequences of committing serious crimes.
Initially, the majority of people convicted to death were deserters, rebels, and fugitives, but later this punishment was extended to war prisoners as well as other types of crimes. The list of crimes punishable by death was quite long. Treason, rebellion against the authority, destruction of crops, night theft, setting fire to a house, rape, deception of a customer, profanation of a temple, violation of a promise, theft of cattle or crops, perjury, changing the borders of a field arbitrarily, and many more were reasons for a capital sentence.... If the sentenced person had Roman citizenship, the Roman method of execution was through decapitation. Surprisingly enough, this was an honorable way to die, as it avoided a slow or particularly brutal death or public humiliation....
There was a wide range of Roman methods of execution. Some people were burned alive ( crematio or ad flammas ) or killed with a sword ( ad gladium ). Others were crucified ( crucifixio), thrown to wild animals ( ad bestias ), obliged to impersonate characters of myth doomed to die, or even tortured and then killed in an attempt to re-enact bloody historical events related to the origins of Rome....the judge was free to choose the death penalty at his own discretion....
Burial Mound Reinterpreted as Oldest War Memorial in the World
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/burial-mound-syria-0015377
Dating to around 2300 BC archaeologists have discovered what they suspect is the “oldest known war memorial ever discovered” at the 'White Monument’ at Tell Banat in Syria. And while for decades this burial mound was thought to hold the bodies of dead enemies of the settlement, it turns out to contain the remains of local warriors. Ancient Mesopotamian texts reference war memorials where the corpses of enemies are piled, although none have ever been found. ...
Stepping Into The Afterlife:...The mound, which connects this world with the sky, would have served as a stage for elaborate community wide death rituals and burial rites.... the mound was fully-functional and it would have “looked much like the Stepped Pyramid of Saqqara, and was about the same size, but it was made of dirt, not stone,”...
7,000-Year-Old Chinchorro Mummies are the World's Oldest
https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/chinchorro-mummies-001947
The Chinchorros were a people who inhabited the coast of the Atacama Desert in what’s now northern Chile and southern Peru between 7000 and 1500 BC. The people of this culture relied on fishing, hunting, and gathering for subsistence. While the earliest known Chinchorro sites date to 7000 BC, mummification, based on current evidence, dates to approximately 5000 BC. This means that the Chinchorro mummies pre-date the more famous Egyptian mummies by two millennia....
The Black Mummy technique was used from about 5000 BC to 3000 BC. It involved dismemberment... The Red Mummy technique was used from about 2500 BC to 2000 BC....remove the internal organs and dry the body cavity....painted with red ochre.
RACE MIXING IS GENOCIDE. THE MONKEY PEOPLE WHO LEFT AFRICA BRED THE ARCHAIC NATIVES WHEREEVER THEY MIGRATED. SOME MORE, SOME LESS. THE ARCHAIC NATIVES ARE EXTINCT NOW WITH VERY LITTLE OF THEM REMAINING IN TODAYS MODERN MAN. THE ADMIXING HAS CAUSED THEIR EXTINCTION. THE NIGGERS IN AUSTRALASIA MIXED WITH DENISOVAN AND EAST ASIANS, AND NEANDERTHAL OF EUROPE BECAME EXTINCT MATING WITH OTHER MONKEY PEOPLE MIGRATIONS....
Philippine Ayta Magbukon People Have Highest Amount of Denisovan DNA in the World
http://www.sci-news.com/genetics/ayta-magbukon-denisovan-dna-09957.html
Since their exit out of Africa, anatomically modern humans have overlapped and interbred with archaic hominins across time and space.... All Eurasians possess uniform levels of Neanderthal ancestry, whereas Australasians uniquely have elevated levels of Denisovan ancestry relative to any other population. Some present-day populations of the Philippines, who self-identify as ‘Negritos’ and who are genetically related to Australopapuans, display significant levels of Denisovan ancestry....
The results show that Ayta Magbukon possess the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world, consistent with an independent admixture event into Negritos from Denisovans. “We made this observation despite the fact that Philippine Negritos were recently admixed with East Asian-related groups — who carry little Denisovan ancestry, and which consequently diluted their levels of Denisovan ancestry,” Dr. Larena said.
“If we account for and masked away the East Asian-related ancestry in Philippine Negritos, their Denisovan ancestry can be up to 46% greater than that of Australians and Papuans.” Together with the recent discovery of Homo luzonensis, the data suggest that there were multiple archaic species that inhabited the Philippines prior to the arrival of modern humans. “The admixture led to variable levels of Denisovan ancestry in the genomes of Philippine Negritos and Papuans,”...
“In Island Southeast Asia, Philippine Negritos later admixed with East Asian migrants who possess little Denisovan ancestry, which subsequently diluted their archaic ancestry.”
“Some groups, though, such as the Ayta Magbukon, minimally admixed with the more recent incoming migrants.” “For this reason, the Ayta Magbukon retained most of their inherited archaic tracts and were left with the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world.”
WHG ARE EHG WHO SEPARATED FROM EAST EURASIANS 40,000 BC AND FROM ANE 22,000 BC, MIXING WITH CRO MAGNON MAN BICHON SWITZERLAND. WHG YDNA IS EXCLUSIVELY R HG PARTICULARLY R1b, AND I HG PARTICULARLY I2. mtDNA IS EXCLUSIVELY U HG PARTICULALY U5 AND U4. WHG HAD BLUE EYES AND DARK SKIN. IN MESOLITHIC WHG TERRITORY WAS CARPATHIANS TO WEST COAST EUROPE....
