Embedded Files
Perhaps many articles here should be in the Religions Section but, for simplicity sake I placed them here...
Rigvedic deities
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedic_deities
Indra, a heroic god, slayer of Vritra and destroyer of the Vala, liberator of the cows and the rivers;
Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods; and
Soma, the ritual drink dedicated to Indra, are the most prominent deities.
Invoked in groups are the:
Vishvedevas (the "all-gods"),
the Maruts, violent storm gods in Indra's train
the Ashvins, the twin horsemen.
There are two major groups of gods:
the Devas and the Asuras. Unlike in later Vedic texts and in Hinduism, the Asuras are not yet demonized, Mitra and Varuna being their most prominent members.
Aditi is the mother both of Agni and of the Adityas or Asuras, led by Mitra and Varuna, with Aryaman, Bhaga, Ansa and Daksha.
Surya is the personification of the Sun, but Savitr, Vivasvant, the Ashvins and the Rbhus, semi-divine craftsmen, also have aspects of solar deities.
Other natural phenomena deified include:
Vayu, (the wind),
Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth), Dyaus continuing Dyeus, the chief god of the Proto-Indo-European religion,
Ushas (the dawn), the most prominent goddess of the Rigveda,
Apas (the waters).
Rivers play an important role, deified as goddesses, most prominently the Sapta Sindhu and the Sarasvati River.
Yama is the first ancestor, also worshipped as a deity, and the god of the underworld and death.
Vishnu and Rudra, the prominent deities of later Hinduism (Rudra being an early form of Shiva), are present as marginal gods.
The names of Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas have also attested in a Mitanni treaty, suggesting that some of the religion of the Mitannis was very close to that of the Rigveda.
Major Deities:
Indra 289 THUNDERER, LIGHTNING (god of the heavens, lightning, thunder, storms, rains and river flows)
Agni (Fire) 218 FIRE & MESSENGER OF THE GODS
Soma 123 (most of them in the Soma Mandala) DRINK
Ishwara (Supreme god) 118 (Speculation on my part but Ishtar resembles Ishwara linguistically and other)
The Asvins 56 TWIN HORSEMEN
Varuna (Sea) 46 SEA
the Maruts 38 STORM DEITIES
Mitra 28
Ushas 21 DAWN (GODDESS)
Vayu (Wind) 12 WIND
Savitr 11 (He is sometimes associated with – and at other times distinguished from – Surya, "the Sun". When considered distinct from the Sun proper, he is conceived of as the divine influence or vivifying power of the Sun. The Sun before sunrise is called Savitr, and after sunrise until sunset it is called Sūrya.)
the Rbhus 11 (Ribhus is an ancient word whose meaning evolved over time. In early layers of the Vedic literature, it referred to a sun deity. It evolved to being a wind deity, thereafter referred to three male artisans whose abilities and austerities make them into divinities in later Vedic texts. Their individual names were Ribhu (or Rhibhu), Vaja and Vibhvan (also called Vibhu), but they were collectively called Rhibhus or Ribhus Their name's meaning is "clever, skillful, inventive, prudent")
Pushan 10 MEETING GOD, PSYCHOPOMP, (His chariot is pulled by goats. Sometimes he is described as driving the Sun in its course across the sky.)
the Apris 9 (twelve Apris...These are deified objects belonging to the fire sacrifice of Vedic religion, the fuel, the sacred grass, the enclosure, etc. The Apris are all regarded as different manifestations of Agni.)
Brhaspati 8 (refers to different mythical figures depending on the age of the text. In ancient Hindu literature Brihaspati is a Vedic era sage who counsels the gods, while in some medieval texts the word refers to the largest planet Jupiter.)
Surya (Sun) 8 SUN GOD (In some hymns, the word Surya simply means sun as an inanimate object,(Rigvedic hymns 5.47, 6.51 and 7.63); while in others it refers to a personified deity.)
Dyaus FATHER HEAVEN, SKY FATHER
Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) 6 MOTHER EARTH
Apas (Waters) 6 WATER
Adityas 6 (In the Rigveda, the Âdityas are the seven celestial deities, sons of Âditi,: Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Chandra, Kamadeva, Agni, Indra. The eighth Âditya (Mārtanda) was rejected by Aditi, thus leaving only seven sons. Hymn LXXII of the Rig Veda, Book 10, also confirms that there are nine Adityas, the eighth one being Mārtanda, who is later revived as Vivasvān. The Âdityas of the Rig Veda are "devas", a distinct class of gods and are different from other groups such as the Maruts, the Rbhus or the Viśve-devāh (although Mitra and Varuna are also associated with the latter).
Vishnu 6 (Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni and others... resides in that highest home where departed Atman (souls) reside... supports heaven and earth... the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana.... Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun,... Vishnu is a close friend of Indra.)
Brahmanaspati 6
Rudra 5 FRIGHTENING GOD, THE ROARER (associated with wind or storm and the hunt. ..."the roarer". personification of 'terror'.)
Dadhikras 4 (Dadhi-krā is the name of a divine horse or bird, personification of the morning Sun, which is addressed in the Rigveda. He is invoked in the morning along with Agni, Ushas and the Asvins.)
the Sarasvati River / Sarasvati 3
Yama GOD OF THE UNDERWORLD AND DEATH, FIRST ANCESTOR
Parjanya (Rain) 3 RAIN
Vāc (Speech) 2 SPEECH
Vastospati 2 (presides over the foundation of a house or homestead)
Vishvakarman 2 (Vishvakarman was originally used as an epithet for any supreme god and as an attribute of Indra and the Sun.... Brahma, the later god of creation resembles him in these aspects.... In the Vedic period the term first appeared as an epithet of Indra, Surya, and Agni. In that time the later developed creator concept of Brahma... He sacrificed himself to himself for the evolution of this visible world... He was the one who created himself from himself when there was no earth, water, light, air and akasha...)
Manyu 2 WAR GOD (Vedic Sanskrit for "spirit, temper, ardour, passion, anger" is a war god, wielder of thunder and slayer of foes. He is fierce, a queller of the foe and is self-existent.)
Kapinjala (the Heathcock, a form of Indra) 2
Ancient India
name comes from the Indus River. The name `Bharata’ is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata,...The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the sub-continent of Bharata’)....
The areas of present-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal have provided archaeologists and scholars with the richest sites of the most ancient pedigree. The species Homo heidelbergensis... significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period (10,000 years ago)...
The beginnings of the Vedic tradition in India, still practiced today, can now be dated, at least in part, to the indigenous people of ancient sites such as Balathal rather than, as often claimed, wholly to the Aryan invasion of c. 1500 BCE....
The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as, Indra, the god of storm and war) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In about 1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans, migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, perhaps bringing their gods with them. While it is widely accepted that the Aryans brought the horse to India, there is some debate as to whether they introduced new deities to the region or simply influenced the existing belief structure. The Aryans are thought to have been pantheists (nature worshippers) with a special devotion to the sun and it seems uncertain they would have had anthropomorphic gods....
History of India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India
Indian subcontinent is estimated to be as old as 73,000-55,000 years with some evidence of early hominids dating back to about 500,000 years ago....the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilisation in South Asia. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the seminal texts of Hinduism...
Archaeological evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is claimed to be as old as 78,000–74,000 years. Earlier hominids include Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent....
Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the Indian subcontinent before a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early Indus Valley civilisation is often identified as having been Dravidian...
Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE) The Vedic period is named after the Indo-Aryan culture of north-west India, although other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. ... At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain...organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes... Vedic Aryan tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas, allied with other tribes of the Northwest India...who defeats other Vedic tribes—leading to the emergence of the Kuru Kingdom... The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms — notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.... The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox srauta ritual to uphold the social order.... In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period....
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Śramaṇa movement formed, from which originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period, the first Upanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. ...fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades... It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population...
Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas)....
The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the Mahajanapadas, sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and oligarchic republics....
In 530 BCE Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western Indian subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.... The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism. ...
The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. ...
During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. ...
The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries....
The Indo-Greeks were a hybrid culture straddled across multiple Indo-Greek kingdoms. Lasting for almost two centuries... The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia to India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks... The Indo-Parthians..ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century CE...
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India....
according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders from Judea arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE, and more Jewish traders came as exiles in 70 CE after the destruction of the Second Temple...
Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese travellers and monks to enter India....
The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes. During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports...
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly of Tocharian speaking tribe; one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation....
Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was united under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)....generally known as Hindu culture. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, a positional numeral system, originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs....Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy....
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE....
Kamarupa Kingdom Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE)...
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent....
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE...
The Alchon Huns established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader Toramana, they overran Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent....The Huns were defeated by alliance of Indian rulers,... in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society....
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts....Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.... North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the Alchon Huns invasion, who followed their own religions at the beginning such as Tengri...
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate campaigns in India....
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent....
The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of the Indian subcontinent was one of the very early ambitions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a particularly difficult one. After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720.... In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern-day Pakistan for the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the "As-Sindh" ...After several incursions, the Hindu kings east of Indus defeated the Arabs during the Caliphate campaigns in India, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan....Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form....The late medieval period is defined by the disruption to native Indian elites by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans; leading to the Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests....
northwestern Indian subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia....What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs....The growth of Muslim dominion resulted in the destruction and desecration of politically important temples of enemy states, cases of forced conversions to Islam, payment of jizya tax, and loss of life for the non-Muslim population....From the time Muslims started arriving, around 632 AD, the history of India becomes a long, monotonous series of murders, massacres, spoliations, and destructions. It is, as usual, in the name of 'a holy war' of their faith, of their sole God,...have destroyed civilizations, wiped out entire races....
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim sultanate based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Turko-Indian and Pathan origins. It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th century to the early 16th century. The context behind the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent, including the whole of southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes. This can be traced back to the 9th century, when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East, where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes, and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Mamluks. Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent....
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings....
In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire had invaded and conquered most of Asia and Eastern Europe. However, the Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army...
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights....
The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 ...south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates....
For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate;...
In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power....
Maratha Empire at its zenith in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from South India to present-day Pakistan. ... The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805-1818), which left the East India Company in control of most of India....
The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The empire, based around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849....At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The hard-fought first Anglo-Sikh war and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British....
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce....The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon....The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British—who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu....In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India....By the 1850s, the British East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent....
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population....
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition...But, it took the British remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British.
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces....
Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which lead to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–22. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India....From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance....
World War I...One million Indian troops served abroad during the war....World War II During the Second World War (1939–1945), India was controlled by the United Kingdom..The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command....
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India...The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan....
KAS
Kashgar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashgar
This article is about the city. Kashgar, officially known as Kashi...on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe for over 2,000 years....
Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality")....
The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west. Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BCE the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range.
Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam....
During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BCE to 1 CE] and Emperor Ping [1 to 5 CE], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in 9 CE], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands.... In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. ...
During the Yongping period [58 - 75 CE], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi.
The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi (Kushan) involvement in the Kashgar oasis: ...Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)." However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region:...
These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin.
The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar:...civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms. ...
An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible.
Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin.
The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin....
Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes....Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Sarvastivadin Buddhist...
In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. ...
Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8...Tang dynasty regained control...In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas....In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs.... It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate....Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans...
The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan.... Later In the 14th century Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy.... dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572....(Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose wth Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers.... The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate...The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829... The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor,...The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups...Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan...
With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined. Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877...Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang....
some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan.... Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880 to 1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang when Chinese men married Muslim Uyghur women. A reason for this, suggested by foreigners, is that even though Uyghur women who married Chinese men were labelled as whores by the Uyghur community, the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men as the Chinese protected them from Islamic authorities, meaning that the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their incomes for themselves. Chinese men gave their Uyghur wives privileges which Uyghur men's wives did not have...
An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Uyghur prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar....morality was not strict in Kashgar...
Battle of Kashgar (1933) Uighur and Kirghiz forces attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated....
Battle of Kashgar (1934) The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic....From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred... Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934....
Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949....Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s....
KAS
The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 2 By Edward Balfour
KAS a term to several regions in NW Himalaya Kas Mer is not the country of the Kas but the Kasia Montes (mer) of Ptolemy, the Kha (mer) Kas or Caucasus. Mer is mountain in Sanskrit as is Koh in Persian. Kas was the race inhabiting these; and Kas gar is the Kasia Regio of Ptolemy Gar is a Sanskrit word in use for a region as Cutchwaba gar, Gujurgar the region of the tortoise race, the country of the Gujar race. But Kash, Khas, or Kas a frequently recurring prefix in India is supposed by Mr Campbell to have its origin from the rishi Kasyapa who gave his name to Kashmir, Kashgar, and to the originally called Kasha or Kassia.
KASI the earliest name of Benares and still in common use either alone or joined with the later name as Kasi Banaras It is perhaps the Kassida or Kassidia of Ptolemy The name is referred to Kasi raja who was one of the of the early progenitors of the Lunar race He was succeeded by twenty descendants all rajas of Kasi amongst whom was the celebrated Divodăsa
KASIA or Khasiya a race occupying the hills S of the valley of the Brahmaputra in lat 25 20' to 28 7' N long 90 52' to 92 11' E between Cherra punji and the Shillong mountain The Kasia are the ablest bodied of the borderers of Assam and differ very little from the Garo They are arranged in petty rajaships Nat worship seems the cult of the Kasia They dread snakes They build their houses on piles They trap fish They distl and drink intoxicating liquors and between Ringhot and Cherra and in other places they have bridges of the fibres of the india rubber tree The Kasia is distinguished from all the languages Indian Ultra Indian and Tibetan by its direct and prepositional ideology It is a fragment of the Mon Kambojan formation of languages and is a remnant of an older formation which preceded the Burma Tibetan in Northern Ultra India They have the Mongolian type of features in the highest development Colonel Yule mentions that porters of the Kasia nation used often to carry down from the coal mines of Cherrapunji to the plains a distance of 11 miles loads of two maunds or 165 lbs of coals Their strength and bulk of leg were such as he had never seen elsewhere In the upper parts of the Kasia country stones are scattered on every wayside These are of several kinds but the most common is of erect oblong pillars sometimes quite unhewn in other instances carefully squared and planted a few feet apart The number composing one monument is never under three and runs as high as thirteen; generally it is odd but not always so The highest pillar is in the middle sometimes crowned with a circular dish and to right and left they gradually diminish In of these is what English antiquaries call a a large flat stone resting on short pillars These form the ordinary roadside resting place of the weary traveller The blocks are sometimes of great size The tallest of a thick cluster of pillars in the market place of Murteng in the Jaintia country rising through the branches of a huge old tree measured 27 feet in above the ground A flat table stone or cromlech near the village of Sailankot elevated 5 feet from the earth measured 32 feet by 15 feet and 2 feet in thickness In other instances the monument is a square sarcophagus composed of four large slabs resting on their edges and well fitted together and roofed in by a fifth placed horizontally In Bell's Circassia may be seen a drawing of an ancient monument existing in that country which is an exact representation of a thousand such in the Khassya Hills and nearly as exactly a description of them though referring to the eastern bank of Jordan may be read in Irby and Mangles Syrian Travels The sarcophagus is often found in the form of a large slab accurately circular resting on the heads of many little rough pillars close planted together through whose chinks you may descry certain earthen pots containing the ashes of the family Belonging to the village of Ringhot in the valley of Mausmai deep in the forest is a great collection of such circular cineraries so close that one may step from slab to slab for many yards Rarely may be seen a simple cairn or a pyramid some 20 feet in height and sometimes one formed in diminishing stories like the common notion of the tower of Babel or like the pyramid of Saccara in Egypt.
But the last is probabaly rather a burning place than a monument or at least a combination of the two. The upright pillars are merely cenotaphs and if the Kasia be asked why their fathers went to such expense in erecting them the invariable answer is ' To preserve their name' Yet to few indeed among the thousands can they attach any name Many of the villages however seem to derive their appellations from such erections as may be seen from the number commencing with mau which signifies a stone eg mausmai the stone of the oath mau mlu the stone of salt; mau flong the grassy stone and others Mausmai the oath stone suggests that these pillars were also erected in memory of notable compacts On asking Umauz the origin of the names his answer was a striking illustration of many passages in the Old Testament There was war said he between Cherra and Mausmai and when they made peace and swore to it they erected a stone as a witness Sakhi ke wasté was his expression Genesis xxxi 45 And Jacob took a stone and set it up for a pillar Genesis xxxi 47 And Laban called it Jegar sahadutha but Jacob called it Galeed both signifying the heap of witness Genesis xxxi 51 And Laban said to Jacob Behold this heap behold this pillar which I have cast betwixt and thee this heap is a witness and this is a witness that I will not pass over this thee and that thou shalt not pass over this and this pillar to me to do me harm etc also Joshua xxiv 26 The name of maumlu the salt stone is probably of kindred meaning as the act of eating salt from a sword point is said to be the Kasia form of adjuration These large stones are also frequently formed into picturesque bridges for the passage of brooks There is at Murteng a bridge of this kind consisting of one stone 30 feet in length It is stated by Pemberton that Kai is the real name of the people and Kasia the title bestowed on them by the Bengali But Kasi is the only name which they acknowledge as that of their country and race
KAS
Memoirs of Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Baber: Emperor of Hindustan
By Babur (Emperor of Hindustan)
The extensive country which lies between the three grand ranges of mountains the Kashmirian Muz tagh and Belut tagh does not properly belong to Turkistan though some parts of it at the present day are traversed by Turki tribes It seems rather with the country immediately east of the Ala or Alak tagh to have belonged to one of the mountain races which inhabit the grand range of Hindukush in an independent state to this day Baber mentions a curious fact which seems to throw some light on the ancient history and geography of that country He tells us that the hill country along the upper course of the Sind or Indus was formerly inhabited by a race of men called Kas and he conjectures that from a corruption of the name the country of Kashmir was so called as being the country of the Kas The conjecture is certainly happy and the fact on which it is founded important for it leads us farther and permits us to believe that the Kasia Regio and the Kasii Montes of Ptolemy beyond Mount Imaus were inhabited by this same race of Kas whose dominion at some period probably extended from Kashghar to Kashmir in both of which countries they have left their name The country at this day called Kashkar and included within the triangular range just described probably derived its appellation from the same origin being only a corruption of Kashghar within the territory of which it was long included the name having survived the dominion.