Western Hunter-Gatherer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Hunter-Gatherer
During the Mesolithic, the WHGs inhabited an area stretching from the British Isles in the west to the Carpathians in the east....The border between WHGs and EHGs ran roughly from the lower Danube, northward along the western forests of the Dnieper... SHGs were in turn an equal mix of WHGs and EHGs. Once widely dispersed throughout Europe, the WHGs were largely displaced by successive expansions of Early European Farmers (EEFs) during the early Neolithic, but experienced a male-driven resurgence during the Middle Neolithic....During the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the Pontic–Caspian steppe further displaced the WHGs. Among modern-day populations, WHG ancestry is most common among populations of the eastern Baltic....
Early European Farmers (EEF), who were however mostly of Anatolian descent. They suggested that WHGs separated from eastern Eurasians around 40,000 BC, and from Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) around 22,000 BC....
WHGs were a mix of Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) and the Upper Paleolithic people (Cro-Magnon) of the Grotte du Bichon in Switzerland. EHGs in turn derived 75% of their ancestry from ANEs. Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHGs) were found to be a mix of EHGs and WHGs....
The Ukrainian samples belonged exclusively to the maternal haplogroup U, which is found in around 80% of all European hunter-gatherer samples....
Unlike most WHGs, the WHGs of the eastern Baltic did not receive European farmer admixture during the Neolithic. Modern populations of the eastern Baltic thus harbors a larger amount of WHG ancestry than any other population in Europe....
The DNA of eleven WHGs from the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in Western Europe, Central Europe and the Balkans was analyzed...Of the nine samples of Y-DNA extracted, six belonged to I haplotypes (particularly subclades of I2a), one belonged to C1a2, one belonged to R, and one possibly belonged to J. Of the eleven samples of mtDNA extracted, nine belonged to U5b1 haplotypes, one belonged to U5a2c, and one belonged to an U2 haplotype.... Thirty-seven samples were collected from Mesolithic and Neolithic Ukraine (9500-6000 BC)....exclusively to R haplotypes (particularly subclades of R1b1) and I haplotypes (particularly subclades of I2). mtDNA belonged almost exclusively to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4)... Kunda culture and Narva culture in the eastern Baltic, were analyzed....Y-DNA of this site belonged almost exclusively to haplotypes of haplogroup R1b1a1a and I2a1. The mtDNA belonged exclusively to haplogroup U (particularly subclades of U2, U4 and U5). Forty individuals from three sites of the Iron Gates Mesolithic in the Balkans were also analyzed.... exclusively haplogroup R1b1a and I (mostly subclades of I2a) haplotypes. mtDNA belonged mostly to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4)....
Whole-genome analysis indicates that WHGs had blue eyes, dark brown or black hair, and skin colour varying from intermediate to dark-to-black.
Eastern Hunter Gatherers (EHG) derive 3/4 of their ancestry from the ANE... Scandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHG) are a mix of EHG and WHG; and WHG are a mix of EHG and the Upper Paleolithic Bichon from Switzerland.
EHG ARE SIMILAR BUT DISTINCT FROM WHG AND EHG HAVE MORE ANE, AND R1a. IN MESOLITHIC EHG TERRITORY WAS FROM BALTIC TO URALS. EHG YDNA WAS EXCLUSIVELY R HG PARTICULARLY R1b AND R1a, AND I HG PARTICULARLY I2. mtDNA IS EXCLUSIVELY U HG PARTICULALY U5 AND U4. EHG WERE LIGHT SKIN AND BROWN EYE...
Eastern Hunter-Gatherer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Hunter-Gatherer
During the Mesolithic, the EHGs inhabited an area stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Urals and downwards to the Pontic–Caspian steppe....The border between WHGs and EHGs ran roughly from the lower Danube, northward along the western forests of the Dnieper towards the western Baltic Sea....
EHGs as 9% ANE and 91% descended from a group more closely related to but distinct from WHGs. During the Neolithic and early Eneolithic, EHGs on the Pontic–Caspian steppe formed the Yamnaya culture, after some admixture with Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHGs). The genetic cluster formed from this admixture is known as Western Steppe Herder (WSH)....
The EHG male of Samara (dated to ca. 5650-5550 BC) carried Y-haplogroup R1b1a1a* and mt-haplogroup U5a1d. The other EHG male, buried in Karelia (dated to ca. 5500-5000 BC) carried Y-haplogroup R1a1 and mt-haplogoup C1g....
Mathieson et al. (2018) analyzed the genetics of a large number of skeletons of prehistoric Eastern Europe. Thirty-seven samples were from Mesolithic and Neolithic Ukraine (9500-6000 BC). These were classified as intermediate between EHG and SHG. The males belonged exclusively to R haplotypes (particularly subclades of R1b1 and R1a) and I haplotypes (particularly subclades of I2). mtDNA belonged almost exclusively to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4).
A large number of individuals from the Zvejnieki burial ground, which mostly belonged to the Kunda culture and Narva culture in the eastern Baltic, were analyzed. These individuals were mostly of WHG descent in the earlier phases, but over time EHG ancestry became predominant. The Y-DNA of this site belonged almost exclusively to haplotypes of haplogroup R1b1a1a and I2a1. The mtDNA belonged exclusively to haplogroup U (particularly subclades of U2, U4 and U5).
Forty individuals from three sites of the Iron Gates Mesolithic in the Balkans were also analyzed. These individuals were estimated to be of 85% WHG and 15% EHG descent. The males at these sites carried exclusively R1b1a and I (mostly subclades of I2a) haplotypes. mtDNA belonged mostly to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4)....
The EHGs are believed to have been light-skinned and brown eyed.
EEF ARE A PEOPLE WHO SPLIT FROM WHG 43,000BC AND SPLIT FROM CHG 23,000BC. THE WHG WAS THE R HG MIXED WITH THE I HG, AND THE CHG CONTAINED A G HG. THIS EEF MIGRATES FROM ANATOLIA TO THE BALKANS IN 7TH MILLENIUM BC. IN THE PALEOLITHIC AGE THE FIRST EUROPEAN PEOPLE R/K HG LINEAGE WAS INVADED BY THE I HG ABOUT 19KYA TO 14KYA WHO REPLACED AND DISPLACED MUCH OF THE FIRST R/K PEOPLE. THESE I PEOPLE MIX IN AND THE WHG BECOMES A MIX OF R1b AND I2 HG. DURING THE EARLY NEOLITHIC THE EEF MIGRATE WESTWARD AND NORTH. BY THE MID NEOLITHIC THE WHG BEGIN TO TAKE BACK THEIR TERRITORIES IN EUROPE. IN THE BRONZE AGE THE YAMNAYA R1b BRANCH TAKES BACK HIS WEST EUROPEAN TERRITORY.
A SIGNIFICANT SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE WHG AND EHG BORDER SEEMS TO BE WHERE THE CONCENTRATION OF I YDNA HG OCCURS IN CENTRAL EUROPE WHICH MAY HAVE DIVIDED THE FIRST R1 PEOPLE WHICH RANGED FROM ATLANTIS WEST COAST EUROPE TO SIBERIA. THEN MESOLITHIC THE I HG MOVING NORTH AND OUTWARDS FROM THE BALKENS DISPLACES THE R1 PEOPLE FORMING A DIVIDE OF R1b WEST AND R1a EAST. WITH SOME REMNANTS REMAINING....
Early European Farmers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_European_Farmers
Early European Farmers (EEF), First European Farmers (FEF), Neolithic European Farmers or Ancient Aegean Farmers (ANF) are names given to a distinct ancestral component that represents descent from early Neolithic farmers of Europe....
Ancestors of EEFs are believed to have split off from Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs) around 43,000 BC, and to have split from Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHGs) around 23,000 BC. They appear to have migrated from Anatolia to the Balkans in large numbers during the 7th millennium BC, where they almost completely replaced the WHGs. The Y-DNA of EEFs was typically types of haplogroup G2a, and to a lesser extent H, T, J, C1a2 and E1b1, while their mtDNA was diverse....
During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the Pontic–Caspian steppe, who were Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG) with CHG admixture. These invasions led to EEF Y-DNA in Europe being almost entirely replaced with EHG/WSH Y-DNA (mainly R1b and R1a)....
Funnelbeaker culture of southern Scandinavia were largely of EEF descent, with slight hunter-gatherer admixture, suggesting that the emergence of the Neolithic in Scandinavia was a result of human migration from the south. The Funnelbeakers were found to be genetically highly different from people of the neighboring hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture; the latter carried no EEF admixture and were instead genetically similar to other European hunter-gatherers....
the amount of WHG ancestry among EEFs had significantly increased during the Middle Neolithic, documenting a WHG resurgence. It was found that EEF Y-DNA was typically types haplogroup G2a, while their mtDNA was diverse. During the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, G2a nearly disappears from Europe and is replaced with types of R1b and R1a, indicating a massive migration of people out of the Pontic–Caspian steppe....
the ancestors of the EEF had split off from WHG around 43,000 BC, possibly through a migration of WHG into Europe. Around 23,000 BC, EEFs ancestors had again split into EEFs and Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHGs)....
With regards Y-DNA, EEF males typically carried types of G2a....
Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic peoples of Iberia were found to be genetically similar to each other, and harbored reduced levels of EEF and increased levels of WHG ancestry compared to Early Neolithic individuals of the region.... It was found that the initial westward spread of the EEFs from the Balkans was accompanied only by slight admixture with hunter-gatherer populations. Peoples of Middle Neolithic and Chalcolithic Iberia were found to carry about 75% EEF ancestry and 25% WHG ancestry, more WHG ancestry than Early Neolithic Iberians. Significant reductions in EEF ancestry during the later phases of the Neolithic was also observed in Central Europe, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the region....
EEFs had initially spread agriculture throughout Europe largely without admixture with local WHGs. It was proposed that this process had started through a single massive migration from Anatolia into the Balkans in the 7th millennium BC. The EEFs had subsequently split into two wings, one which spread northwards along the Danube through the Linear Pottery culture, and another which spread westward across the Mediterranean coast through the Cardial Ware culture. By 5600 BC, these cultures had brought agriculture to Iberia and Central Europe....
Els Trocs, Spain c. 5300 BC. They were found to be genetically different from contemporary populations of Iberia, and were instead more similar to EEFs of Central Europe. The authors of the study suggested that they were migrant farmers from Central Europe who had been a victims of an ethnic cleansing carried out by local hunter-gatherer groups, or by other (either local or also migrant) farmer groups seeking to defend their territories....
Neolithic Ireland. They were found to be largely of EEF ancestry (with WHG admixture), and were closely related to peoples of Neolithic Britain and Iberia. It was found that the Neolithic peoples of Ireland had almost entirely replaced the native Irish Hunter-Gatherers through a rapid maritime colonization. Peoples of the Irish and British Neolithic carried almost entirely the paternal haplogroup I-M284 (a WHG Y-haplogroup)...