KAS
Indian Antiquary, Volume 13
With Ptolemy the name of Imaos (the Greek transcription of the usual form of the name of Himalaya) is applied to the central chain from the region of the sources of the Ganges where rise also the Indus and its greatest affluent the satadru or Satlaj to beyond the sources of the Iaxartes The general direction of this great axis is from south to north saving a bend to the south east from Kasmir to the sources of the Ganges it is only on parting from this last point that the Himalaya runs directly to the east and it is there also that with Ptolemy the name of Emodos begins which designates the Eastern Himalaya Now it is on Imaos itself or in the vicinity of this grand system of mountains to the north of our Punjab and to the east of the valleys of the Hindu Koh and of the upper Oxos that there come to be placed in a space from 6 to 7 degrees at most from south to north and less perhaps than that in the matter of the longitudes all the names which can be identified on the map where Ptolemy has wished to represent in giving them an extension of nearly 40 degrees from west to east the region which he calls Skythia beyond Imaos and Serika One designation is there immediately recognizable among all the others that of Kasia Ptolemy indicates the situation of the country of Kasia towards the bending of Imaos to the east above the sources of the Oxos although he carries his Montes Kasii very far away from that towards the cast but we are sufficiently aware beforehand that here more than in any other part of the Tables we have only to attend to the nomenclature and to leave the notations altogether out of account The name of the Khasa has been from time immemorial one of the appellations the most spread through all the Himalayan range To keep to the western parts of the chain where the indication of Ptolemy places us we there find Khasa mentioned from the heroic ages of India not only in the Itihdsas or legendary stories of the Mahdbhdrata but also in the law book of Manu where their name is read by the side of that of the D ar e da another people well known which borders in fact on the Khasa of the north The Khasa figure also in the Buddhist Chronicles of Ceylon among the people subdued by Asoka in the upper Panjab and we find them mentioned in more than 40 places of the Kaémir Chronicle among the chief mountain tribes that border on Kasmir Baber knows also that a people of the name of Khas is indigenous to the high valleys in the neighbourhood of the Eastern Hindu Koh and with every reason we attach to this indigenous people the origin of the name of Kashgar which is twice reproduced in the geography of these high regions Khasagiri in Sanskrit where according to a form more approaching the Zend Khasaghairi signifies properly the mountains of the Khasa The Akhasa Khora near the Kasia regio is surely connected with the same nationality The Aspakarai with a place of the same name Aspakara near the Kasii Montes have no correspondence actually known in these high valleys but the form of the name connects it with the Sanskrit or Iranian nomenclature Beside the Aspnkarai the Batai are found in the Bautta of the Rdjatarangini In the 10th century of our era the Chief of Ghilghit took the title of Bhatshah or Shah of the Bhat The Balti that we next name recall a people mentioned by Ptolemy in this high region the Byltai The accounts possessed by Ptolemy had made him well acquainted with the general situation of the Byltai in the neighbourhood of the Imaos but he is either ill informed or has ill applied his information as to their exact position which he indicates as being to the west of the great chain of Bolor and not to the east of it where they were really to be found The Ramana and the Dasamana two people of the north which the Mahabharata and the Pauranik lists mention along with the China appear to us not to differ from the Rhabannae and the Damnai of Ptolemy's table Saint Martin gives in the sequel a few other identifications that of the T h r o a n o i whose name should be read Phrounoi or rather Phaunoi as in Strabo with the Phuna of the Lalitavistara p 122 0f the Kharaunaioi with the Kajana whose language proves them to be Daradas and of the Ithagouroi with the Dangors Dhagars or Dakhars who must at one time have been the predominant tribe of the Daradas The country called Asmiraia he takes without hesitation to be Kasmir itself As regards the name Ottorokorrha applied by Ptolemy to a town and a people and a range of mountains it is traced without difficulty to the Sanskrit Uttarakuru ie the Kuru of the north which figures in Indian mythology as an earthly paradise sheltered on every side by an encircling rampart of lofty mountains and remarkable for the longevity of its inhabitants who lived to be 1000 and 10,000 years old Ptolemy was not aware that this was but an imaginary region and so gave it a place within the domain of real geography The land of the Hyperboreans is a western repetition of the Uttarakuru of Kasmir
Kosala
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosala
Kingdom of Kosala was an ancient Indian kingdom, corresponding roughly in area with the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh... During the 5th century BCE, Kosala incorporated the territory of the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.... According to the Ramayana, Rama ruled the Kosala kingdom from his capital, Ayodhya.... Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan, which indicates that Kosala may have subjugated the Shakya clan, which the Buddha is traditionally believed to have belonged to.... In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom. Mahakosala's daughter Kosaladevī married with king Bimbisāra (5th cent. BCE) of Magadha. Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Pasenadi (Prasenajit) (5th cent. BCE), who was a follower of the Buddha.... During the reign of Vidudabha, Raja Bir Sen of the Baghochia clan invaded the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged, and brought the territory under the sovereignty of Kosala. Not much later, the Kosala kingdom was defeated by Ajatashatru (5th or early 4th cent. BCE) of the Magadhan Haryanka dynasty, and absorbed into the Magadha kingdom, which formed the basis of the Mauryan empire....
In contrast to the developing Brahmanical traditions of the Kuru-Pancala region, the Kosala region "was where the early ascetic movements, including the Buddhists and Jains, took shape, and it was also a very important area for the Upanishads and developments in Brahmanical traditions." ...
Cassi Tribe
The British Chronicles, Volume 1
The Cassi appear to have been Kassites, an Indo-European tribe...
Kassites
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassites
The Kassites () were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu, although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi.
They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu. The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular, and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time.
The Kassite language has not been classified. What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate ...
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well known, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains...However, the Kassites were linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later....
they subsequently gained control of Babylonia c. 1570 BC some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in c. 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the Dynasty of the Sealand by c. 1460 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna....Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history....Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC... The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state....
Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia", a variant of the Kassite name.... During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei", lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6). ...
But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains")....
the Kassites spoke a language without a genetic relationship to any other known tongue. ...
The Middle Babylonian / Kassite Period (ca. 1595–1155 B.C.) in Mesopotamia | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kass/hd_kass.htm
Cylinder seals in the Kassite period were carved with elongated figures and long inscriptions, usually prayers, on colorful precious and semi-precious stones that would have been imported from afar (; ; ). Beyond emphasizing the amuletic power of seals of precious stones, the prayers inscribed on them demonstrate the carvers’ careful attention to text, with beautifully carved inscriptions. (A second style of Kassite-period cylinder seal carving appears to respond to contemporary trends in Egypt and Assyria.) Kassite cylinders were often set in granulated gold caps (), a setting that would have accentuated the stones’ brilliant colors and added to their amuletic efficacy.
As in preceding periods, Kassite rulers expended enormous effort on the restoration and construction of the gods’ abodes. The remains of their building works can still be seen in Iraq today, and are memorialized by inscribed dedicatory objects like stelae and foundation bricks that would have been deposited in temples ( and ; ). ...
KASSITES
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kassites
Their Akkadian name Kaššû originates from a Kassite form *G/Kalž- (cf. Balkan, 1954, pp. 131 f.). Middle Babylonian documents from Nuzi have the form Ku-uš-šu (-hé), i.e., with the Hurrian adjectival ending -ḫḫe (Fincke, 1993, pp. 160 f.; also > Kunšu-; cf. Balkan, 1954, p. 109). This form resembles the much later Greek name Kossaioii, Lat. Coss(a)ei, Cossiaei, etc., i.e., “Kassites” (along with he Kissía as the name of the Kassites’ country;...
There is good reason for thinking that the Kassites were once neighbors of Indo-Europeans, in view of some affinities between their pantheon and the Indo-Aryan one...
The Kassites strove to be integrated in the culture of the conquered land. Kassite rulers built temples to Babylonian deities. The only Kassite deities who had temples in Kassite Babylonia were the patron deities of the royal family, Šuqamuna and Šumaliya. Kassite traditions endured mostly in the private and familial spheres (see Heinz, 1995, p. 165). The Kassite rulers encouraged the collection, codification, and canonization of Babylonian religious-literary texts. The Kassites left no cultural impact in Babylonia. The Kassite termini surviving in Akkadian are mainly from the realms of horse breeding and chariot building....
Kassites & Kossaeans (Cossaeans) of Kossaea - Zoroastrian Heritage
http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/ranghaya/kassites.htm
In 317 BCE, the Macedonian commander Antigonus Monophthalmus is quoted as saying that he encountered Kossaeans, calling them cavemen. This is significant and brings to mind the troglodyte dwellers of Kandovan in the Urmia region not too far north of Hamadan... We do not know definitively if the Kassites were an Indo-Iranian group. However, there is a similarity in their pantheon of deities and the Indo-Aryan daeva pantheon (Bloomfield, 1904; Balkan, 1986, p. 8; Eilers, 1957-58, p. 136 ad surya-) and they exhibited various Aryan traits as well. ... The Aryan tradition was to readily adopted outward cultural norms, but to privately maintain their religion, language, philosophy, values and principles. ...
The Kassites also maintained the Indo-Iranian Aryan tradition of being traders in lapis lazuli and gold ...Along with horses, they exported the chariots in exchange for other raw materials. Amongst the nations with which the Kassite kings established trade and diplomatic relations were Assyria, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittite Hatti. ...
A Kassite deity is Suriash, a name that sounds very similar to the Sanskrit Surya meaning the sun. Another Kassite deity is Maruttash which sounds similar to the Sanskrit Marut or Marutah, a Vedic storm god. A further deity is named Indas, a name that sounds similar to Indra. ...
Kassapa Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassapa_Buddha
Kassapa was born in Isipatana Deer Park. This place is located in Varanasi, a city in the modern-day state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India. His parents were the Brahmins Brahmadatta and Dhanavatī, of the Kashyap Gotra....According to legend, his body was twenty cubits high, and he lived for two thousand years in three different palaces. They are Hamsa, Yasa, and Sirinanda. ...Just before attaining enlightenment, he accepted a meal of milk-rice from his wife and grass for his seat from a yavapālaka named Soma....Kassapa died at the age of forty thousand years, in the city of Kashi, in the Kashi Kingdom (now known as Varanasi, in the modern-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh). Over his relics was raised a stupa one league in height, each brick of which was worth one crore (ten million) rupees....
Kashyapa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashyapa
Kashyapa is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism...Kaśyapa, alternatively kacchapa, means "turtle" in Sanskrit....According to Frits Staal, Kaśyapa means tortoise but it is a non-Indo-European word....Kashyapa is one of Saptarishi, the seven famed rishis considered to be author of many hymns and verses of the Rigveda (1500-1200 BCE)....Kashmir, the northern Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent got its name from Kashyapa Rishi....In ancient texts of Greece, linked to the expedition of Alexander the Great, this land has been called "Kasperia", possibly a contraction of "Kasyapamira"....
Kashyapa
http://chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Kashyapa
Buddha Kashyapa was the third Buddha to appear in this world and turn the Wheel of Dharma, the previous two being Buddha Krakuchchanda and Buddha Kanakamuni. Buddha Shakyamuni was the fourth, and Buddha Maitreya will be the fifth.
He was born in Benares, in the Deer Park at Isipatana, of brahmin parents, Brahmadatta and Dhanavati, belonging to the Kassapagotta.... Kashyapa is a manasaputra (wish-born-son) of Lord Brahma. However, according to [Rama:1.70.20], he is the grand son of Lord Brahma, being the son of Marichi, a wish-born son of Lord Brahma. Kashyapa had many wives, most of them the daughters of Daksha prajapathi.
His wives (who are daughters of Daksha) are :
Aditi mother of the Devas,
Diti the mother of the Asuras,
Arishta, the mother of the Gandharvas,
Kadru, the mother of the Nagas (snakes),
Vinata the mother of Varuna and Garuda,
Danu the mother of the Danavas (who are generally considered part of the Asuras),
Kalaka the mother of the monster Kalkanja,
Khasa, the mother of the Yakshas,
Krodhavasa the mother of the Pishachas (flesh eating monsters),
Muni the mother of Maumeya,
Puloma the mother of the monster Pauloma,
Somathi the mother of Sumathi (who married Sagara, the sea).
Kashyapa (कश्यप): An ancient sage, father of the Devas, Asuras, Nagas and all of humanity. He is married to Aditi, with whom he is the father of Agni and the Savitrs. His second wife, Diti, begot the Daityas. Diti and Aditi were daughters of King Daksha and sisters to Sati, Shiva's consort. One of Dashratha's counsellors also.
According to the Long Agama Sutra and others, the sixth of the seven Buddhas of the past, the seventh and last of whom is Shakyamuni.... According to the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the monk Realization of Virtue, who upheld the correct teaching, was reborn as Kashyapa Buddha, and the king Possessor of Virtue, who was killed defending him, was reborn as Shakyamuni....
Just before his Enlightenment his wife gave him a meal of milk rice, and a yavapala named Soma gave him grass for his seat. His bodhi was a banyan tree, and he preached his first sermon at Isipatana to a crore of monks who had renounced the world in his company. He performed the Twin Miracle at the foot of an asana tree outside Sundaranagara.... Kassapa died at the age of forty thousand years, in the city of Kashi, in the Kasi Kingdom (now known as Varanasi, in the modern-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Over his relics was raised a thūpa one league in height, each brick of which was worth one crore (ten million) rupees....
Kassite Gods
http://piereligion.org/kassite.html
Some names can be closely identified with the names of Gods in Sanskrit, notably Kassite Suriash (Sanskrit Surya); Maruttash (Sanskrit, the Maruts); and possibly Shimalia (the Himalaya Mountains in India). The Kassite storm god Buriash (Uburiash, or Burariash) has been identified with the Greek God Boreas, the God of the North Wind.... The current argument is that the actual language of the Kassites was not an Indo-European language, however based on the names of their Gods, this is somewhat implausible. ...The Kassites introduced the use of kudurrus or boundary marker stones, which contain legal inscriptions such as land grants, peace treaties and proclamations by kings. ...
"The Religion of the Kassites." (1885): p189-91.
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/368825
http://www.jstor.org/stable/527374
The lion, under whose likeness the god Nirgal is worshiped, is the symbol of the destructive Sun-flame... As the Assyrians worshiped their Nergal, so the Kassites their Sugamuna, chiefly as the god of War and of the Chase. After Adar follows, as frequently in the Bab.Assyr. texts his wife, the goddess G ul a, Kassite Hal a (line 10). She bears, in the Bab.Assyr. cuneiform texts, the by-names "the great mistress," "the wife of the god of the Noonday- sun," " the mother," "the bearer of the black-headed creatures " (i. e. men), " the
mistress who awakens the dead," etc....
The religion of the Kassites, as represented according to our glossary, has,
perhaps, not remained free from the influence of that of their new home, Babylo-
nia. However, that the Kassites worshiped the Moon, Sun, Storm, Thunder and
Lightning, Fire and Water as gods, and that they, in the goddess of the snow-
covered mountain tops, have originated a goddess peculiar to themselves, is, at
all events, certain. But whether this worship of a goddess corresponding to the
Babylonian Gula, or of a god Merodach, is older than their removal into Babylo-
inia is doubtful. Proper names, at least, as Har b i i h u, i. e. "Lord (Bel) is
Merodach," appear to me to be Kassite only in their outer shell, and, as far as
their meaning is concerned, to have clearly arisen on Babylonian soil.-Friedrich
Delitzsch in "Die Sprache der Kossaeer."
Kassite deities
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassite_deities
The only Kassite deities who had separate and distinct temples anywhere in Babylonia were apparently the patron deities of the royal family, Šuqamuna and Šumaliya.... Mountain gods were a popular motif in Kassite art, on cylinder seals and, for example, the brickwork façade of the temple of Karaindaš, the "Eanna of Inanna." The generic term for “god” in the Kassite language was mašḫu or bašḫu. Of the three hundred or so known Kassite words, around thirty of them are thought to be the names of deities, some strikingly similar to Indo-European god-names and this has been conjectured to be through contact transmission rather than linguistic affiliation....
Deity: Essential Character:
Alban Only known as a (possible) theophoric element in the name mBurra-Alban
Dur(a),
Duri, Tura God of the underworld
Indaš Sanskrit Indra
Kaššu Eponymous ancestor god
Maruttaš Vedic Maruts
Šimalia A form of the name Himalaya,
Šuriaš Vedic Surya
etc... etc...