European hunter-gatherers were much taller than EEFs, and the replacement of European hunter-gatherers by EEFs resulted in a dramatic decrease in genetic height throughout Europe. During the later phases of the Neolithic, height increased among European farmers, probably due to increasing admixture with hunter-gatherers. During the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, further reductions of EEF ancestry in Europe due to migrations of peoples with steppe-related ancestry is associated with further increases in height. High frequencies of EEF ancestry in Southern Europe might explain the shortness of Southern Europeans as compared to Northern Europeans, who carry increased levels of steppe-related ancestry.
FIRST FARMERS WAS NOT A POPULATION REPLACEMENT RATHER THE TECHNOLOGY WAS SPREAD TO LOCAL HUNTER GATHERERS WHO ADAPTED THE PRACTISE AS IS SHOWN GENETICALLY DIFFERENTIATION OF IRAN FARMERS COMPARED TO LEVANT FARMERS. THE CHALCOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE BEGAN THE MIXING OF LEVANT AND IRAN/CAUCUSUS. EUROPES FARMER CAME FROM THE NEOLITHIC NORTHWEST ANATOLIAN FARMER NOT THE LEVANT. LEVANT FARMER CONTRIBUTED TO EARLY EAST AFRICAN ANCESTRY NOT ANATOLIAN NOR EUROPEAN. ANCIENT NORTH INDIANS ARE WEST IRANIANS AND BRONZE AGE STEPPE. THE NORTHWEST ANATOLIANS ANCESTRY IS RELATED TO EUROPEAN HUNTER GATHERERS WITH ITS ANE COMPONENT MORE EXTREME THAN ITS UPPER PALEOLITHIC BICHON...
The genetic structure of the world’s first farmers
http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/059311
between ~12,000-1,400 BCE...the earliest populations of the Near East derived around half their ancestry from a ‘Basal Eurasian’ lineage that had little if any Neanderthal admixture and that separated from other non-African lineages prior to their separation from each other. The first farmers of the southern Levant (Israel and Jordan) and Zagros Mountains (Iran) were strongly genetically differentiated, and each descended from local hunter-gatherers. By the time of the Bronze Age, these two populations and Anatolian-related farmers had mixed with each other and with the hunter-gatherers of Europe to drastically reduce genetic differentiation. The impact of the Near Eastern farmers extended beyond the Near East: farmers related to those of Anatolia spread westward into Europe; farmers related to those of the Levant spread southward into East Africa; farmers related to those from Iran spread northward into the Eurasian steppe; and people related to both the early farmers of Iran and to the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppe spread eastward into South Asia....
Previous work has shown that the first European farmers harboured ancestry from a Basal Eurasian lineage that diverged from the ancestors of north Eurasian hunter-gatherers and East Asians before they separated from each other... The ‘Basal Eurasians’ are a lineage hypothesized to have split off prior to the differentiation of all other Eurasian lineages, including both eastern non-African populations like the Han Chinese, and even the early diverged lineage represented by the genome sequence of the ~45,000 year old Upper Paleolithic Siberian from Ust’-Ishim... We obtain the highest estimates in the earliest populations from both Iran (66±13% in the likely Mesolithic sample, 48±6% in Neolithic samples), and the Levant (44±8% in Epipaleolithic Natufians), showing that Basal Eurasian ancestry was widespread across the ancient Near East.
West Eurasians harbour significantly less Neanderthal ancestry than East Asians,
which could be explained if West Eurasians (but not East Asians) have partial ancestry from a source diluting their Neandertal inheritance...By extrapolation, we infer that the Basal Eurasian population had lower Neanderthal ancestry than non-Basal Eurasian populations and possibly none...The finding of little if any Neanderthal ancestry in Basal Eurasians could be explained if the Neanderthal admixture into modern humans 50,000-60,000 years ago largely occurred after the splitting of the Basal Eurasians from other non-Africans. It is striking that the highest estimates of Basal Eurasian ancestry are from the Near East, given the hypothesis that it was there that most admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans occurred. This could be explained if Basal Eurasians thoroughly admixed into the Near East before the time of the samples we analyzed but after the Neanderthal admixture....
A population without Neanderthal admixture, basal to other Eurasians, may have plausibly lived in Africa. Craniometric analyses have suggested that the Natufians may have migrated from north or sub-Saharan Africa, a result that finds some support from Y chromosome analysis which shows that the Natufians and successor Levantine Neolithic populations carried haplogroup E,... However, no affinity of Natufians to sub-Saharan Africans is evident in our genome-wide analysis, as present-day sub-Saharan Africans do not share more alleles with Natufians than with other ancient Eurasians....
Our data document continuity across the hunter-gatherer / farming transition, separately in the southern Levant and in the southern Caucasus-Iran highlands.... ADMIXTURE, and outgroup f3 analysis cluster Levantine hunter gatherers (Natufians) with Levantine farmers, and Iranian and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers with Iranian farmers...We confirm this in the Levant by showing that its early farmers share significantly more alleles with Natufians than with the early farmers of Iran:... The early farmers of the Caucasus-Iran highlands similarly share significantly more alleles with the hunter-gatherers of this region than with the early farmers from the Levant:... Almost all ancient and present-day West Eurasians have evidence of significant admixture between two or more ancestral populations...