Kosala
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosala
Kingdom of Kosala was an ancient Indian kingdom, corresponding roughly in area with the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh... During the 5th century BCE, Kosala incorporated the territory of the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.... According to the Ramayana, Rama ruled the Kosala kingdom from his capital, Ayodhya.... Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan, which indicates that Kosala may have subjugated the Shakya clan, which the Buddha is traditionally believed to have belonged to.... In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom. Mahakosala's daughter Kosaladevī married with king Bimbisāra (5th cent. BCE) of Magadha. Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Pasenadi (Prasenajit) (5th cent. BCE), who was a follower of the Buddha.... During the reign of Vidudabha, Raja Bir Sen of the Baghochia clan invaded the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged, and brought the territory under the sovereignty of Kosala. Not much later, the Kosala kingdom was defeated by Ajatashatru (5th or early 4th cent. BCE) of the Magadhan Haryanka dynasty, and absorbed into the Magadha kingdom, which formed the basis of the Mauryan empire....
In contrast to the developing Brahmanical traditions of the Kuru-Pancala region, the Kosala region "was where the early ascetic movements, including the Buddhists and Jains, took shape, and it was also a very important area for the Upanishads and developments in Brahmanical traditions." ...
Rama and the Ramayana: Crash Course World Mythology #27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsuqbPda5uo
Ramayana - The Great Indian Epic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBiWDKuEalE
Ramayana The Epic - English Movie - Animated Devotional Stories For Kids - WowKidz
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDBwCHz41Vc
Rama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama
Born Ayodhya, Kosala (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India)
Consort Sita Children Lava (son) Kusha (son)
Parents Dasharatha (father) Kaushalya (mother)
Kaikeyi (step-mother) Sumitra (step-mother)
Siblings Lakshmana (half brother) Bharata (half brother) Shatrughna (half brother)
In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being.... Rama was born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala. ... The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates dharma and dharmic living through model characters.... Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India....
Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions....
Rama was born on the ninth day of the lunar month Chaitra (March–April), a day celebrated across India as Ram Navami. This coincides with one of the four Navratri on the Hindu calendar, in the spring season, namely the Vasantha Navratri....Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, and a part of the solar dynasty of Iksvakus. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts, as one of the sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India, and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists....
In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta yuga or Dvapar yuga that their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE, while a few others place Rama to have lived in 102, 67 or 8 BCE. ...
The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.... In some parts of India, Rama's return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights....
At the end of this Dasaratha-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was Rama: ...
Lord Ram's date of birth revealed
http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/lord-rams-date-of-birth-revealed_1799392.html
New Delhi: An institute has claimed that the Mahabharata and Ramayana are historical texts, not mythological epics....The institute established that Lord Ram was born on January 10, 12.05 hours, 5114 BC, the war in Mahabharata started on October 13, 3139 BC, and Hanuman met Sita in Ashok Vatika on September 12, 5076 BC....
"planetary information" from the Rig Veda, Ramayana and Mahabharata was used to find the exact dates. “Our history is at least 10,000 years old, much before Muslims and Christians arrived.We found that planetary formations mentioned in Ramayana and Mahabharata corresponded to actual formations at the time. We have also studied genealogy which proves that Aryans were indigenous,” added Bala.
Bharatas (tribe)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharatas_(tribe)
Scholars believe the Bharatas to be a Vedic tribe around river Ravi in modern Punjab in the second millennium B.C.E. Bharatá is also used as a name of Agni, and as a name of Rudra...
the Bharatas as taking part in the Battle of the Ten Kings... They appear to have been successful in the early power-struggles between the various Vedic tribes so that in post-Vedic (Epic) tradition, the Mahābhārata, the eponymous ancestor becomes Emperor Bharata, the ancient conqueror of all of India, and his ruler and kingdom is called Bhārata. The Bharata clan later allied and merged with the Puru clan, to form the Kuru tribe. "Bhārata" today is an official name of the Republic of India.
Mahabharata
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata
The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". ... According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".... The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan.... The Mahābhārata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue...
Pandavas - The Five Warriors ► English Animation Movies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxO3ReWkJ6Y
Mahabharat - Full Animated Movie - English
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xx4H_yuZbmU
Mahabharata - Mahabharat Full Movie - Adi Parva - Birth Of Heroes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAkrfD-l9HU&t=607s
Burra-Alba:
The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania:
Series A Cuneiform texts, edited by Hilprecht, 1906
Documents from Temple Archives of Nippur
Dated in the Reigns of the Cassite Rulers
al ba di(ti), ... Bur ra Al ban,(probably Cassite, but maybe Babylonian, Foreign, or mix) have a known and unknown element found in both volumes....
Some names used in texts found during Cassite rule in Babylon:
Dan an (or Dan) KUR, Har ri ga nu, E ri bu, Hu di ia, In dar di ia, In na (an) ni (nu), Ka si, Ka shak ti, Kash in u, Kash shi i, Ki di ia, Ma nu(bad) di Bu ri ia ash, Ramman ilu i na mati (?) (Ramman is a God in the land, Ramman is mighty, Ramman is red, Ramman is the strength of his people, Ramman is the splendor of the gods, Ramman thou art raging)], Sa ak ka, Si gi, Tu ra hu (wild goat), Tu ra ilu (be merciful O God),
Ka la za a i tum, Kash ha ri ???, Ka ash ti ban,
Diety Names: Al ban (in the Cassite name Burra Alban), A ri, An nu,
Bel (En, En lil, L), Bu ri ia ash(Cassite God identified with Ramman), Gal du, Ka di, ....
The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
(Jan., 1917), pp. 101-114 (14 pages)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189508
King Agu...pure seed of the God Suqamunu. (Kassite)
Akkadian...Semitic Babylonians
Aryanem-Vaejo:
Aryan Homeland may be northern portion of modern day province of Azarbaijan.
(Avesta) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avesta http://www.avesta.org/
Talk:Afghanistan/Archive 1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AAfghanistan%2FArchive_1
"Aryana was the original name of Afghanistan."
An Outline of the Future Religion of the World:
i Ahura mazda said to the holy Zoroaster I made most holy Zoroaster into a delicious spot what was previously quite uninhabitable For had not I most holy Zoroaster converted into a delicious spot what was previously quite uninhabitable all earthly life would have been poured forth after Aryanem Vaejo Into a charming region I converted one which did not enjoy prosperity the second region into the first in opposition to it is great destruction of the living cultivation As the first best of regions and countries I who am Ahura mazda created Aryanem Vaejo of good capability Thereupon in opposition to it Angro mainyus the death dealing created a mighty serpent and snow the work of the Devas Ten months of winter are there two months of summer seven months of summer are there five months of winter the latter are cold as to water cold as to earth cold as to trees there is midwinter the heart of winter there all around falls deep snow there is the direst of plagues. ...
The descent of the two branches of the Aryans from Little Thibet was as an undivided body probably as far as Kashmir At about this period and place they must have divided and as the Iranian body had taken Varuna or Ahura as the one God of a monotheistic worship while the Indo Aryans continued to add new gods beginning with Indra the god of storm and rain apparently a worship of fear and derived from the late catastrophe it has been with much probability surmised that religious schism was the cause of the separation...
Meanwhile those who were to found the Aramasan and the Assyrio Chaldaean peoples would be slowly working their way down the courses of the Indus and the Sutlej... The ancestors of the Assyrio Chaldaeans an allied clan probably closely followed the Aramaeans settling first in Lower Chaldaea then in Babylonia and some generations afterward founding Nineveh...
This Elamite carried off the spoils of Erech to his own Turanian capital in Elam This was about the period of the founding of the Median dynasty according to Berosus An Elamite conquest is thus proven to be the real beginning of the Median dynasty Berosus supposed Medes or Irano Aryans were in reality Turanian Elamites from the borders of what was afterwards called Media Where then in this dynasty did Zoroaster the true Median or Irano Aryan really come in?
Medes
http://eurasia.travel/iran/history/medes/
The Aryans. Their place of origin, which they themselves called 'Aryanem-Vaejo', is thought to have been the steppe land between the Oxus and the Jaxartes (the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya), and that a change in climate after 2000 ВС compelled them to leave their native territories to seek out a new and more congenial home.
Indo-Aryan migration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration
Indo-Aryan migration models discuss scenarios around the theory of an origin from outside the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ascribed ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages, the predominant languages of North India. Proponents of Indo-Aryan origin outside of the Indian subcontinent generally consider migrations into the region and Anatolia (ancient Mitanni) from Central Asia to have started around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, which led to a language shift in northern Indian subcontinent. The Iranian languages were brought into Iran by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans. ...
Migration by an Indo-European people was first hypothesized in the late 18th century, following the discovery of the Indo-European language family, when similarities between western and Indian languages had been noted. Given these similarities, a single source or origin was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland....
Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin of these languages. ...The archaeological part posits an "Urheimat" on the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle on the steppes around 5,200 BCE. This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts. The oldest nucleus may have been the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), at a bend in the Volga. ...
although the Yamna culture (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language....
There is "general agreement" that north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry. A series of studies show that the Indian subcontinent harbours two major ancestral components, namely the Ancestral North Indians (ANI) which is "genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans", and the Ancestral South Indians (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI.[note 5] These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE),...
Around 4200–4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe. Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler...
Similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, Celtic and German... both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family... Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source. ...
Homeland: Most scholars assumed a homeland either in Europe or in Western Asia...Some scholars favoured an Indian "homeland"....
The excavation of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) in the 1920, showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the area.... Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into the Indian subcontinent, some time in the 2nd millennium BCE. The language of the Rigveda, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, is assigned to about 1500–1200 BCE....
Both mainstream Urheimat solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the Black Sea. ...About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread out from their proto-Indo-European homeland in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea. About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.... Most scholars regard the middle Volga, which was the location of the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the Yamna culture, to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans...
The oldest attested Indo-European language is Hittite, which belongs to the oldest written Indo-European languages, the Anatolian branch. ...
A migration of archaic Proto-Indo-European speaking steppe herders into the lower Danube valley took place about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.... According to Anthony, between 3100-2800/2600 BCE, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west, into the Danube Valley. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European. According to Anthony, this was followed by a movement north, which split away Baltic-Slavic c. 2800 BCE. Pre-Armenian split off at the same time. According to Parpola, this migration is related to the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe in Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite....
The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter Indo-Aryan groups moved to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, c. 1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). Thereafter the Iranians migrated into Iran. Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ethnic groups consisting of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples; that is, speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family. The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the Andronovo culture, that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in an area of the Eurasian Steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east.... The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the Andronovo culture into Anatolia, Iran and South-Asia....
According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture....The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle-herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE....
The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local Bronze Age Indo-Iranian cultures that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in western Siberia and the west Asiatic steppe...Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of copper ore in the Altai Mountains....
The Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-Iranians. It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence. The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture....It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma. The characteristically Bactria-Margiana (southern Turkmenistan/northern Afghanistan) artifacts found at burials in Mehrgarh and Balochistan are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south....
The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves, belonging to the second and the third stage of Beckwith's description of the Indo-European migrations. The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant, founding the Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria (ca.1500–1300 BCE), and the migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India. Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo-European Europoid people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave....
Mittani: The earliest written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rigveda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom....
North-India – Vedic culture: Based on this Parpola postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the Cemetery H culture, and an immigration to the Punjab ca. 1700–1400 BCE....According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase...no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities. Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between Bactria and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange"...there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority", but "some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BCE". ...
Inner Asia – Wusun and Yuezhi...Yancai did not change their name to Alans until the 1st century....The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 BCE to 30 CE... According to Christopher I. Beckwith the Wusun, an Indo-European Caucasian people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin. ... The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi, another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible Tocharian stock. Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the Xiongnu, also former vassals of the Yuezhi...capturing the Ili Valley from the Saka (Scythians) shortly afterwards. In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.... After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria,... They then expanded into northern Indian subcontinent, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire....
Second wave – Iranians: The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, whom would dominate the area, at their height, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west, to the eastern-most fringes of Central Asia in the east....
The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the western Iranian Plateau from c. 800 BC...Around the first millennium of the Common Era (AD), the Kambojas, the Pashtuns and the Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian Plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Pakistan, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area....In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones. ...
The religious practices depicted in the Rigveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of Zoroastrianism—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet Zoroaster—have in common the deity Mitra, priests called hotṛ in the Rigveda and zaotar in the Avesta, and the use of a ritual substance that the Rigveda calls soma and the Avesta haoma. However, the Indo-Aryan deva 'god' is cognate with the Iranian daēva 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan asura 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian ahura 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.
There is mention in the Avesta of Airyan Vaejah, one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'. Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the Avesta situates the Airyanem Vaejah in the Hindu Kush. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the Syr Darya and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from cognates of the Vedic root "vij", suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the Aral Sea to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to Mallory & Mair (2000), the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea....
Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BCE, well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory.
A non-Indo-Aryan substratum in the river-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans.[citation needed] However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent are Indo-Aryan. Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas, the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations....
Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland or to a migration....Texts like the Puranas and Mahabharata belong to a much later period than the Rigveda...
Controversy: The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples is controversial in the Indian subcontinent... Opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory question it and instead promote the notion of Indigenous Aryans, which claims that speakers of Indo-Iranian languages (sometimes called Aryan languages) are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent.... These ideas have been answered and rejected in mainstream scholarship. ...
History Of Persia
P99 Chapter VIII THE ARYANS OF PERSIA THEIR ORIGIN AND TRADITIONS
Their language shows that they were~~steppe-dwellers... Others regard the district to the south-west of the Caspian Sea as the original home.... The Aryans of the Iranian branch, with whom we are here concerned, were the first to be civilized and to acknowledge one god, and consequently they have special claims on our interest. They possessed a tradition that they quitted their ancient home because the Power of Evil made it ice-bound and uninhabitable....
Special legends refer to a lost home termed Aryanem-Vaejo. When cold compelled them to leave this terrestrial paradise, they moved to Sughda and Muru (the classical Soghdiana and Margiana), the former being Bokhara and the latter the modern Merv. Locusts drove them from Sughda and hostile tribes forced them to Bakhdhi, From Balkh they proceeded to Nisaya, which has been identified with Nishapur,...
The first waves occupied Gilan and Mazan-deran; but did not penetrate as far as the plateau, inhabited at that period by primitive races, possibly Turanian, akin to the primitive race of Babylonia. The fact that, as mentioned in Chapter VI., the Kassites were an Aryan tribe which founded a dynasty about 1700 B.C., and were heard of during the First Dynasty of Babylon, helps to date this migration more definitely than could be done until the identity of the Kassites had been established....
Our earliest glimpse of the Aryans shows them to be at the stage of pure nature-worship. The bright heavens, light, fire, the winds and the life-giving rain-storm were all worshipped as divine beings, whereas darkness and drought were held to be accursed demons. To the heavens in this polytheistic system preeminence was granted, and the sun is termed Heaven's eye, and lightning Heaven's son...
Indo-Iranian Legends, Yama or Jamshid. There are also legends common to both countries.... the hero Yama, originally one of the names of the setting sun. He was held to be the first " to show the way to many," and, being the first to arrive in " the vasty halls of death," as Matthew Arnold beautifully expresses it, he not unnaturally becomes transformed into the King of the Dead. He possessed two dogs, " brown, broad-snouted, four-eyed," who went forth daily to scent out the dead and to drive them into the presence of their monarch....
P76 Chapter VI Elam and Babylon
The First Dynasty of Babylon, circa 2400-2101 B.C. The rise of Babylon introduces one of the greatest epochs known in history. It marks the final passing of power from the great Sumerian people to the Semitic province of Akkad,... The Second Dynasty of Babylon, circa 2100-1732 B.C. It is now known that the First Dynasty was brought to an end by an invasion of the Hittites... They were shortly succeeded as conquerors by Kassite tribes from Elam... The Kassite Dynasty of Babylon, circa 1700-1130 B.C. We now return "to the Kassite dynasty which had its origin among the mountains of the Zagros to the north of Elam, and which ruled Babylonia for close on six centuries. The Kassites are now believed to have been an Aryan tribe having as their chief god Suryash, the Sun....It was under the Kassite dynasty that the horse was introduced into general use in Babylonia, to draw chariots, although there is now evidence that it was already known at the time of the First Dynasty, when Kassites served in its armies....
The Pashe Dynasty of BabyIon circa 1130-1000 B.C.... The Sea-land and Bazi Dynasties, circa 1000-960 B.C. ...
The Chaldeans, circa 960—733 B.C. Babylonia, spoiled by Elam and coveted by Assyria, was now overrun by a horde of Semitic immigrants, known to history as the Chaldeans, whose appearance marks the beginning of a new epoch....they entered Mesopotamia from the south...
p106 asura (Sanscrit, asura, Avesta, ahura), signifying " the Lord "; another was daiva (Sanscrit, deva, Avesta, daeva), from the IndoEuropean word denoting " heavenly ones." The latter has continued to be an Aryan word for god, in such forms as theos, deus, dieu, and deity in Greek, Latin, French, and English respectively...
The Avesta. The Zoroastrians...possess the Avesta, which, or part of which, was revealed to Zoroaster....
Zoroastrianism, which is a living religion still, was contemporary with the religions of Baal, of Assur, and of Zeus... Ormuzd the Supreme God. In connexion with the subject of Aryan myths reference was made to Varuna, the old Aryan Sky-god.... The Three Principles of Zoroastrianism. In the Vendidad there are three fundamental principles...(1) That agriculture and cattle-breeding are the only noble callings. (2) at the whole creation is a combat between Good and Evil. (3) That the elements air, water, fire and earth are pure and must not be defiled....
The Magi. It is generally accepted that the Magi were a non-Aryan and possibly Turanian tribe, which was absorbed by the Aryan conquerors. In historical times we see that they became the Levites of the Zoroastrians... The Doctrine of the Resurrection. The belief in a future life which was to constitute reward or punishment after death was an ancient fundamental Aryan belief...