Among first farmers, those of the Levant trace ~2/3 of their ancestry to people related to Natufian hunter-gatherers and ~1/3 to people related to Anatolian farmers. Western Iranian first farmers cluster with the likely Mesolithic HotuIIIb individual and more remotely with hunter-gatherers from the southern Caucasus, and share alleles at an equal rate with Anatolian and Levantine early farmers, highlighting the long-term isolation of western Iran.
During subsequent millennia, the early farmer populations of the Near East expanded in all directions and mixed, as we can only model populations of the Chalcolithic and subsequent Bronze Age as having ancestry from two or more sources. The Chalcolithic people of western Iran can be modelled as a mixture of the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG),... Admixture from populations related to the Chalcolithic people of western Iran had a wide impact, consistent with contributing ~44% of the ancestry of Levantine Bronze Age populations in the south and ~33% of the ancestry of the Chalcolithic northwest Anatolians in the west. Our analysis show that the ancient populations of the Chalcolithic Iran, Chalcolithic Armenia, Bronze Age Armenia and Chalcolithic Anatolia were all composed of the same ancestral components, albeit in slightly different proportions...
Admixture did not only occur within the Near East but extended towards Europe. To the north, a population related to people of the Iran Chalcolithic contributed ~43% of the ancestry of early Bronze Age populations of the steppe. The spread of Near Eastern ancestry inferred into the Eurasian steppe was previously without access to ancient samples, by hypothesizing a population related to present-day Armenians as a source. To the west, the early farmers of mainland Europe were descended from a population related to Neolithic northwestern Anatolians. This is consistent with an Anatolian origin of farming in Europe,... We can rule out the hypothesis that European farmers stem directly from a population related to the ancient farmers of the southern Levant....
Migrations from the Near East also occurred towards the southwest into East African
populations which experienced West Eurasian admixture ~1,000 BCE. Previously, the
West Eurasian population known to be the best proxy for this ancestry was present-day
Sardinians, who resemble Neolithic Europeans genetically. However, our analysis
shows that East African ancestry is significantly better modelled by Levantine early farmers than by Anatolian or early European farmers, implying that the spread of this ancestry to East Africa was not from the same group that spread Near Eastern ancestry into Europe...
In South Asia, our dataset provides insight into the sources of Ancestral North Indians (ANI), a West Eurasian related population that no longer exists in unmixed form but contributes a variable amount of the ancestry of South Asians. We show that it is impossible to model the ANI as being derived from any single ancient population in our dataset. However, it can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of western Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe; all sampled South Asian groups are inferred to have significant amounts of both ancestral types. The demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial, as the Mala, a south Indian population with minimal ANI along the ‘Indian Cline’ of such ancestry is inferred to have ~18% steppe-related ancestry, while the Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have ~50%, similar to present-day northern Europeans....
Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) ancestry related to the ~22,000 BCE Mal’ta 1 and ~15,000 BCE Afontova Gora on populations living in Europe, the Americas, and Eastern Eurasia. Eastern Eurasians can be modelled as arrayed along a cline with different proportions of ANE ancestry...ranging from ~40% ANE in Native Americans matching previous findings, to no less than ~5-10% ANE in diverse East Asian groups including Han Chinese... We also document a cline of ANE ancestry across the east-west extent of Eurasia. Eastern Hunter Gatherers (EHG) derive ~3/4 of their ancestry from the ANE; Scandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHG) are a mix of EHG and WHG; and WHG are a mix of EHG and the Upper Paleolithic Bichon from Switzerland. Northwest Anatolians—with ancestry from a population related to European hunter-gatherers are better modelled if this ancestry is taken as more extreme than Bichon...
Conclusions:
By analysing genome-wide ancient DNA data from ancient individuals from the Levant,
Anatolia, the southern Caucasus and Iran, we have provided a first glimpse of the
demographic structure of the human populations that transitioned to farming. We reject the hypothesis that the spread of agriculture in the Near East was achieved by the dispersal of a single farming population displacing the hunter-gatherers they encountered. Instead, the spread of ideas and farming technology moved faster than the spread of people, as we can determine from the fact that the population structure of the Near East was maintained throughout the transition to agriculture....
Ancient DNA Rewrites Story of Japanese Ancestry
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/japanese-ancestry-0015838
genetic origins from three different, ancient populations.... early indigenous Jomon hunter-gatherers and immigrant Yayoi farmers....third genetic component comes from the Kofun people, a Japanese cultural phase that rapidly advanced between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD... The Jomon people occupied the Japanese archipelago between 16,000 and 3,000 years ago, while the Yayoi migrated from the Asian mainland (specifically the northeast) and lived in Japan between 900 BC and 300 AD... Based on the study results, the Kofun DNA comprised 71% of the genetic Japanese ancestry, versus 13% and 16% respectively for the Jomon and Yayoi DNA.... Kofun ancestry most closely resembled the genetics of the Han people, who make up most of the population of China....
indigenous Jomon people...genetically distinct population with an unusually high affinity between all sampled individuals—even those differing by thousands of years in age and excavated from sites on different islands," explained Niall Cooke, a researcher at Trinity. "These results strongly suggest a prolonged period of isolation from the rest of the continent." ...
Japan’s geographical separation from the rest of the Asian continent, along with an extended period of isolation between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago...because of rising sea levels that led to an overall “deep divergence from continental populations,” leading to an increased insularization....
Beer drinking 9,000 years ago in Southern China
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/08/210831095623.htm
A new study finds evidence of beer drinking 9,000 years ago in southern China, which was likely part of a ritual to honor the dead. The findings are based on an analysis of ancient pots found at a burial site at Qiaotou, making the site among the oldest in the world for early beer drinking. ... "the earliest known painted pottery in the world."...
To confirm that the vessels were used for drinking alcohol, the research team analyzed microfossil residues extracted from the interior surfaces of the pots...The team identified microbotanical (starch granules and phytoliths) and microbial (mold and yeast) residues in the pots that were consistent with residues from beer fermentation...
"Through a residue analysis of pots from Qiaotou, our results revealed that the pottery vessels were used to hold beer, in its most general sense -- a fermented beverage made of rice (Oryza sp.), a grain called Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), and unidentified tubers,"...
WHEN LAW AND CONSTITUTION DISAGREE WHICH IS SUPREME? IN THE UNITED SLAVES THE CONSTITUTION WAS SUPPOSED TO BE SUPREME BUT THE USA JUST MAKES LAWS THAT SAY LAW IS SUPREME DESPITE THE LAWS MOST OBVIOUS AND BLATANT CONTRADICTIONS...
Poland’s top court rules its constitution trumps some EU laws
European laws were unconstitutional and could not be honored in Poland because this would prevent the country functioning as a “sovereign and democratic state” and would “stop the Polish constitution being the supreme law of Poland.” The European Union, she added, “acts outside the competence delegated to it in the treaties.”...
leaving the government to press on with its case before the constitutional court, based on arguments that the Polish constitution, not EU courts, must be the ultimate legal arbiter.
The government has said it has no intention of leaving the union, which has provided billions of dollars in funding...
Brussels has hit back at Poland’s previous refusal to dismantle the disciplinary system by asking the European court to impose a penalty of up to $1.2 million per day on Poland. In a further sign of rising tension, the commission last month acknowledged that it was withholding $42 billion in payments to Poland from the bloc’s coronavirus recovery fund because of the country’s challenges to the supremacy of EU law....
Norse Explorers Reached Azores 700 Years Before Portuguese
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/norse-explorers-azores-0015925
According to an article on PHYS, co-author Timothy Shanahang of the University of Texas said the team analyzed stigmastanol samples from fecal matter that had been left on the island by imported animals, and they all dated to between 700 and 850 AD, 700 years before the supposed Portuguese discovery. This early occupation date was supported by the results of an analysis of sediment cores taken from Pico Island's Lake Peixinho. These samples showed an “increase in charcoal particles” in the 8th century suggesting the first explorers burned huge fires. According to Northern Bush , “slash and burn” was a Norse method of cutting and burning forests and woodlands to create fields and pasture, traditionally known as swiddens. Both the stigmastanol and charcoal samples pointed towards a new settlement date for the Azores of around the mid-8th century....
https://phys.org/news/2021-10-evidence-people-azores-archipelago-years.html
Fate of sinking tectonic plates is revealed
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/11/211111130351.htm
Our world's surface is a jumble of jostling tectonic plates, with new ones emerging as others are pulled under. The ongoing cycle keeps our continents in motion and drives life on Earth. But what happens when a plate disappears into the planet's interior?
The question has long puzzled scientists because conventional wisdom said that sinking tectonic plates must remain intact to keep pulling on the portion behind it, but according to geophysical evidence, they are destroyed.... Plates are significantly weakened as they sink but not so much that they break apart entirely.
The finding came after scientists put tectonic plates through a computer-generated gauntlet of destructive geologic forces. The model showed that as the plate enters the mantle, it bends abruptly downward, cracking its cold, brittle back. At the same time, the bending changes the fine grain structure of the rock along its underbelly, leaving it weakened. Combined, the stresses pinch the plate along its weak points, leaving it mostly intact but segmented like a slinky snake. This means the plate continues to be pulled under despite becoming folded and distorted....
ATLANTIS, A LAND BRIDGE BETWEEN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA AS SEEN IN THE X mtDNA HG, AND MENTIONED IN MYTHOLGIES, AND EARLY WRITINGS...
Beyond The Pillars Of Hercules: Megalithic People Of Kronos Reaching America
https://www.ancient-origins.net/history/pillars-hercules-0016135
Plutarch's (46-125 AD) narrative in De Facie quae in orbe lunae apparet about continental Greeks could be the last memory, miraculously surviving the millennia, of prehistoric settlements of people coming from northern Europe, who reached the American continent in the Megalithic period. Plutarch claims that the island Ogygia (where the Odysseus lived with the nymph Calypso in the Odyssey, lies in the North Atlantic, near the Arctic Circle. Ogygia is identifiable with Nólsoy in the Faroe Islands. Plutarch also says that beyond Ogygia there are three other islands, " as far from Ogygia as from each other ", and beyond them there is " the great continent that surrounds the ocean ". These three islands can be identified as Iceland, Greenland and Newfoundland. This is the transatlantic route to America followed by the Vikings around the year 1000 AD to reach Finland, when the Medieval Warm Period (10 to 12th century) made the voyage easier and free of icebergs. However, during the prehistoric Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO, corresponding to the Megalithic Age), this route was even easier to navigate.
In the same chapter, Plutarch also mentions the "Sea of Kronos" (the North Atlantic) and the "people of Kronos", confirming the fact that the mythical Golden Age of the god Kronos was focused on the Nordic world. The "people of Kronos", therefore probably correspond to the Megalithic civilization, which according to Bettina Schulz Paulsson was characterized by “ an advanced maritime and navigation technology ”. Its disappearance was one of the greatest discontinuities in human history; however, this testimony by De Facie provides insight that the collapse of this prehistoric civilization was most likely caused by the end of the Climatic Optimum, which enveloped the far north in a vice of ice, and interrupted maritime connections between the opposite shores of the ocean.