Fereydun divided the land to his sons included Aryas,Turs,... , and other sources state these people were neighboring tribes.
Thus from the descriptions the Aryas were brothers with Turs making Aryan, a Turkic race as well. Whom neighbored each other.
As example, from previous posts the Kassi it appears would be Tur, and Aryan both. Or it appears they are both by integrating Tur with the Arya? I think the Kassi, based on letters and words could be Kazzi, Kassi, Cassi, Khassi, Cossi, Kossi, KhaKassi, Circassi, CherCassi, KherKassi, Kosala, Kashyapa, Kashi, Kaaspa, Kassu, Khaza, etc... Probably an original Tur people who ranged from the Altay Mountains to the Himalayan mountains to probably the Ural Mountains and (Caucus Mtns, and Alps, and...?)
Turkic in India:
http://www.polatkaya.net/Yahoo_Polat_Kaya/msg-231.htm
Their Turkish-like agglutinative language is an indication that they were one of the branches of the ancient Turanian "Tur/Turk peoples, who, like many other Tur/Turk peoples, migrated from their homeland in Turan in Asia to many other parts of the world. Sky-God deity with whom they were associated. The name TUR is one name of the ancient Turanian Sky-God. This name is also known in the form of TYR or THOR in western languages. Of course TUR is the generic name of the TUR/TURK peoples also. In ancient times the identification of religious affiliation of the people within their tribal identity name was an important aspect of the name.
Turkish being the Turanian language is a very ancient language contrary to the views of the establishment. It is my view that without knowing Turkish and Turkish culture, modern linguists are not going to solve their problems. Turkish is the so-called "PROTO" language that linguists are looking for. Even the name "PROTO" is from Turkish "BIRATA" meaning "one father". ... DR or DUR, is the term TUR which is a generic name for the TUR/TURK peoples. Regarding the word "TUR" or "DUR", the following examples can help to understand it better. For example:
a) The name TURKIA (TURCIA) is a living example of it. It is made up from "TURK + IA" ("TÜRKIYE", "Türk öyü") meaning "Home of Turks" or "house of Turks" The suffix -IA, and/or -YE are versions of old Turkish word "ÖY" meaning "home, house, land, country". In the name TURKIA, there is the root word TUR embedded in it.
b) The name "THRACIA" (TIRAKIA) is an anagram of Turkish "TURUK OYU" (TURK OYU) again meaning "home of Turks" which again has the root word TUR in it.
c) The name ETRURIA, the land of ancient ETRUSCANS, is also the anagram of Turkish expression "TUR ER OYU" meaning "home of TUR men". Both names ETRURIA and ETRUSCANS have TUR embedded in them..
d) The ancient name TROY is a distortion of Turkish "TUR ÖY" again meaning "House of Turs". The root word TR and TUR are in the name.
Ancient pre-Aryan language of Iran, these languages descend from a prehistoric speech spoken today in Iran and northwestern India. The original proto-language split up around 5000 BC, at a guess, after the invention of agriculture. Pre-Iranian culture was Turanian culture and civilization before the Aryans. Indus civilization was also a Turanian culture like the Sumerian culture was.
Similarly the IAN at the end of the word INDIAN is also Turkic in origin. Tur/Turk peoples have been in India throughout the known history. For that reason, INDIA is known as HINDUSTAN in Turkish.
http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/
1. Dravidian (Dr.): AN upper part;
Turkish (Tr.) "AN" meaning "sky" as in "TANRI" meaning "GOD" from "aTa + AN + ERI" (ATA AN ERI) meaning "Father Man of Sky".
2. Dr. ANNAL greatness, exaltation, superiority, great man, king, god;
Tr. "HAN AN AL" meaning "Lord Sky Red" referring to sun god. Tr. HAN king.
3. Dr. ENRU the sun;
Tr. TANRU god, sun god.
4. Dr. ADDI heat of the sun;
Tr. ODDI "it is hot", "it is fire"
8. Dr. (Ta.) ARAM moral or religious duty, virtue;
Tr. AR virtue, modesty, honesty, bashful, chaste.
9. Dr. (Ta.) KATA cut through ridge of paddy-field to let surplus
water run off;
Tr. AKIT meaning "to let the water run off".
10. Dr. (Ta.) KATA inferior, worse than;
Tr. KÖTÜ bad, inferior, poor in quality.
11a. Dr. (Ta.) IRAI anyone who is great (as one's father or guru or
any renowned and illustrious person), master, chief, elder brother,
husband, king, supreme god, height, head, eminence;
Tr. ER man, husband, hero, warrior, soldier.
Tr. ERAY moon-man, moon-god, venerable person.
11b. Dr. IRAIMAI kingly superiority, celebrity, government,
divinity;
Tr. "ER AY MA" meaning "magnificent moon man" referring to a divinity
or a superiority.
11c. Dr. IRAIVAN god, chief, master, husband, venerable person;
Tr. "ER AY-HAN" meaning "Man Moon-Lord" (god), lord man, head man.
12. Dr. (Ta.) ARU (ARI-) state of being dried, etc.;
Tr. KURU dry, dried up.
13. Dr. ARISU to cause to go out, allay, dry (tr.);
Tr. KURUSU dried up water.
14. Dr. AR (ART-) to be dried, dry up, disappear;
Tr. ERI- to melt away, to disappear as in snow melting and
disappearing.
15. Dr. ARIKE state of growing or being dry or parched;
Tr. ARIK channel, channel cut to dry up a watery land.
25. Dr. (Ta.) ATTAN father, elder, person of rank or eminence;
Tr. ATA father, ATA HAN lord father, elder person of rank or eminence;
28. Dr. (To.) POT mountain (esp. tit pot id.).
Tr. "TEPE hill;
29. Dr. (Ka.) BETTA, BETTU big hill, mountain;
Tr. TEPETU "it is hill, it is mountain".
30. Dr. (Te.) AMMA, AMA mother, matron; hon. title of woman;
Tr. ANA, ANNA, ANNE mother; MAMA, MEME mother, mother's breast.
34. Dr. (Ta. ) TIRAGANI, TIRAGANE, TIRUGANI, TIRUGANE, TIRUGUNI
turning, that which turns, a wheel for raising water;
Tr. TONERGAN (dönergen) that which turns, that which returns.
Turkish "DuR-AVIDI-AN" (TUR-EVIDI-LER) meaning "They were Houses of Turs". The most ancient Tur/Turk people of India. Their name "DUR-AVIDI-AN" / "TUR-EVIDI-LER" tells it in plain Turkish.
We must note that the cleverly disguised word DR is nothing but the word DUR/TUR indicating the name of TUR/TURK peoples. Secondly the term AVIDI is nothing but the Turkish phrase EV-IDI meaning "It was the house of". And thirdly, the ancient Turkic term AN has a number of meanings expressed by it, one of which is the ancient Turkic plurality suffix, presently -LER/LAR in Turkish.
Turan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turan
Turan (Persian: توران Tūrān, "the land of the Tur") is a historical region in Central Asia. The term is of Iranian origin and may refer to a particular prehistoric human settlement, a historic geographical region, or a culture. The original Turanians were an Iranian tribe of the Avestan age. ... According to the account in the Shahnameh the nomadic tribes who inhabited these lands were ruled by Tūr. In that sense, the Turanians could be members of two Iranian peoples both descending from Fereydun, but with different geographical domains and often at war with each other....
A later association of the original Turanians with Turkic peoples is based primarily on the subsequent Turkification of Central Asia, including the above areas. According to C. E. Bosworth, however, there was no cultural relationship between the ancient Turkic cultures and the Turanians of the Shahnameh....
Avesta: The oldest existing mention of Turan is in the Farvardin yashts, which are in the Young Avestan language and have been dated by linguists to approximately 2300 BCE. According to Gherardo Gnoli, the Avesta contains the names of various tribes who lived in proximity to each other: "the Airyas [Aryans], Tuiryas [Turanians], Sairimas [Sarmatians], Sainus [Ashkuns] and Dahis [Dahae]". In the hymns of the Avesta, the adjective Tūrya is attached to various enemies of Zoroastrism... The Tuiryas as they were called in Avesta play a more important role in the Avesta than the Sairimas, Sainus and Dahis. Zoroaster himself hailed from the Airya people...
Hostility between Tuirya and Airya is indicated also in the Farvardtn Yast (vv. 37-8), where the Fravashis of the Just are said to have provided support in battle against the Danus, who appear to be a clan of the Tura people. Thus in the Avesta, some of the Tuiryas believed in the message of Zoroaster while others rejected the religion....
Similar to the ancient homeland of Zoroaster, the precise geography and location of Turan is unknown. In post-Avestan traditions they were thought to inhabit the region north of the Oxus, the river separating them from the Iranians. Their presence accompanied by incessant wars with the Iranians, helped to define the latter as a distinct nation, proud of their land and ready to spill their blood in its defense....
Turan was one of the regions of the Sasanian Empire, here seen at the extreme southeast. From the 5th century CE, the Sasanian Empire defined "Turan" in opposition to "Iran", as the land where lay its enemies to the northeast....
In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Shahnama of Ferdowsi is regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan"). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term... The terms "Turk" and "Turanian" became used interchangeably during the Islamic era....
In the Persian epic Shahnameh, the term Tūrān ("land of the Tūrya" like Ērān, Īrān = "land of the Ārya") refers to the inhabitants of the eastern-Iranian border and beyond the Oxus. According to the foundation myth given in the Shahnameh, King Firēdūn (= Avestan Θraētaona) had three sons, Salm, Tūr and Īraj, among whom he divided the world: Asia Minor was given to Salm, Turan to Tur and Iran to Īraj....
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Western languages borrowed the word Turan as a general designation for modern Central Asia, although this expression has now fallen into disuse. Turan appears next to Iran on numerous maps of the 19th century to designate a region encompassing modern Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and northern parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. This area roughly corresponds to what is called Central Asia today....
In European discourse, the words Turan and Turanian can designate a certain mentality, i.e. the nomadic in contrast to the urbanized agricultural civilizations.... Turk is from Middle Persian "Turuk," which means "Warrior" or "Horseman"....
Suqamunu: Is Suqamuni the same as the Sakamuni? If so, is Sakamuni the reincarnation of Buddha, or is Buddha reincarnation of Suqamuni? Is the Shakya clan the same as the Saka tribe? ...
Assyrian Discoveries
http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20255.pdf
p226 ... There are six Babylonian monarchs mentioned in the inscription, all of them kings
not previously known, although one of the names, Suqamunu, is known as a god at a later
period...
p438: MYTHICAL KINGS AFTER THE DELUGE From the Inscriptions.
.. .. .. ili. (IL or L is God). Ila-kassat his son (God kassat a son of God, or a God?).
Bel-agu-nunna. Abil-kisu.
Kings of Babylon: Suqumuna. Ummih-zirrhtu. Agu-rabi. Abi ... Tassi-gurubar. Agu-kak-rimi (restored the temple of Bel. )Sumu..... Zabu (built the templesof Venus and the sun at
Sippara). Abil .....Sin.....
p395 two other Babylonian kings were also deified, Suqamunu and Amaragu....
Assyrian Discoveries: An Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of Ninevah
An inscription at Kouyunjik belonged to an early Babylonian monarch named Agu, who restored the temple of Merodach at Babylon.... Suqamunu is known as a God at a later period.:
Column I. Agu kak rimi the son of Tassi gurubar, the noble seed of Suqamunu, named by the Gods Anu and Bel Hea and Meroach Sin and Shamas. The powerful chief of Ishtar the archer of the goddess am I. ... the grandson of Abi... the eldest son of Agu rabi, the noble seed the royal seed of Ummih zirritti, the ruler of men the powerful one am I... The King of Kassi and Akkadi, the king of Babylon the great. The settler of the land of Asnunnak the people numerous of Padan, and Alman, king of Goim, the people mighty the king the director of the four races, the follower of the great gods am I....
the king restored the temple of Saggal, the great house of Bel at Babylon, and built a papaha called the temple of Kua.... All these inscriptions are later documents of earlier texts; but those which follow are of the early Chaldean period. The first of these is a stone written in old hieratic form of cuneiform, the language being the Turanian Babylonian, the tongue spoken in Chaldea before the Semitic period....
Kuri galzu an early Babylonian period monarch of a foreign race 1370 BC. This race is called Arabian by Berosus. The princes were friends with kings of Assyria, and one named Burna buriyas married the daughter of the King of Assyria. The Babylonians were dissatisfied and put him to death....
Empires of the Bible p47
http://adventpioneerbooks.com/Text/pioneer/ATJONES/The-Empires-of%20the-Bible.pdf
36. Agu=kak=rimi, of Babylon, was the next of these followers of Nimrod and Chedorlaomer. He holds the distinction of being the earliest known person to bear the definite title “King of Babylon.” His genealogy, his title, and the countries of his dominion, are given by himself as follows:
“ Agu-kak-rimi. the powerful one am I. the son of Tassi-gurubar, The ruler of the noble seed, many peoples, of Suqamunu the warrior named by the gods Anu and Bel, of rulers,
Hea and Merodach, the establisher Sin and Shamas. of the throne of his father The powerful chief am I. of Ishtar, the archer The king of the Kassi, of the goddesses, am I. and Akkadi. The king judicious and wise, the king of Babylon the king learned and friendly, the great. the son of Tassi-gurubar, The settler of the grandson the land of Asnunnak the people of Abi . . . . numerous of Padan, the powerful warrior and Alman, king of Goiium, devouring his enemies, the people mighty, the eldest son the king the director, of Agu-rabi, of the four races, the noble seed, the royal seed the follower of the great gods of Ummih-zirriti am I.” the ruler of men.
He further tells how that he sent an officer “to a remote country, to the land of Nani” to bring back to Babylon some gods that had been carried away at some former time, from Babylon to that country. The country of Nani was a district not a very great distance to the northeast of Babylonia. This would imply that there had been a raid of those people into the land of Shinar, and that the forces of Babylon had been worsted so that their city or their camp was plundered.
Chapter 6. Problems Which The Study Offers
http://www.ubooks.pub/Books/ON/B0/E337R4524/BabyloniaC06.html
(confirming as it does the tablet of the fifty-one names), is that in which at least thirteen of the Babylonian deities are identified with Merodach, and that in such a way as to make them merely forms in which he manifested himself to men. The text of this inscription is as follows:
". . . is Merodach of planting.
Lugal aki. . . is Merodach of the water-course.
Nirig is Merodach of strength.
Nergal is Merodach of war.
Zagaga is Merodach of battle.
Bel is Merodach of lordship and domination.
Nebo is Merodach of trading(?).
Sin is Merodach the illuminator of the night.
Samas is Merodach of righteous things.
Addu is Merodach of rain.
Tispak is Merodach of frost(?).
Sig is Merodach of green things(?).
Suqamunu is Merodach of the irrigation-channel."
SAKAMUNINO BODHO
Gautama Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni (i.e. "Sage of the Shakyas") Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was a monk (śramaṇa), mendicant, and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the northeastern part of ancient India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. ... He later taught throughout other regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala. Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism.... In Vaishnava Hinduism, the historic Buddha is considered to be an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu... The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan... Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilvastu, which may have been either in what is present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India....
Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa philosophers of that time... Buddha was a reformist within the śramaṇa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic Brahminism.... Historically, the life of the Buddha also coincided with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley during the rule of Darius I from about 517/516 BCE. This Achaemenid occupation of the areas of Gandhara and Sindh, which was to last for about two centuries, was accompanied by the introduction of Achaemenid religions, reformed Mazdaism or early Zoroastrianism, to which Buddhism might have in part reacted.... No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter....
Bharhut inscription: Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho (𑀪𑀕𑀯𑀢𑁄 𑀲𑀓𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀺𑀦𑁄 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑁄 "The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni"), circa 100 BCE. "Sakamuni" in also mentionned in the reliefs of Bharhut, dated to circa 100 BCE, in relation with his illumination and the Bodhi tree, with the inscription Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho ("The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni")....
Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree...
He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). ... Gautama discovered what Buddhists know as being, the Middle Way, a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification...
In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish. Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, ceased to stay with him, and went to somewhere else. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment, and became known as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One"). ...
Nirvana is the extinguishing of the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep the cycle of suffering and rebirth going. Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha....
He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks....The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000....For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardisation. ...
Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: "Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms." The Buddha is said to have replied: "That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms." ...
Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women....Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns....
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal,...the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.... According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha died at Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India)...
The hammer may represent smithing, craftwork, and industry of the newer ages of war where the club may be war symbol prior to the metal ages. Although both are used as weapons of war by the God, the oldest god carried the club and the newer aged god carried the hammer, just a thought.
Suqumuna, the Kassi war god with a club, may have evolved or reincarnated into Hindu Gods, then evolved, reincarnated, or migrated into other war gods with westward migrations to eventually become Perun, Thor, Hercules, etc. in other regions of the world. Or Suqumuna may originally been a mountain god nonwarlike may have been changed into a war god by the foreign peoples migrating into the Kas lands. Or Kas may have been an original war tribe...
Some Gods who carry a club, or hammer: Suqumuna, Vishnu, Shiva, Hanuman, Shiva-Rudra, Brahma, Balaram, Yama, etc...
List of mythological objects (Hindu mythology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mythological_objects_(Hindu_mythology)#Weapons
Danda
Brahmadanda - The rod of Brahma (also known as Meru-danda). The Brahmadanda is capable of nullifying the effects of any divine weapon, no matter how destructive. If hurled, the impact of this weapon is excruciatingly lethal to even the celestials.