This Megalithic civilization, that existed in Europe in the fifth millennium BC, predates the Egyptian one. According to Diodorus Siculus the Greek historian of Agyrium in Sicily, (80–20 BC) in his Library of History, the mythical Egyptian god Osiris, considered the "firstborn son of Kronos", travelled the world until he reached "those who lean towards the Pole."
Sea of Cronus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Cronus
The Sea of Cronus was also referred as the Gulf of Rhea and was what today is called the Adriatic Sea. By the Latinized name 'Cronium Mare' it appeared on many 17th century maps. The gulf mentioned by the Sea of Cronus was one of the seas traversed by the Argonauts in Apollonius Rhodius' Argonautica. In Ovid's Fasti the author mentions the ancient idea that Saturn (identified with Cronus), after Jupiter (identified with Zeus) had dethroned him from the celestial realms in Olympus, had wandered through the seas on a ship until he came to the Tuscan river. Hence the peopled were called Saturnian and the land Latium (from latente). From this it may be that the gulf became known as the Sea of Cronus. In Ignatius Donnelly's Atlantis: The Antediluvian World (1882) the author mentions that the Romans referred to the Atlantic as the 'Cronian Sea'.
Sea of Cronos
https://atlantipedia.ie/samples/sea-of-kronos/
the frozen Cronian Sea 7 days north of Britain
The Mysterious Island of Chronos/Cronos:
Stonehenge, New Hampshire or Lundy!?
some have said that it is one of the Hebrides, some have said Stonehenge (hmmmm), some Lundy, some Glastonbury, others Greenland or Iceland and some an Amerindian temple in New England...
quotation from Homer: An isle, Ogygia, lies far out at sea, a run of five days off from Britain as you sail westward; and three other islands equally distant from it and from one another lie out from it in the general direction of the summer sunset. In one of these, according to the tale told by the natives, Cronus is confined by Zeus, and the antique Briareus, holding watch and ward over those islands and the sea that they call the Cronian main, has been settled close beside him, The great mainland, by which the great ocean is encircled, while not so far from the other islands, is about five thousand stades from Ogygia, the voyage being made by oar, for the main is slow to traverse and muddy as a result of the multitude of streams. The streams are discharged by the great land-mass and produce alluvial deposits, thus giving density and earthiness to the sea, which has been thought actually to be congealed. On the coast of the mainland Greeks dwell about a gulf which is not smaller than the Maeotis and the mouth of which lies roughly on the same parallel as the mouth of the Caspian sea. These people consider and call themselves continentals and the inhabitants of this land because the sea flows around it on all sides; and they believe that with the peoples of Cronus there mingled at a later time those who arrived in the train of Heracles and were left behind by him and that these latter so to speak rekindled again to a strong, high flame the Hellenic spark there which was already being quenched and overcome by the tongue, the laws, and the manners of the barbarians. Therefore Heracles has the highest honours and Cronus the second.
This is incredibly dense so let us give our interpretation: it would also be useful to have the Greek typed up, but this is a long day… To get to the Isle of Cronos you have to sail westwards off Britain five days to Ogygia [Ireland?] and then another five days to a second island and five more days to a further island and five more days to a fourth island. We are speaking about twenty days sailing to the west then: Iceland would work but it is in the wrong direction. If we take this as a geographical text – Beach would be very sceptical – then the Caribbean perhaps fits the bill. In any case, on one of these islands – five, ten or fifteen or twenty days sailing – Cronos is imprisoned. Beyond these islands is another continent ‘the great mainland’ which Greeks believed encircled the ocean and where a colony of Greeks is said to be based! Beach has little patience with the idea that there were established links between the New World and the Old World in classical times, but he is always surprised that diffusionists don’t use this text more. Plutarch then describes a peculiar ritual carried out by Europeans, perhaps Britons.... Now when they have put to sea the several voyagers meet with various fortunes as one might expect ; but those who survive the voyage first put in at the outlying islands, which are inhabited by Greeks, and see the sun pass out of sight for less than an hour over a period of thirty days, and this is night, though it has a darkness that is slight and twilight glimmering from the west. This seems to be a description of the Arctic north....
Kronos Κρόνος Cronos Father of the Olympians
https://mythagora.com/bios/kronos.html
Kronos is one of the Titans, which was one of the earliest generations of Immortals to inhabit the earth. Kronos's mother was Ge (Earth) was the second Immortal to come into existence ... her first creation was Ouranos (Heaven).... Kronos—the father of the Olympians....
Ge gave Kronos the flint sickle with its jagged edge and hid him in a secret place so he could surprise Ouranos. Just as Ge predicted, Ouranos came to her as night fell ... Kronos leapt from his hiding spot, took the sickle in his left hand and struck his father ... Ouranos was caught unawares and did not have an opportunity to protect himself from the cruel flint ... his male members were cut off and the drops of blood were absorbed by Ge. As the seasons passed, Ouranos's blood gave life to Erinys (punisher of the unfaithful), the Giants, and the Meliae (Nymphs of the Ash Tree). The remaining flesh fell into the sea and from the foam and water a maiden was created ... this maiden became the goddess of love, Aphrodite....
The first generation of mortal men to live on the earth was created by the Immortals when Kronos was reigning from Mount Olympos ... they were called the Golden Generation and the time in which they lived was known as the Golden Age....
Zeus gathered the Immortals who seemed inclined to become his allies against the Titans... The War of the Titans shook the earth to its foundations ... the gods and goddesses battled for ten brutal years ...Kronos and Rhea were forcibly removed from Mount Olympos ... Zeus and eleven other Immortals took control of the sacred mountain ...Zeus banished Kronos and his rebellious Titan brothers to an underground pit beneath Tartaros where they remained until after the Age of Heroes was over. Zeus had pity on Kronos and removed him to the Islands of the Blessed where he became the ruler of the departed heroes....
The ancient Egyptians believed Zeus and Hera were the children of Kronos and Rhea but they also believed Osiris and Isis were two of the five children of Zeus and Hera...
The traveler-historian Pausanias saw a temple of Kronos and Rhea in Athens that was in existence at the time of the deluge of Deukalion, i.e. 11000 BCE....
The Realm of Poseidon
https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-europe/poseidon-god-005692
Poseidon the great god I begin to sing, he who moves the earth and the desolate sea…
You are dark-haired you are blessed you have a kind heart. Help those who sail upon The sea In ships. ~Homeric Hymn to Poseidon
PURE ARYANS DID NOT DESCEND FROM APE HOMOS. ARYANS DESCEND FROM ATLANTIS WHERE ASURA AND GODS CAME FROM. THE NAZIS WERE SEARCHING FOR ATLANTIS, AND UNITE ALL ARYANS WHO MIGRATED WORLDWIDE AFTER ATLANTIS SUNK....
Ahnenerbe: Nazi Secret Society and their Reinterpretation of History
https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-europe/ahnenerbe-00424
Few know of the Ahnenerbe organization, a secret society created in 1935 by Heinrich Himmler, Hermann Wirth and Richard Walter Darre, even though the names may sound familiar. Herman Wirth was a Dutch historian obsessed with Atlantis, while Walter Darre was the creator of the Nazi Blood and Soil ideology, as well as the head of the Race and Settlement Office. As for Himmler, he later became known for his appointment as the leader of the SS ( Schutzstaffel).... the 3rd Reich, and its true goal was to research the cultural history and characteristics of the Aryan race in an effort to prove that they were a god-like advanced race from which Germans were descended. Therefore, Ahnenerbe’s mission was to reinterpret the past and validate the vision espoused by the 3rd Reich....
“ancestral heritage”, fulfilled numerous missions for the Nazi’s all over the world...
Ahnenerbe also intensively searched for Atlantis and the Holy Grail all over the world. Bizarre as it may sound, occultists believed that the Aryans, the white Nordic superior race of pure blood, had escaped the mythical Atlantis when it sunk after being, wait for it, struck by a divine thunderbolt, and inhabited the Earth, including Tibet. Their aim was to discover where these Aryans had gone to after the thunderbolt...
Balkanatolia: The forgotten continent that sheds light on the evolution of mammals
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220222125110.htm
Summary:
A team of geologists and palaeontologists has discovered that, some 50 million years ago, there was a low-lying continent separating Europe from Asia that they have named Balkanatolia. At the time, it was inhabited by an endemic fauna that was very different from those of Europe and Asia. Geographical changes 40 to 34 million years ago connected this continent to its two neighbors, paving the way for the replacement of European mammals by Asian mammals.... which today covers the present-day Balkans and Anatolia. Formerly inhabited by a highly specific fauna, they believe that it enabled mammals from Asia to colonise Europe 34 million years ago...
For millions of years during the Eocene Epoch (55 to 34 million years ago), Western Europe and Eastern Asia formed two distinct land masses with very different mammalian faunas: European forests were home to endemic fauna such as Palaeotheres (an extinct group distantly related to present-day horses, but more like today's tapirs), whereas Asia was populated by a more diverse fauna including the mammal families found today on both continents....
New Mexico Mammoth Bones from 37,000 years ago “Upend” Clovis Theory
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/new-mexico-mammoth-bones-0017087
evidence comes from the excavated bones of a mother mammoth and her calf that were apparently killed and butchered by indigenous Americans living in the lands of modern-day New Mexico approximately 37,000 years ago....
The Enigmatic Valknut: Odin’s Symbol Shrouded in Mystery
https://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-other-artifacts/valknut-symbol-0017183
two specific configurations are by far the most common styles found. The first is the tricursal variant. This features three triangles interlocking with each other, each with their own separate shape. The second variant is unicursal, using a singular line to create the three interconnected triangles.... The words varl meaning ‘slain warrior’, and knut, meaning ‘knot’ were combined to make Valknut....
In the archaeological record, the Valknut appears exclusively in connection with the cult of the dead. The symbol is found on several runestones on the Swedish island of Gotland. These were raised stones with runic inscriptions , often erected beside a grave. The Valknut has also been found on grave goods, including on a wooden bed from the Oseberg ship burial in Norway. The Oseberg ship was one of the most important archaeological finds in Viking Age history , based on the preservation quality of the ship and its grave goods. An Anglo-Saxon ring from the eighth century also features a Valknut. This ring has been preserved in the British Museum. Symbols similar to the Valknut have also been found on cremation urns of Anglo-Saxons, another Germanic people closely related to the Norse. This suggests that the Valknut may have originated far earlier than the Viking Age....
often it is depicted alongside Odin...In Norse mythology , Odin ferried the spirits of the dead to the underworld and then back to the world of the living. He was also the leader of hosts of the dead, such as the warriors of Valhalla and the Wild Hunt . Odin was also one of the most powerful magicians in Norse mythology. He and his attendants frequently used magic that is described as binding or unbinding....