Kaladanda - the staff of Death is a special and lethal club used by the God Yama or God of Naraka or Hell in Hindu mythology. It was the ultimate weapon; once fired it would kill anybody before it no matter what boons he had to protect himself.
Kankaalam - The deadly Pounder weapons that are wielded by demons
Kankanam - Weapons that are wielded by demons, Rod for the elimination of those very demons.
Kapaalam - Weapons that are wielded by demons, Rod for the elimination of those very demons
Khaṭvāṅga - In Hinduism, the god Shiva - Rudra carried the khatvāṅga as a staff weapon and are thus referred to as khatvāṅgīs.
Saunanda - The mushala (cylidrical rod), weapon of Balaram.
Gada
Ekasha Gada - The mace of Lord Shiva. A blow from the weapon is the equivalent of being hit by a million elephants.
Gada - the main weapon of the Hindu monkey god Hanuman, son of Añjanā.
Kaumodaki - Kaumodaki is the gada (mace) of the Hindu god Vishnu
Mace of Bhima - It was presented by Mayasura. It was used by Danavas King Vrishaparva.
Modaki Mace - The Beater mace
Shibika (a club) - The weapon of Kubera, god of wealth.
Shikhari Mace - The tower of Protection mace
Gada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gada_(mace) is a club or blunt mace from the Indian subcontinent. Made either of wood or metal, it consists essentially of a spherical head mounted on a shaft, with a spike on the top. The gada is the main weapon of the Hindu God Hanuman... Vishnu also carries a gada named Kaumodaki in one of his four hands. In the Mahabharata epic, the fighters Bhima, Duryodhana, Jarasandha and others were said to be masters of the gada....The martial art of wielding the gada is known as gada-yuddha... mentioned in the Agni Purana and Mahabharata...
Khaṭvāṅga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kha%E1%B9%ADv%C4%81%E1%B9%85ga is a long, studded club originally created as a weapon. It was adopted as a religious symbol in Indian religions such as Shaivism and Vajrayana Buddhism.... In Hinduism, Shiva-Rudra carried the khatvāṅga as a staff weapon and are thus referred to as khatvāṅgīs.
Hammer-Gods: Thor (hammer), Hercules (club) and Sucellos (hammer)
https://earthandstarryheaven.com/2017/05/31/hammer-gods/
followers all wore their symbol – the hammer or club each god wielded....Donar’s Clubs...Thor’s hammer...Hercules, Roman soldiers wore similiar amulets in the shape of the god’s club.... the Gauls never seem to have worn their god’s hammer or mallet as a symbol, which may be because his was never a weapon, but a tool of his craft. They did, however, cut the hammer symbol into altars to their god, or dedicated little votive hammers at his shrines. Sucellos, the Good (or Mighty) Striker, was a popular god in the Rhineland, and he or a similar god was equated with Silvanus in Gaul... In Gaul, the hammer-god (since he’s either known as Silvanus or not named) frequently appears at healing shrines.... The Graeco-Roman Hercules used a number of weapons in his myths, artists usually showed him with his club,...Roman era Hercules’s Clubs appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, spread over the empire (including Roman Britain, c.f. Cool 1986), mostly made of gold, shaped like wooden clubs....Hercules as a form of Donar or Thor....Thor was a popular god, and his role as protector against the giants and other menaces meant his hammer, Mjolnir,...
Hephaestus (hammer)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus
As a smithing god, Hephaestus made all the weapons of the gods in Olympus. He served as the blacksmith of the gods, and was worshipped in the manufacturing and industrial centers of Greece...
Symbol: Hammer, anvil, tongs, Volcano
Anteros (club) (similar to Vali the Avenger)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anteros
the avenger of unrequited love...son of Ares and Aphrodite...playmate to his brother Eros,...similar to Eros in every way, but with long hair and plumed butterfly wings. He has been described also as armed with either a golden club or arrows of lead... one of a host of winged love gods called Erotes, the ever-youthful winged gods of love...Describing the nature of the emotion, Plato asserts that it is the result of the great love for another person. The lover, inspired by beauty, is filled with divine love and "filling the soul of the loved one with love in return." As a result, the loved one falls in love with the lover, though the love is only spoken of as friendship. They experience pain when the two are apart, and relief when they are together, the mirror image of the lover's feelings, is anteros, or "counter-love."
Perun (hammer)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perun
Slavic god... Symbol fire, oak, iris, eagle, hammer, mace or axe... Consort Mokosh or Perunika
Children None... Equivalents: Greek equivalent Zeus... Roman equivalent Jupiter...
Norse equivalent Thor and Odin... Hinduism equivalent Indra... Baltic equivalent Perkūnas
In Slavic mythology, Perun is the highest god of the pantheon and the god of sky, thunder, lightning, storms, rain, law, war, fertility and oak trees. His other attributes were fire, mountains, wind, iris, eagle, firmament (in Indo-European languages, this was joined with the notion of the sky of stone), horses and carts, weapons (hammer, axe (Axe of Perun), and arrow), and war. He was first associated with weapons made of stone and later with those of metal....
Babylon
https://www.ancient.eu/babylon/
Babylon was founded at some point prior to the reign of Sargon of Akkad (also known as Sargon the Great) who ruled from 2334-2279 BCE... Whatever early role the city played in the ancient world is lost to modern-day scholars because the water level in the region has risen steadily over the centuries and the ruins of Old Babylon have become inaccessible.... The historian Paul Kriwaczek, among other scholars, claims it was established by the Amorites following the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur. This information, and any other pertaining to Old Babylon, comes to us today through artifacts which were carried away from the city after the Persian invasion... Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE). This obscure Amorite prince...
Following Hammurabi’s death, his empire fell apart and Babylonia dwindled in size and scope until Babylon was easily sacked by the Hittites in 1595 BCE. The Kassites followed the Hittites and re-named the city Karanduniash. The meaning of this name is not clear. The Assyrians then followed the Kassites in dominating the region and, under the reign of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (reigned 705-681 BCE), Babylon revolted....
After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, a Chaldean named Nabopolassar took the throne of Babylon and, through careful alliances, created the Neo-Babylonian Empire. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II (604-561 BCE), renovated the city... It was under Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon are said to have been constructed and the famous Ishtar Gate built....
In 539 BCE the empire fell to the Persians under Cyrus the Great...
When, after two hundred years, the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 331 BCE, he also gave great reverence to the city, ordering his men not to damage the buildings nor molest the inhabitants....
By the time the Parthian Empire ruled the region in 141 BCE Babylon was deserted and forgotten....
In the Muslim conquest of the land in 650 CE whatever remained of Babylon was swept away and, in time, was buried beneath the sands....
DNA Tribes® Digest May 1, 2013
http://www.dnatribes.com/dnatribes-digest-2013-05-01.pdf
Nepalese individuals living in the Himalaya Mountains. This suggests that the northeastern highlands of South Asia have been an important contact point with Tibeto-Burman speaking cultures. Nepal was the location of the early Shakya kingdom, which the Sanskritist Michael Witzel has suggested might have been related to Iron Age Saka (Scythian related) cultures of Central Asia.... Cf. Indo-Scythians and Sistan (Sakistan). It is unknown whether Iron Age Saka and Shakya of South Asia were related to Bronze Age SA.GAZ (Apiru) of West Asia (mentioned in Sumerian records); however, some similar cultural terms appear in both contexts (cf. Kassite Šuqamuna; Pali Shakyamuni). ...
Šuqamuna
Šuqamuna ( d Šu -qa-mu -na) was the Kassite god of war . His wife was Šumalija , they are "a loving couple". Šuqamuna was equated with the Babylonian gods Nergal and Nusku, in other inscriptions he is called together with the god of light Nusku. His symbol is the club. It was also attempted to equate ṯkmn , the Ugaritic moon god, with Šuqamuna.
Šuqamuna was the ancestor of the royal family. In an inscription called Agum Kakrime , the second ruler of the dynasty "Son of Uršig-urumaš , pure seed of Šuqamuna, used by Anu and Enlil , Ea and Marduk , Sin and Šamaš , the strong man of the martial Ištar".
Šuqamuna and Šumalija were 'the gods of the king' or "the gods of the king and royalty" . Another kudurru Marduk-apla-iddina calls them "the awe-inspiring gods who consolidate scepter, throne and reign" . Kurigalzu calls it "god of the king and patron goddess of the king ( il šarri u 3 d lamassu šarri )." According to an inscription by Kurigalzu III , Šuqamuna and Šumalija participated in the coronation of the king in Babylon.
Šuqamuna is also occupied from Namar in the Zagros, Nuzi , Dēr , Ugarit , and Ḫattuša .
A New Boundary Stone of the Reign of Nabû-mukīn-apli (978-943 BC)
https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-assyriologie-2010-1-page-99.htm#
The Symbols of the Gods
The following symbols are to be found:
on top:
crescent on disc, symbol of the moon god Sîn;
four-pointed star with wavy rays on disc, the sun, symbol of Šamaš; and
eight-pointed star on disc, symbol of Ištar;
all celestial symbols are enclosed in a disc;
on the left side of the moon and situated above the horned crowns of Anu and Enlil is the head of the snake, whose body continues down the right side to the bottom of the stone, it is the symbol of the cosmic river Ir?an or the god Ištaran; The snake is said to be at this time a symbol of Ištaran;
on the front side, from left to right:
spade on a base guarded by the snake-dragon/muš?uššu, symbol of Marduk;
stylus on a base guarded by the snake-dragon/muš?uššu, symbol of Nabû;
two bases with rather abraded horned caps (the triangular outlines are fashioned but incised horns no longer to be seen), the symbols for Anu and Enlil;
on the back side, from left to right, to the right of the snake’s body:
scorpion, symbol of Iš?ara;
ram headed staff on a base guarded by the goat-fish, symbol of Ea;
above the ram staff a lamp, symbol of Nusku;
uterus/omega-sign on a base, symbol of Nin?ursaga;
lion staff, symbol of Nergal;
a rather dwarfed eagle headed staff, symbol of Zababa;
a walking bird keeping its head low, symbol of Papsukkal; and
a bird on high perch, symbol of Šuqamuna and Šumalija; ...
Indus Script hieroglyphs on Kassite hypertexts on kudurrus are sacred memories of Bronze Age artisanal activities
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2017/07/indus-script-hieroglyphs-on-kassite.html
Kassite kudurrus signify many Indus Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts as sacred memories from the Script tradition... Background note on cultural contacts between Indo-Aryan and Kassites/Mitanni: "That there was a migration of Indo-European speakers, possibly in waves, dating from the 2nd millennium bce, is clear from archaeological and epigraphic evidence in western Asia. Mesopotamia witnessed the arrival about 1760 bce of the Kassites, who introduced the horse and the chariot and bore Indo-European names. A treaty from about 1400 bce between the Hittites, who had arrived in Anatolia about the beginning of the 2nd millennium bce, and the Mitanni empire invoked several deities—Indara, Uruvna, Mitira, and the Nasatyas (names that occur in the Rigveda as Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the Ashvins). An inscription at Bogazköy in Anatolia of about the same date contains Indo-European technical terms pertaining to the training of horses, which suggests cultural origins in Central Asia or the southern Russian steppes....
One suggestion is that Kassites are Kāśyas, the founders of Kāśī, the region of Vāranāsi first mentioned in the Paippalada version of the Atharvaveda. "...some Kassite king names, which are evidently Indic (for example: Shuriash = Surya, Maruttash = Marut, Inda-Bugash = Indra-Bhaga), we can understand that they were also influenced by Hurrians or perhaps by the Medes, that in a later period were the owners of the Zagros and appointed the Magi as their priestly caste. Such kind of alliances between Sumerian/Subarian tribes and Indo-Aryan peoples seem to have been very common, and even achieved in taking control of the whole Mesopotamia during that period: the Kassite kingdom in the south preceded about 90 years the Mitanni kingdom in the north, and survived it for other 90 years." http://www.imninalu.net/myths-Huns.htm ...
Mr. Kak in his paper makes a number of points:
(http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/zoro.pdf )
a) Following the collapse of the Sarasvati – river based economy around1900 BC, groups of Indians might have moved West and that might explain the presence of the Indic Kassites and the Mitanni in West Asia .
b) The old Vedic religion survived for a fairly long time in corners of Iran.
c) The ruling groups-Kassite and Mitanni – represented a minority in a population that spoke deferent languages. They, however, remained connected to their Vedic traditions. They were neighbors to the pre-Zoroastrian Vedic Iran . In addition, there were other Vedic religion groups in the intermediate region ofIran which itself consisted of several ethnic groups.
d) As per the Mitanni documents , the pre-Zorastrian religon in Iran included Varuna. Since Mitra and Varuna are partners in the Vedas, the omission of Varuna from the Zoroastrian lists indicates that Zarathushtra might be from the borderlands of the Vedic world where the Vedic system was not fully in place. e) The pre-Zoroastrian religion of is clearly Vedic.
Studies in the aklu documents of the Middle Babylonian period
https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/60263/01_in.pdf?sequence=4
The Middle Babylonian period (ca. 1595–1155) is one of the less documented periods in Mesopotamian history. In the Middle Babylonian period Babylonia was under the rule of Kassite kings whose origin is still unknown. From their language, which is completely different from the surrounding Semitic languages, we can easily identify them through proper names. These include personal names (Kadašman-Saḫ, Dimaḫdi-Uraš, Burra-Ḫarbe, etc.), place names (Dūr-Kurigalzu, Karduniyaš, Karê-Karzi-ban, etc.), and divine names (Šuqamuna, Šumaliya). The Kassite people are known to have been enthusiastic breeders of horses...
It is obvious that the ancient scribes felt an interest in this foreign language. But no sentences written in the Kassite language have yet been found.... The early attestations of the Kassite people in and around Babylonia are in the 18thcentury B. C. The homeland of the Kassites has not been identified....
As mentioned above, in the Old Babylonian period, before the Kassites established a dynasty, they were simply foreigners to the Babylonians. After the Hittite capture of Babylon (ca. 1595), the Kassites progressively gained control over Babylonia....The first king who is thought to have ruled Babylon is Agum II (Agum-kakrime). He is said in an inscription (the Agum-kakrime inscription) to have returned the statue of Mardukafter its capture by Muršili I. But the authenticity of this inscription has been challenged. If Agum-kakrime was a real king in the early period, he gained control over the northern part of Babylonia....the descendants of Burna-Buriyaš I (Kaštiliyašu III, Ulam-Buriyaš, and Agum III) conquered the southern part, namely the first dynasty of the Sealand, in the middle of the 15thcentury....
The next kings (Kadašman-Enlil I (1374)–1360 and Burna-Buriyaš II 1359–1333) are well known from the referencesin the Amarna letters. They were in correspondence with the Egyptian kings. The Babylonian kings mainly requested gold. The Egyptian kings received horses, chariots, lapis lazuli, etc...
Alot of mystery shrouds the Kassites, and Indus Script with several similarites among the two. Both are found in India, and both migrated to Mesopotamia. Both have an unknown language, and both are unknown as to its origins. Did the Kassites transport this script in their travels? What role if any did the Kassites have with this script?
The Kassite's highest God Suqamuna as represented by the bird on high perch is evident on the Indus Script hieroglyphs on Kassite hypertexts on kudurrus. Of course these could be misinterpretations, and speculation. Unicorn is a symbol of Scotland, and its also on the Indus Script seals...
Indus script
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_script
The Indus script (also known as the Harappan script) is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilisation during the Kot Diji and Mature Harappan periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE. Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a script used to record a language, or even symbolise a writing system. In spite of many attempts, ‘the script’ has not yet been deciphered, but efforts are ongoing.... over 4,000 inscribed objects have been discovered, some as far afield as Mesopotamia, as a consequence of ancient Indus-Mesopotamia relations....
After 1900 BCE, the systematic use of the symbols ended, after the final stage of the Mature Harappan civilization. A few Harappan signs have been claimed to appear until as late as around 1100 BCE, the beginning of the Iron Age in India....
Indian archaeologist Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao claimed to have deciphered the Indus script. He compared it to the Phoenician alphabet, and assigned sound values based on this comparison. His decipherment results in a "Sanskritic" reading, including the numerals aeka, tra, chatus, panta, happta/sapta, dasa, dvadasa, sata (1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 100). He also noted a number of striking similarities in shape and form between the late Harappan characters and the Phoenician letters, arguing that the Phoenician script evolved from the Harappan script, and not, as the classical theory suggests from the Proto-Sinaitic script...
Unicorn is Scotlands national symbol. May or may not have any relevance...
Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script
https://www.nature.com/news/ancient-civilization-cracking-the-indus-script-1.18587
The mysterious Indus unicorn on a roughly 4,000-year-old sealstone, found at the Mohenjo-daro site.... More than a thousand Indus settlements covered at least 800,000 square kilometres of what is now Pakistan and northwestern India. It was the most extensive urban culture of its period, with a population of perhaps 1 million and a vigorous maritime export trade to the Gulf and cities such as Ur in Mesopotamia, where objects inscribed with Indus signs have been discovered. Astonishingly, the culture has left no archaeological evidence of armies or warfare.
Most Indus settlements were villages; some were towns, and at least five were substantial cities (see 'Where unicorns roamed'). The two largest, Mohenjo-daro — a World Heritage Site listed by the United Nations — located near the Indus river, and Harappa, by one of the tributaries, boasted street planning and house drainage worthy of the twentieth century ad. They hosted the world's first known toilets, along with complex stone weights, elaborately drilled gemstone necklaces and exquisitely carved seal stones featuring one of the world's stubbornly undeciphered scripts.
Indus/Harappa script
https://www.omniglot.com/writing/indus.htm
UNICORN SEAL
UNICORN SEAL
PASHUPATI "LORD OF THE ANIMALS"
Suqumuna? Budha? Cernunos? Shiva? Rudra?
INDUS SCRIPT
Rudras
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudras
Rudras are forms and followers of the god Rudra-Shiva and make eleven of the Thirty-three gods in the Hindu pantheon... While the Vamana Purana describes Rudras as the sons of Kashyapa and Aditi, ... The Ramayana tells they are eleven of the 33 children of the sage Kashyapa and his wife Aditi, along with the 12 Adityas, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins, constituting the Thirty-three gods ... Rudra, identified with the Puranic Shiva is associated with the Rudras....
The Matsya Purana mentions the ferocious eleven Rudras...They wear lion-skins, matted-hair and serpents around their necks. They have yellow throats, hold tridents and skulls and have the crescent moon on their foreheads. Together headed by Kapali, they slay the elephant demon Gajasura... In Vedic mythology, Rudras are described as loyal companions of Rudra, who later was identified with Shiva. They are considered as friends, messengers and aspects of Rudra.... The Rig Veda and the Krishna Yajur Veda makes the Rudras the gods of the middle world, situated between earth and heaven i.e. the atmosphere.... The Mahabharata describes the Rudras as companions of Indra, servants of Shiva and his son Skanda and companions of Yama, who is surrounded by them. They have immense power, wear golden necklaces and are "like lighting-illuminated clouds"....
Dharmachakra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmachakra
The dharmachakra (which is also known as the wheel of dharma) is one of the Ashtamangala[1] of Indian religions such as Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. It has represented the Buddhist dharma, Gautama Buddha's teaching and walking of the path to Enlightenment, since the time of early Buddhism.... The wheel is also the main attribute of Vishnu... Common Dharmachakra symbols consist of either 8 or 24 spokes...
According to the Puranas of Hinduism, only 24 Rishis or Sages managed the whole power of the Gayatri Mantra. The 24 letters of the Gayatri Mantra depict those 24 Rishis. Those Rishis represent all the Rishis of the Himalayas... It is one of the oldest known Buddhist symbols found in Indian art, appearing with the first surviving post-Indus Valley Civilization Indian iconography in the time of the Buddhist king Ashoka. The Buddha is said to have set the dhammacakka in motion when he delivered his first sermon...
Bharhut
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharhut
The Bharhut Stupa Gateway Bharhut Eastern gateway.jpg
Bharhut eastern gateway. The Bharhut eastern gateway is the only remaining of four original gateways. It was made in 100-75 BCE ... The craftsmen are thought to have been from northwestern India (probably Gandhara) as they inscribed mason's marks in Kharosthi, the script of Gandhara, throughout the gateway structure... Gandhara was a core territory of the Indo-Greek kingdom at the time, and these craftsmen probably brought Hellenistic techniques and styles to the manufacture of the gateway.... The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence...
Tikutiko Chakamo. The inscription above this relief mentions the "Tikutiko Chakamo", or "Three-pointed wheel" (of the law). The scene depicts seven elephants and one great three-headed Serpent (or Naga) together with two lions showing their devotion to this quite particular Wheel of the Law...
Life of the Buddha Dream of Maya at Bharhut.jpg Maya's Dream: The virgin conception of the Buddha.
This carving of the Dream of Maya relates when the Buddha's mother had a dream about that a white elephant entering her body. This is the moment of the Buddha's conception. The sleeping queen is surrounded by three attendants, one of whom flicks a chauri. A water-pot is placed near the head of the bed; at its foot is an incense-burner. The theme of the virgin conception of the Buddha was repeated for many centuries, and was also an important theme in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara....
Worshipping Shiddharta's Hair: ...The story told in the Buddhist scriptures is that, before embracing a religious life, Gautama divested himself of his princely garments and cut off his long hair with his sword, casting both hair and turban into the air, whence they were borne by the devas to the Trayastrimsa heaven and worshiped there.
The descent of the Buddha from the Trayastrimsa Heaven, where Maya, his mother, had been reborn and whither he himself ascended to preach the Law to her....In the center of the relief is the miraculous ladder by which the Buddha descended, attended by Brahma and Indra. At the foot of the ladder the tree and throne, symbols of the presence of the Buddha, with devotees on either side, indicating that the Buddha has returned again to earth. ...
Mahakapi Jataka In this jataka tale, the Buddha, in a previous incarnation as a monkey king, self-sacrifyinly offers his own body as a bridge by which his fellow monkeys can escape from a human king who is attacking them....
The Nigrodha Miga Jātaka (Banyan Deer Birth-story...) is the story of how in a past birth, born as a golden deer, Bodhisattā rescues a pregnant doe from death by slaughter....
Bharhut inscriptions
https://www.jatland.com/home/Bharhut_inscriptions
The Stupa of Bharhut: Buddhist Legend & History, 3rd century BC, by Alexander Cunningham 1879 provides information about Inscriptions at Bharhut which may have been established by the Maurya king Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. They record the names of the donors of different parts of the Railing,... Torana is mentioned in each of them.... The usage of "calling sons after their mothers was caused, not by polyandria, as some Sanskritists "have suggested, but by the prevalence of polygamy, and it survives among the Rajputs to the present day.... Now all the metronymica of the ancient kings and teachers, both Buddhistic and Brahmanical, are formed by a female family name with the word putra....translated, 'son of the (wife) of the āasishtha family,' &c. The name was just intended to distinguish the king or teacher from the other sons of his father by naming his mother according to her family name....
9. Isi-migo Jātaka. = " Rishi-deer Birth.1. Buddha was born as a deer in the Mrigadāva, or "Deer Park," at Isi-pattan or Rishi-pattana, near Banaras. 10. Miga Samādaka chetiya. = " Deer and Lions eating together Chetiya." (?) 11. Hansa Jātakam. = " The Goose Birth."... 28. Bhagavato Sāka Munnino Bodhi. = "The Bodhi Tree of the Buddha Sakya Muni."... 39. Bhagawato dharma chakam. = "The Dharma Chakra of Buddha." 40. Rāja Pasenaji Kosalo. = "The Raja Prasenajit of Kosala."... 49. Bhagavato Kāsapasa Bodhi. = "The Bodhi Tree of Buddha Kasyapa."... 90. Sakāya thabho dānam. = " Pillar-gift of Saka."... 92. Ida Sāla guha. = " The Cave Hall of Indra." ... 38. Gopālasa mata (?) Gosālasa dānam. " Gift of Gosāla (or Gopala . . ."... 57. Ghosāye dānam. = " Gift of Ghosa." ...
Inscription of Prasenjit: Prasenjit was king of Kosala in 600 BCE and son of Bimbisara. He was notable for being a prominent lay follower of Gautama Buddha, building many Buddhist monasteries. Soon after usurping the prosperous kingdom built up by his father Bimbisara, the parricide Ajatashatru went to war with his aged uncle Prasenjit, and gained complete control of Kashi. Just after this Prasenjit, like Bimbisara, was deposed by his son, Virudhaka and died. The new king, Virūḍhaka (in Pali Viḍūḍabha), then attacked and virtually annihilated the little autonomous tribe of Shakyas, in Himalyan foothills, and we hear no more of the people which produced the greatest of Indians, the Buddha. In an another scene Raja Prasenjit is shown on a chariot with four horses paying respect to Buddhist Dhamma Chakra. The inscription reads:
भगवतो धम चक्रम
Translation - The Dharma Chakra of Buddha ...
Jatila sabha, who were the followers of Uruvilva Kasyapa. The Mahawanso states that he had 1,000 disciples, but Spence Hardy gives him only 500 followers. This Kasyapa and his two brothers were fire-worshippers, and as such they are represented both in the Sanchi and in the Gandhara Sculptures....The name is said to have been derived from jatan assa attithi, "he who has " a top-knot of matted hair." This seems to be the peculiar headdress of the fire-worshippers in all these sculptures....
The views of six samaṇa in the Pāli Canon
(based on the Buddhist text Sāmaññaphala Sutta1)
Dificult to assess if the following description was his views, or a smear job by rivals of his time twisting and distorting his words...
Purana Kassapa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_Kassapa
Amoralism: denies any reward or punishment for either good or bad deeds.
Purana Kassapa was an Indian ascetic teacher who lived around the 5th or 4th century BCE, contemporaneous with Mahavira and the Buddha. ... Purana taught a theory of "non-action" (Pāli, Skt.: akiriyāvāda) whereby the body acts independent of the soul, merit or demerit....
Makkhali Gosala
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makkhali_Gosala
Niyativāda (Fatalism): we are powerless; suffering is pre-destined....
Makkhali Gosala (Pāli; BHS: Maskarin Gośāla; Jain Prakrit sources: Gosala Mankhaliputta) or Manthaliputra Goshalak was an ascetic teacher of ancient India. He was a contemporary of Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira, the last and 24th Tirthankara of Jainism....
As Gosala's teachings appear to have been rivals of those of the Buddhist and Jain leaders of his day this information is regarded by most scholars as being overtly influenced and coloured by sectarian hostilities....
Gosala was so impressed by the reanimation of the plant that he became convinced that all living things were capable of such reanimation. The terms used in the story of the Bhagavati Sutra for reanimation mimic a technical term for reanimation of the dead that is also found elsewhere in Ajivika doctrine.[2]:48–49 Mahavira disagreed with this thesis, and this seems to have been the cause of the separation of the two ascetics. Mahavira is, however, later depicted as having rescued Gosala from an attack by an enraged renunciant using magical powers acquired through the practice of austerities; this is claimed to motivate Gosala's pursuit of the same sort of magical powers....
A. L. Basham dates the death of Gosala in 484 BC on the basis of Mahavamsa....
Vishnu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu
Vishnu is the "preserver" in the Hindu triad (Trimurti) that includes Brahma and Shiva....His avatars most notably include Rama in the Ramayana and Krishna in the Mahabharata. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba, and Hari. ... In Hindu iconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a pale or dark blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma (lotus flower) in his lower left hand, Kaumodaki gada (mace) in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha (conch) in his upper left hand and the Sudarshana Chakra (discus) in his upper right hand. A traditional depiction is Vishnu reclining on the coils of the serpent Shesha, accompanied by his consort Lakshmi, as he "dreams the universe into reality"....
Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni and others. Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Vishnu is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in the Vedas, thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian mythology, states Jan Gonda, Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the Supreme Being....
Vedic mythology asserts that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed Atman (souls) reside... In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named Vritra. His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light.... Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana. Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni...
In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names....
Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife and active energy of Vishnu. She is also called Sri or Thirumagal in Tamil because she is the source of eight auspicious strengths for Vishnu. When Vishnu incarnated on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: Sita (Rama's wife) and Rukmini (Krishna's wife). Lakshmi and Padmavati are wives of Lord Vishnu at Tirupati....
Trimurti (three forms) is a concept in Hinduism "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer, preserver or protector and Shiva the destroyer or transformer."...
Upanishads: The Vaishnava Upanishads are minor Upanishads of Hinduism, related to Vishnu theology. There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads. It is unclear when these texts were composed, and estimates vary from the 1st-century BCE to 17th-century CE for the texts....
Puranas: The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides called mahatmyas....
Vishnu's mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Lord Vishnu travels....
Ganga and Parvati alias Shakthi are sisters of Lord Vishnu. ...
The Bhagavata Purana describes Vishnu's avatars as innumerable, though ten of his incarnations (Dashavatara), are celebrated therein as his major appearances. The ten major Vishnu avatars are mentioned in the Agni Purana, the Garuda Purana and the Bhagavata Purana. Thirty-nine avatars are mentioned in the Pancharatra. The commonly accepted number of ten avatars for Vishnu was fixed well before the 10th century CE.
The ten best-known avatars of Vishnu are collectively known as the Dashavatara:
Matsya Half fish-half man avatar. He saves the world from a cosmic flood, with the help of a boat made of the Vedas (knowledge), on which he also rescues Manu (progenitor of man) and all living beings. A demon steals and tries to destroy the Vedas, but Matsya finds the demon, kills him, and returns the Vedas.
Kurma Tortoise avatar. He supports the cosmos,...
Varaha Boar avatar. He rescues goddess earth when the demon Hiranyaksha kidnaps her and hides her into the depths of the cosmic ocean....
Narasimha Half lion-half man avatar.... defeats Demon king Hiranyakashipu ...
Vamana Dwarf avatar.... defeats Demon king Bali...
Parashurama Sage with an axe avatar. Defeats the warrior class ...
Rama Subject of Ramayana
Krishna Subject of the Mahabharata
Buddha Subject of Buddhism.
Kalki The last avatar appears as man with a white horse with wings, projected to end the Kali yuga, in order that the cosmos may renew and restart. (Future Avatar yet to come.) ...
Hinduism: Vishnu
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/deities/vishnu.shtml
Vishnu is the second god in the Hindu triumvirate (orTrimurti). The triumvirate consists of three gods who are responsible for the creation, upkeep and destruction of the world. The other two gods are Brahma and Shiva. Brahma is the creator of the universe and Shiva is the destroyer. Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the universe. His role is to return to the earth in troubled times and restore the balance of good and evil. So far, he has been incarnated nine times, but Hindus believe that he will be reincarnated one last time close to the end of this world....
In the Rig Veda, which is the holiest of the four Vedas, Vishnu is mentioned numerous times alongside other gods, such as Indra. He is particularly associated with light and especially with the Sun. In early texts, Vishnu is not included as one of the original seven solar gods (Adityas), but in later texts he is mentioned as leading them. From this time, Vishnu appears to have gained more prominence, and by the time of the Brahmanas (commentaries of the Vedas), he is regarded as the most important of all gods....
Vishnu is represented with a human body, often with blue coloured skin and with four arms. His hands always carry four objects in them, representing the things he is responsible for. The objects symbolise many more meanings than are presented here:
The conch: the sound this produces 'Om', represents the primeval sound of creation
The chakra, or discus: symbolises the mind
The lotus flower: an example of glorious existence and liberation
The mace: represents mental and physical strength
Vishnu is usually represented in two positions. 1) Standing upright on a lotus flower with Lakshmi, his consort, close by him. 2) Reclining on the coils of a serpent, with Lakshmi massaging his feet. They are surrounded by the Milky Ocean. Vishnu rides on the King of Birds, Garuda, who is an eagle. Vishnu has appeared in various incarnations nine times on this earth, with the tenth predicted....
Vaikuntha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikuntha
Vaikuntha is the celestial abode of Vishnu... accompanied always by his feminine partner, consort and goddess Lakshmi... 10,008 palaces in which he resides simultaneously expanded into them all separately all doing different activities as himself separate but the same simultaneously... and so on in every palace and expansions with all the other liberated souls that have gained moksha.... According to Ramanuja, Parama padam or Nitya Vibhuti is an eternal heavenly realm and is the divine imperishable world that is the God's abode. It is the highest state beyond all worlds and nothing else beyond it. It is guarded by the twin deities, Jaya and Vijaya (guardians of Vishnu's realm).... In most of the extant Puranas and Vaishnava traditions, Vaikuntha is located in the direction of the Makara Rashi which coincides with the constellation of Capricorn... The Rigveda states: The demigods are always looking to that supreme abode of Lord Vishnu, referring to Vaikuntha.... In the Bhagavata, the text speaks of Vaikuntha, adorable to all the worlds, as the highest realm where Vishnu resides ... The inhabitants of the Vaikuntha planets are described as having a glowing sky-bluish complexion. Their eyes resemble lotus flowers, their dress is of yellowish color, ...
Brahma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma
Creator god in Hinduism... Brahma is part of the Brahma~Vishnu~Shiva Trimurti...
Consorts: Saraswati. Offspring: Narada. Siblings: Lakshmi.
He has four faces. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu (self-born), Vāgīśa (Lord of Speech), and the creator of the four Vedas, one from each of his mouths. Brahma is consort of Saraswati and he is father of Four Kumaras, Narada, and Daksha....
post-Vedic Hindu epics and the Puranas.... he is part of the Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva Trimurti... Brahma has lesser importance than the other members of the Trimurti, Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India... One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE.... In Vaishnava Puranic scriptures, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu creates the cosmic cycle... The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism include Sarga (primary creation of universe) and Visarga (secondary creation)... two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging and other secondary that is always changing...all observed reality of the latter is in an endless repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created... Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.... Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa)....
The stories about Brahma in various Puranas are diverse and inconsistent. In Skanda Purana, for example, goddess Parvati is called the "mother of the universe", and she is credited with creating Brahma, gods and the three worlds....
Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces and four arms. Each face of his points to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons, rather symbols of knowledge and creation. In one hand he holds the sacred texts of Vedas, in second he holds mala (rosary beads) symbolizing time, in third he holds a sruva or shruk — ladle types symbolizing means to feed sacrificial fire, and in fourth a kamandalu – utensil with water symbolizing the means where all creation emanates from. His four mouths are credited with creating the four Vedas. He is often depicted with a white beard, implying his sage-like experience. He sits on lotus, dressed in white (or red, pink), with his vehicle (vahana) – hansa, a swan or goose – nearby....
Brahma is distinct from Brahman. Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature, who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything....he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts... Brahman is a concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate reality...the uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence....
The Brahmanas are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating stories, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy. They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hindu śruti literature.
Shiva
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva
Primordial God of Destruction, Supreme Destroyer... Shiva is known as the "Creator, maintainer and the destroyer" within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu.... There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Shiva....omniscient Yogi...as well as slaying demons...
The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead, the trishula or trident, as his weapon, and the damaru drum. He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of Lingam. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity,...
The Sanskrit word "Śiva"... The roots of Śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (approximately 1700–1100 BC), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.... this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver"....
The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.[94] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."...
the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (śivan, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.... Shiva is known by many names...
The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bali (Indonesia). Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period, as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi. Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trishul, have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the mesolithic.
Seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure....a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic, seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati), an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra.
The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra....The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities....This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.
The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus as "god of the Orient".... Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures....The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva)....there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva....
Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BC)...Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle....Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions....
Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma and Vishnu are depicted bowing to Lingodbhava Shiva in the centre....
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is...
The Tantric Shiva tradition... Kapalikas (literally, the "skull-men") co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol and sexuality as a part of ritual... drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect...the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation...
Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme....Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.... The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu, that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu....
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner. This partner is Shiva. The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:...The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples....
Dashavatara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dashavatara
Dashavatara refers to the ten primary avatars of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation....
Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Balarama or Buddha, Kalki
Satya Yuga - Had 4 (Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha); Treta Yuga - Had 3 (Vamana, Parshurama, Rama);
Dwapara Yuga- Had 1 (Krishna); Kali Yuga- Had 1, Yet to have 1 (Lord Buddha, Kalki) ...
Matsya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsya
Matsya iconography sometimes is zoomorphic as a giant fish with horn, or anthropomorphic in the form of a human torso connected to the rear half of a fish... The term appears in the Rigveda. It is related to maccha, which also means fish.... the fish (Matsya) and Manu. The character Manu is presented as the legislator and the ancestor king....
The fish thanks him, tells him the date of the great flood, and asks Manu to build a boat by that day, one he can attach to its horn. On the predicted day, Manu visits the fish with his boat. The devastating floods come, Manu ties the boat to the horn. The fish carries the boat with Manu to the high grounds of the northern mountains (interpreted as Himalayas)....
The key difference between the Vedic version and the Mahabharata version is the latter's identification of Matsya with Brahma, ...The fish reveals himself as Brahma, and gives the power of creation to Manu....
There are many versions of the Matsya mythology in the Puranas. The Matsya Purana evolves the legend further, by identifying the fish-savior (Matsya) with Vishnu instead of Brahma.... The Agni Purana version presents the legend through Agni (fire deity)...
Matsya is generally enlisted as the first avatar of Vishnu, especially in Dashavatara (ten major avatars of Vishnu) lists. However, that was not always the case. Some lists do not list Matsya as first, only later texts start the trend of Matsya as the first avatar....
Kurma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurma
A tortoise, or more commonly as half man-half tortoise.... The earliest account of Kurma is found in the Shatapatha Brahmana (Yajur veda), where he is a form of Prajapati-Brahma and helps with the samudra manthan (churning of cosmic ocean). In the Epics and the Puranas, the legend expands and evolves into many versions, with Kurma becoming an avatar of Vishnu....
Together the gods and demons churn the ocean with divine serpent Vasuki as the rope (samudra manthan), and the churn skims out a combination of good and bad things....
The Kurma legend appears in the Vedic texts, and a complete version is found in the Shatapatha Brahmana of the Yajurveda. In the Vedic era, like Matsya and Varaha, Kurma is associated with Prajapati Brahma, and is not related to Vishnu. The first hint of association of Kurma as an avatar of Vishnu is found in the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata. These links, however, are ambiguous as the Kurma is referred to by epithets such as Akupara. It is only in the Puranas, that both Kurma and Matsya are exclusively and clearly linked to Vishnu....
Kurma's shape reflects the presumed hemispherical shape of the earth and this makes it part of the fire altar design. He is also considered the lord of the waters, thus symbolism for Varuna. In these early Hindu texts, Varuna and goddess earth are considered husband and wife, a couple that depend on each other to create and nourish a myriad of life forms. Alternate names such as Kumma, Kashyapa and Kacchapa abound in the Vedic literature, as well as early Buddhist mythologies such as those in Jataka Tales and Jain texts, which also refer to tortoise or turtle....
[Varuna https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna
Consort: Varuni. Parents: Kashyapa, Aditi. Siblings:Agni, Vayu, Indra, Samudra, Brihaspati.
Vedic deity associated first with sky, later with waters as well as with Ṛta (justice) and Satya (truth). He is found in the oldest layer of Vedic literature of Hinduism, such as the hymn 7.86 of the Rigveda..... In the Hindu Puranas, Varuna is the god of oceans, his vehicle is a Makara (part fish, sea creature) and his weapon is a Pasha (noose, rope loop). He is the guardian deity of the western direction. In some texts, he is the father of god Brahma and of Vedic sage Vasishtha.... In the earliest layer of the Rigveda, Varuna is the guardian of moral law, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. He is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, such as 7.86–88, 1.25, 2.27–30, 8.8, 9.73 and others...]
[samudra manthan https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samudra_manthan
The samudra manthana is one of the best-known episodes in the Hindu mythology narrated in the Bhagavata Purana, in the Mahabharata and in the Vishnu Purana. The samudra manthana explains the origin of amrita, the nectar of immortality. ... The churning of the Ocean of Milk was an elaborate process: Mount Mandara was used as the churning rod, and Vasuki, a nāgarāja who abides on Shiva's neck, became the churning rope. The Asuras demanded to hold the head of the snake, while the Devas, taking advice from Vishnu, agreed to hold its tail. As a result, the Asuras were poisoned by fumes emitted by Vasuki. Despite this, the Devas and the Asuras pulled back and forth on the snake's body alternately, causing the mountain to rotate, which in turn churned the ocean. When the mountain was placed on the ocean, it began to sink. Vishnu, in the form of the Kurma turtle, came to their rescue and supported the mountain on his shell....]
Varaha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varaha
Vishnu who takes the form of a boar to rescue Bhudevi goddess earth.... the demon Hiranyaksha tormented the earth (personified as the Earth goddess Bhudevi) and its inhabitants, she sinks into the primordial waters. Vishnu took the form of the Varaha, descended into the depths of the oceans to rescue her. Varaha slew the demon and retrieved the Earth from the ocean, lifting her on his tusks, and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe....
The Sanskrit word Varāha means "wild boar" and comes from the Proto-Indo-Iranian term meaning boar. It is thus related to Avestan varāza, Kurdish beraz, Middle Persian warāz, and New Persian gorāz, all meaning "wild boar". The word Varaha is found in Rigveda...
Varaha was originally described as a form of Brahma, but later on evolved into the avatar of Vishnu. The earliest versions of the Varaha legend are found in the Taittiriya Aranyaka and the Shatapatha Brahmana. They narrate that the universe was primordial waters. The earth was the size of a hand and was trapped in it. The god Prajapati (Brahma) in the form of a boar (varaha) plunges into the waters and brings the earth out. He also marries the earth thereafter....
[Prajapati https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajapati
The term also connotes many different gods, depending on the Hindu text, ranging from being the creator god to being same as one of the following: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Agni, Indra, Vishvakarma, Bharata, Kapila and many others.... The origins of Prajapati are unclear. He appears late in the Vedic layer of texts, and the hymns...His role varies within the Vedic texts such as being one who created heaven and earth, all of water and beings, the chief, the father of gods, the creator of devas and asuras, the cosmic egg and the Purusha (spirit)....In the Rigveda, Prajapati appears as an epithet for Savitr, Soma, Agni and Indra, who are all praised as equal, same and lord of creatures.[16] Elsewhere, in hymn 10.121 of the Rigveda, is described Hiranyagarbha (golden embryo) that was born from the waters containing everything, which produced Prajapati. It then created manah (mind), kama (desire) and tapas (heat). However, this Prajapati is a metaphor, one of many Hindu cosmology theories, and there is no supreme deity in the Rigveda....Prajapati appears in early Upanishads,...]
Narasimha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha
Lion headed man...The word Narasimha consists of two words "nara" which means man, and "simha" which means lion.... A more complete version of the Namuci legend is found in Shatapatha Brahmana of the Yajurveda in chapter 12.7.3. Other references to Narasimha are found in the Vedic texts Vajaseneyi Samhita 10.34, Pancavimsa Brahmana 12.6.8 and Taittiriya Brahmana 1.7.1.6.... Narasimha likely has roots in the metaphors filled Indra-Namuci legend in the Vedas....
Namuci is a deceptive demigod Asura in competition for power. Namuci suggests peace to Indra, which the latter accepts. He demands Indra to promise that he will neither try to slay him with his "palm of the hand nor with the fist", neither in day nor in night, neither "anything that the dry" nor "anything that is moist". Indra agrees.
After the deal is done, Namuci carries away all that nourishes the Devas: the Soma drink, the essence of food and the strength of Indra. The leader of the gods finds himself conflicted, feels bound by his promise. Indra then meets Saraswati (goddess of knowledge) and Ashvins. They reply they will deal with Namuci, get it all back, if Indra agrees to share his powers, the essence of food and the Soma drink with them. Indra agrees. The gods and the goddess then come up with a creative plan. They pour out "foam of water" as a thunderbolt, which is neither dry nor moist, and the evil Asura Namuci is attacked and killed when it is neither day nor night.
After Namuci is killed, the gods get all the powers back, but discover that Namuci had drunk the Soma already. The good was thus now mixed with his badness of his blood, which they did not want to drink. So, they extract the good out from the bad. Thus, good returns to the Devas, the bad is discarded....
This suggests a link and continuity between the Vedic Namuci legend and the later Narasimha legend in the Puranas....Indian tradition against despots and tyrants who abuse power.... There are references to Narasiṃha in a variety of Purāṇas,...Narasimha is also found in the Mahābhārata...
Vamana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamana
dwarf...defeating the Asura king Mahabali... Rigveda describes Vishnu as that benevolent god who in three steps defined all there is in the universe. The giant form of Vamana is also known as Trivikrama (literally, "three steps"). The Vamana legend...in the Puranas and the epics.... The Sanskrit word Vamanameans "dwarf". He is also known as Trivikrama means the three steps, representing the Svarga (heaven), the earth, and the Patala (netherworld)....
Vamana was born to Aditi and Kashyapa. He is the twelfth of the Adityas....
The Bhagavata Purana describes that Vishnu descended as the Vamana avatar to restore the authority of Indra over the heavens, as it had been taken by a benevolent Asura King Mahabali (or simply called Bali). Bali was the great grandson of Hiranyakshipu, the grand son of Prahlada and son of Virochana. Vamana, as a dwarf Brahmin carrying a wooden umbrella, went to the king to request for land that he could set his foot upon for three paces. Mahabali consented, against the warning of his guru, Shukracharya ,thinking of the limitations of the space of his foot. Vamana then enlarged to gigantic proportions to stride over the three worlds. He stepped from heaven to earth with the first step, from earth to the netherworld with the second. King Mahabali, unable to fulfill his promise, offered his head for the third. Vamana then placed his foot and gave the king immortality for his humility. He was also allowed to return every year to see the citizens of his country. The festival of Onam for some and first day of Diwali for some is related to this return of Mahabali to a visit to earth once every year in August-September. Some texts state that Vamana gave the lordship of the netherworld to Bali. In giant form, Vamana is known as Trivikrama....
Parashurama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parashurama
Rama with an axe... Born as a brahmin...carried traits of a Kshatriya... The Kshatriyas class, with weapons and power, had begun to abuse their power, take what belonged to others by force and tyrannize people. Parashurama corrects the cosmic equilibrium by destroying these evil Kshatriya warriors...
He is generally presented as the fifth son of Renuka and rishi Jamadagni... The legends of Parashurama appear in many Hindu texts, in different versions:... Parashurama is described in some versions of the Mahabharata as the angry Brahmin who with his axe, killed huge number of Kshatriya warriors because they were abusing their power... Devi Bhagavata Purana... Vishnu Purana... Vayu Purana...
In the Mahabharata, he is the teacher of warrior Karna. In the regional literature of Kerala, he is the founder of the land, the one who brought it out of the sea and settled a Hindu community there. He is also known as Rama Jamadagnya and Rama Bhargava in some Hindu texts. Parashurama retired in the Mahendra mountain, according to chapter 2.3.47 of the Bhagavata Purana. He is the only Vishnu avatar who never dies, never returns to abstract Vishnu and lives in meditative retirement. Further, he is the only Vishnu avatar that co-exists with other Vishnu avatars Rama and Krishna in some versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata respectively....
Rama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama
Texts: Ramayana, Ramcharitmanas... Of all their travails, the most notable is the kidnapping of Sita by demon-king Ravana, followed by the determined and epic efforts of Rama and Lakshmana to gain her freedom and destroy the evil Ravana against great odds. ... Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions....The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas...
Rama was born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala. His siblings included Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. He married Sita. Though born in a royal family, their life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes... the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely", or "darkness, night".... The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon), or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology)....
Rama as a first name appears in the Vedic literature...Margaveya and Aupatasvini...Rama Jamadagnya is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition. The word Rama appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:
Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.
Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame.
Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism....
In the poems of Tulsidas, Rama is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna.... The Ramayana mentions an archery contest organized by King Janaka, where Sita and Rama meet. Rama wins the contest, whereby Janaka agrees to the marriage of Sita and Rama. Sita moves with Rama to his father Dashratha's capital. Sita introduces Rama's brothers to her sister and her two cousins, and they all get married. ... Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata and the second wife of king Dasharatha, reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. ... Sita leaves with him to live in the forest, the brother Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.... Ravana kidnapping Sita...Rama and Lakshmana discover the kidnapping,... They travel south, meet Sugriva, marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as Hanuman who is a minister of Sugriva. Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita and tries to make her into a concubine. Sita refuses him. Ravana is enraged. Rama ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita....
Upon Rama's accession as king, rumors emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife, and asking her to undergo a test before Agni (fire). She does, and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya,...
Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta yuga or Dvapar yuga that their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE, while a few others place Rama to have lived in 102, 67 or 8 BCE.... The composition of Rama's epic story, the Ramayana, in its current form is usually dated between 7th and 4th century BCE....
Yama Zatdaw, the Burmese version of the Ramayana, Rama is known as Yama...
Krishna characteristics are similar to Pan, or vice versa. The flute, and playful nature. The birth story is similar to the story of the killing of the first born Moses story in Egypt....
Krishna
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna
God of Compassion, Tenderness and Love... Krishna playing the flute... Krishna's birthday is Janmashtami in late August or early September... Krishna Leela. He is a central character in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana and the Bhagavad Gita,... They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and as the universal supreme being.... The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature.... The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark", or "dark blue"....
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata, which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.... The Chandogya Upanishad, estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE... Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer...4th century BCE, made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica....Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles,...Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged". The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of Jamuna.... Heliodorus pillar: 25 and 100 BCE, and traced to an Indo-Greek... "Vasudeva", another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition....
the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.... In Krishna Charitas, Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, King Vasudeva of the Yadava clan in Mathura. Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kansa. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kansa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Kansa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna and exchanges him. When Kansa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess Durga, warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with Nanda Baba and his wife Yasoda near modern-day Mathura. Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely Balarama and Subhadra, according to these legends...
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow herder, a mischievous boy ...Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids)...Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately...and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation.... Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game. This quality of playfulness...
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his uncle Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kansa. He reinstates Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court.... According to the epic poem Mahabharata, Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon....
It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War leads to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences....Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow Gandhari said, 'Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other, therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen !' According to the Mahabharata, a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives Jara and dies....Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly...
Proposed datings: a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE ... 3227 BCE - 3102 BCE... according to mythologies in the Jain tradition, Krishna was a cousin of Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jains. Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century BCE Parshvanatha. ...
Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_Hinduism
The Buddha is mentioned as an avatar of Vishnu in the Puranas and the epics... In the Puranic texts, he is mentioned as one of the ten Avatars of Vishnu, usually as the ninth one....
In Vaishnava Hinduism, the historic Buddha or Gautama Buddha, is considered to be an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. Of the ten major avatars of Vishnu, Vaishnavites believe Gautama Buddha to be the ninth and most recent incarnation. Buddha's portrayal in Hinduism varies. In some texts such as the Puranas, he is portrayed as an avatar born to mislead those who deny the Vedic knowledge. In others, such as the 13th-century Gitagovinda of Vaishnava poet Jayadeva, Vishnu incarnates as the Buddha to teach and to end animal slaughter.... The Hindu views (Brahmanical tradition) for the Buddha have neither been consistent nor constant.... Buddha is considered as an avatar of Vishnu, by traditions within Hinduism. Buddhists traditionally do not accept the Buddha to be a Vishnu avatar. The adoption of Buddha may have been a way to assimilate Buddhism into the fold of Hinduism....
Though an avatar of Vishnu, the Buddha is rarely worshipped like Krishna and Rama in Hinduism. According to John Holt, the Buddha was adopted as an avatar of Vishnu around the time the Puranas were being composed, in order to subordinate him into the Brahmanical ideology.... Indologist Richard Gombrich wrote that the Buddha was a radical religious reformer, making religious practice and salvation a more personal matter than it was before the arising of Buddhism.... Gombrich and other scholars have argued that the Buddha did not begin or pursue social reforms, nor was he against caste altogether, rather his aim was at the salvation of those who joined his monastic order. According to Gombrich, modernists keep picking up these erroneous assumptions "from western authors"....
Chakra has been a historic identifier of Vishnu's dharma, but it as Dharmachakra is also an esteemed symbol in Buddhism for the Buddha's doctrine.... While Hinduism adopted the Buddha in its mythology, Buddhism adopted the Hindu god Krishna in its own mythology....
Differences between Buddhism and Hinduism: Buddhism, like Hinduism and other major Indian religions, asserts that everything is impermanent (anicca), but, unlike them, also asserts that there is no permanent self or soul in living beings (anattā)... Buddha endorsed and taught the concept of rebirth. This refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death. In Buddhist thought, however, this rebirth does not involve any soul, unlike Hinduism and Jainism....
Kalki
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalki
He is described in the Puranas as the avatar who rejuvenates existence by ending the darkest and destructive period to remove adharma and ushering in the Satya Yuga, while riding a white horse with a fiery sword..... Kalki is also found in Buddhist texts. In Tibetan Buddhism, the Kalachakra-Tantra describes 25 rulers, each named Kalki who rule from the heavenly Shambhala.... The Kalki Purana is the main cannon text about Lord Kalki....
The name Kalki means "white horse", "destroyer of filth", and "eternity"....the original term may have been karki (white horse knight, from the horse) which morphed into Kalki. This proposal is supported by two versions of Mahabharata manuscripts (e.g. the G3.6 manuscript) that have been found, where the Sanskrit verses name the avatar to be "karki", rather than "kalki"....a descent of the divine into the material realm of human existence.... He is described as a Brahmin warrior in the Puranas....
Kalki is mentioned in several hindu texts including the Agni Purana and Ramayana and Mahabartha....
the Kalki concept was likely borrowed "in some measure from similar Jewish, Zoroastrian and other religions".... some Puranas such as the Yuga Purana do not mention Kalki and offer a different cosmology than the other Puranas....
Kalki Purana: A text named Kalki Purana is a relatively recent text, likely composed in Bengal. Its dating floruit is the 18th-century.... Kalki mythology containing Kalki Purana to between 1500 and 1700 CE.... Kalki marries princess Padmavati, the daughter of Brhadratha of Simhala. He fights an evil army and many wars, ends evil but does not end existence. Kalki returns to Sambhala, inaugurates a new yuga for the good and then goes to Vaikuntha after ruling the world for 1000 years. The Kalki Purana states that Kalki will kill all the atheists and will have many powerful divine weapons obtained from Lord Shiva. It is said that Kalki will obtain these after training under Lord Parasurama. The Kalki Purana describes Lord Kalki as the supreme deity even above Brahma and Shiva, and that he will kill all the sinful kings who have corrupted the world, and restore the dharma....
[Lord Shiva said to Lord Kalki:] "This horse was manifested from Garuda, and it can go anywhere at will and assume many different forms. Here also is a parrot [ Shuka ] that knows everything - past, present, and future. I would like to offer You both the horse and the parrot and so please accept them. By the influence of this horse and parrot, the people of the world will know You as a learned scholar of all scriptures who is a master of the art of releasing arrows, and thus the conqueror of all. I would also like to present You this sharp, strong sword and so please accept it. The handle of this sword is bedecked with jewels, and it is extremely powerful. As such, the sword will help You to reduce the heavy burden of the earth."...
Vedic society members were organised into four classes: kshatriya, brahmin, vaishya and shudra:
Brahmin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin
Not to be confused with Brahman (a metaphysical concept in Hinduism), Brahma (a Hindu god), or Brahmana (a layer of text in the Vedas).
Brahmin is a varna (class) in Hinduism specialising as priests, teachers (acharya) and protectors of sacred learning across generations.... priesthood at the Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies and rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers. Brahmins were the highest ranking of the four social classes. In practice, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were agriculturalists, warriors, traders and have held a variety of other occupations in India.... The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta.... According to Abraham Eraly, "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), and "no Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to in any Indian text" dated to be from the first century CE or before....
Kshatriya https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshatriya
One of the four varna (social orders) of the Hindu society.... four classes: kshatriya, brahmin, vaishya and shudra.... kshatriya constituted the ruling and military class....
Early Rigvedic tribal chiefdom: Rig Vedic period functioned with a tribal chief called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in a tribal assembly...was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a class. The concept of fourfold varna system was non-existent.... Later Vedic period: The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the mythical history of the four varna. Some scholars consider the Purusha Sukta to be a late interpolation into the Rigveda based on the neological character of the composition, as compared to the more archaic style of the vedic literature... In the period of the Brahmanas (800 BCE to 700 BCE) there was ambiguity in the position of the varna. In the Panchavimsha Brahmana (13,4,7), the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Kshatriya are placed second. In Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras (450 BCE to 100 BCE)....
The Vedas do not mention kshatriya (or varma) of any vansha (lineage). The lineages of the Itihasa-Purana tradition are: Suryavanshi (solar line); and Chandravanshi or Somavanshi (lunar line). There are other lineages, such as the Agnivanshi, in which an eponymous ancestor rises out of Agni (fire), and Nagavanshi (snake-born), claiming descent from the Nāgas.
Vaishya https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishya
Hindu religious texts assigned Vaishyas to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing, but over time they came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders.... provide sustenance for those of higher class, since they were of lower class. The Vaishyas, along with members of the Brahmin and Kshatriya varnas, claim dvija status ("twice born", a second or spiritual birth) after sacrament of initiation as in Hindu theology.... The Vaishya community consist of several jāti or subcastes...
Shudra https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra
Lowest rank of the four varnas.... hereditary labouring class serving others but in reality they have shared occupations with other varnas, including being traders and warriors. In some cases, they participated in the coronation of kings, or were ministers and kings according to early Indian texts.... "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth... [it] was primarily organised on the basis of kin, tribe and lineage."... Vedic text's mention of Shudra and other varnas has been seen as its origin, and that "in the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central and activities were worked out in this context"... The term Pusan, in Hindu mythology, is the charioteer of the sun who knows the paths thereby bringing light, knowledge and life to all.... The ancient Hindu text Arthashastra states, according to Sharma, that Aryas were free men and could not be subject to slavery under any circumstances.... In section 10.43 - 10.44 Manu gives a list of Kshatriya tribes who, through neglect of the priests and their rites, had fallen to the status of Shudras. These are: Pundrakas, Codas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas and Daradas....
Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuga
Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four-age cycle. A complete Yuga starts with the Satya Yuga, via Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga into a Kali Yuga. Our present time is a Kali Yuga, which started at 3102 BCE with the end of the Kurukshetra War (or Mahabharata war)....
According to one Puranic astronomical estimate, the four Yuga have the following durations:
Satya Yuga equals 1,728,000 Human years; Treta Yuga equals 1,296,000 Human years;
Dvapara Yuga equals 864,000 Human years; Kali Yuga equals 432,000 Human years
Together, these four yuga constitute one Mahayuga and equal 4.32 million human years. According to one version, there are 1,000 Mahayugas in one day of Brahma or 4.32 billion human years.
Satya Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya_Yuga
Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha; "Yuga (Age or Era) of Truth", when humanity is governed by gods...goodness to rule supreme. ...lasts 1,728,000 years. The goddess Dharma (depicted in the form of a cow), which symbolises morality, stood on all four legs during this period. Later on in the Treta Yuga, it would become three, followed by two in the Dvapara Yuga. Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg. ... Described in the Mahabharata...
The Yugas are said to succeed each other almost endlessly. After the perfect Satya Yuga, a decline marks the Treta Yuga. Further decline brings about the Dwapara Yuga, and after it comes the final and dark Kali Yuga, a time of wickedness, when man kills another man. At the end of the cycle Kalki is said to take birth and reestablish righteousness, thus beginning a new Satya Yuga. ...
Lord Vishnu incarnated in four forms i.e. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narsimha in this era.The only text which was considered credible and was followed was Manu’s Dharma Shastra. The average life expectancy of a human being in Satya Yuga was approximately 4000 years. ...
The tenth avatar of the Lord Vishnu in the current Mahayuga is foretold to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a white horse with a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, after which he will usher in Satya Yuga.
Kalki can only be the one whose Birthday/Tithi falls on Dvadasi of Sukla Paksha. This amounts to just 12 days per any given year; furthermore, as it can only be the day of the Lord Sri Maha Vishnu (Chaitra Dwadashi), this amounts to just one day each year or 100 days in the last century. ... The Puranas describe the date ...
Treta Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treta_Yuga
Vamana, Parshurama, Rama, the three Avatars of Vishnu that were seen... Treta Yug lasted 3,600 divine years, or 1,296,000 human years... The bull of Dharma symbolises that mortality stood on three legs during this period.... People grow more materialistic and less inclined towards spirituality. Wars broke out frequently and climate changes became common... brought knowledge of universal magnetism....Agriculture and mining came into existence along with norms and rules...
Dwapara Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvapara_Yuga
Krishna... "two ahead", that is, something in the third place.... According to the Puranas, this yuga ended at the moment when Krishna returned to his eternal abode of Vaikuntha. According to the Bhagavata Purana, the Dvapara Yuga lasts 864,000 years....
They are kingly and pleasure-seeking. In this era, the divine intellect ceases to exist, and it is therefore seldom that anyone is wholly truthful. As a result of this life of deceit, people are plagued by ailments, diseases and various types of desires. ...
Kali Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_Yuga
Buddha, Kalki... Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali (not to be confused with the goddess Kālī). The "Kali" of Kali Yuga means "strife", "discord", "quarrel" or "contention". According to Puranic sources, Krishna's departure marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to 17/18 February 3102 BCE....
By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg... References in the Mahabharata: The Mahabharata War and the decimation of Kauravas thus happened at the "Yuga-Sandhi", the point of transition from one yuga to another. The scriptures mention Sage Narada to have momentarily intercepted the demon Kali on his way to the Earth when Duryodhana was about to be born in order to make him an embodiment of arishadvargas and adharma in preparation of the era of decay in values and the consequent havoc. ... Rulers will become unreasonable...Avarice and wrath will be common.... murder...Lust... castes will disappear...
Personification: Kali is the reigning lord of Kali Yuga and his nemesis is Kalki, the tenth and final Avatar of Lord Vishnu. According to the Vishnu Purana, Kali is a negative manifestation working towards the cause of 'the end' or rather towards eventual rejuvenation of the universe. Kali also serves as an antagonistic force in the Kalki Purana. It is said that towards the end of this yuga, Kalki will return riding on a white horse to battle with Kali and his dark forces. The world will suffer a fiery cataclysm that will destroy all evil, and a new age (the next Satya Yuga of the following Mahayuga), will begin....
"The Celtic Druids" CHREESHNA
https://sites.google.com/site/n8iveuropean/home/celt/Celtic%20Druids%20Hilites.rtf
GODS OF INDIA AND IRELAND THE SAME
Many of the Irish Deities are precisely the Gods of Hindostan.
The Neit corresponds to the Hindoo Naut, and to the Neith of the Egyptians.
Saman to Samanaut. Bud to Bood. Can to Chandra. Omh, i.e. he who is, to Om, or Aum, And Esar to Eswara.
Chreeshna, the name of the Indian Apollo, is actually an old Irish word for the sun. The Irish had a Deity named Cali. The altars on which they sacrificed to her, are at this day named Leeba Caili, or the bed of Cali. This must have been the Cali of the Hindoos.
Similar to the Morrigan? Maybe the Queen of the universe, Mother Nature, Mother Earth, Earth Goddess, Inanna, Ishtar, Durga, Ashtarte, Aphrodite,...? Not to be confused with Kalki(future Vishnu avatar), nor Kali Yuga other than her later usurpations of Heaven and Goddess of time...
Kali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali
Goddess of Time, Creation, Destruction and Power... "changing aspect of nature that bring things to life or death." ... The association is seen in a passage from the Mahābhārata, depicting a female figure who carries away the spirits of slain warriors and animals. She is called kālarātri... Kali appears in the Mundaka Upanishad not explicitly as a goddess, but as the dark blue tongue of the seven flickering tongues of Agni, the Hindu god of fire.... Kāli is first mentioned in Hindu tradition as a distinct goddess around 600 AD, and these texts "usually place her on the periphery of Hindu society or on the battlefield.... Kāli appears in the Sauptika Parvan of the Mahabharata (10.8.64). She is called Kālarātri (literally, "dark blue night") and appears to the Pandava soldiers in dreams, until finally she appears amidst the fighting...
Kali is portrayed mostly in two forms: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali form. In both of her forms, she is described as being black in colour but is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and in absolute rage. Her hair is shown disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. She is often shown naked or just wearing a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular Dakshinamarga or right-handed path, as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive Vamamarga or left-handed path.
In spite of her seemingly terrible form, Kali Ma is often considered the kindest and most loving of all the Hindu goddesses, as she is regarded by her devotees as the Mother of the whole Universe. And because of her terrible form, she is also often seen as a great protector. ...
Kali (Goddess)
both vowels long. Kali is the Hindu goddess (or Devi) of death, time, and doomsday and is often associated with sexuality and violence but is also considered a strong mother-figure and symbolic of motherly-love. Kali also embodies shakti - feminine energy, creativity and fertility - and is an incarnation of Parvati, wife of the great Hindu god Shiva. She is most often represented in art as a fearful fighting figure with a necklace of heads, skirt of arms, lolling tongue, and brandishing a knife dripping with blood. Kali’s name derives from the Sanskrit meaning ‘she who is black’ or ‘she who is death’... embodiment of time...the benevolence of a mother goddess.... There are several traditions of how Kali came into existence....
Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali (not to be confused with the goddess Kālī)...
Kali (demon)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_%28demon%29
both vowels short. Demon god of all evil source...reigning lord of the Kali Yuga and archenemy of Kalki...
In the Kalki Purana, he is portrayed as a demon and the source of all evil. In the Mahabharata, he was a gandharva who possessed Nala, forcing him to lose his Kingdom in a game of dice to his brother Pushkara....
The names of the four yugas of time~Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali~are named after "dice throws" from a game of dice popular during the Vedic period. Their order coincides with the favorability of each throw: Satya is the best throw, whereas Kali is considered the worst....
the churning of the ocean of milk, a great poison known as halahala was produced...was given to god Shiva, turning his throat blue....A little portion of poison that wasn't swallowed by Shiva became the body of Kali. From this poison also came, "cruel objects like snakes, wolves, and tigers."
The Bhagavata Purana states the very day and moment avatar Krishna left this earth, Kali, "who promotes all kinds of irreligious activities, came into this world."...Kali would live in "gambling houses, in taverns, in women of unchaste lives, in slaughtering places and in gold"...
The beginning of the Kalki Purana describes Kali's lineage starting with the creator-god Brahma, his great-great-grandfather, and ending with the birth of his children's children. Instead of being born of poison from the churning of the ocean of milk,...The remainder of the tale describes Kalki's childhood, military training under the immortal Parashurama, his marriage, his preparation for war against Kali, and the decisive war between the two....Kali dies one-third of the way through the Kalki Purana. During the decisive battle between Kali and Kalki's armies, Kali tried to face both Dharma and Satya Yuga personified, but was overwhelmed and fled on his donkey because his chariot had been destroyed,... coupled with his grievous wounds, he "entered his unmanifested years". This might lead some to believe he died, but one version of the Kalki Purana states Kali does not die but, instead, escapes through time and space to live in the Kali Yuga of the next Kalpa....
One source states, "Kali's wife Alakshmi and her sons who supervise evil also came from Kshirasagara [the ocean of milk]." Alakshmi is the elder sister of the Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Since the Kalki Purana states his wife Durukti is his sister, Alakshmi would be a second wife because she is not directly related to him....
There are a number of connections and similarities between Kali and Alakshmi. First and foremost, Alakshmi's sister is the consort of Lord Vishnu, who sent his Kalki avatar to earth to defeat Kali. Second, legends say she was born either from the churning of the ocean of milk, the poison from Vasuki (who helped churn the ocean) or the back of Prajapati. As previously mentioned, Kali is said to have been born from the halahala poison created from churning the ocean or from a lineage created from Lord Brahma’s back. Third, Alakshmi takes the form of an owl. Kali's emblem on his war flag is of an owl. Fourth, whenever Alakshmi enters a house, families fight and turn on one another. The presence of Kali and his family on earth causes mankind to fight and turn on one another. Finally, Alakshmi is said to ride a donkey. Kali also rides a donkey in the Kalki Purana....
Hindu calendar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_calendar
List of Hindu festivals
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals
The following article is not complete, and is misleading to push modern day agendas. According to other articles the Harappan civilization were the Turs. The admixture with the Monkey people from out of africa occurred in south India, and not much in north India. When Aryans migrated in they took over a declining Tur civilization. Pertaining to the Jews they came out of the Arab population originating from Africa mixing with the middle eastern indigenous populations. The Jews that genetically mixed did so against their very strict rules that forbade it. It is not allowed by their God. True the Jews did force integrations by way of genocides much like the christians and moslems forced conversions in violation of their God's command against it. The original Arab/Jew is most probably a type of J Ydna HG. The Aryans and Turs are most probably an R type of Ydna Hg. And the monkey people are an A Ydna HG....
Unity in Diversity: Studies Reveal Surprising Stories for the Genes of Ancient Hindus and Jews
https://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/ancient-gene-diversity-0011302
The study showed that in the last 8,000 years there were two major migrations into, and not out of, India. The first one originated from the Zagros region in south-western Iran (which has the world's first evidence for goat domestication) and brought agriculturists, most likely herders, to India. This would have been between 6,000 and 3,000 BC. These Zagrosian herders mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent - the First Indians, descendants of the Out of Africa (OoA) migrants who had reached India around 65,000 years ago - and together, they created the Harappan civilization.
In the centuries after 2000 BC, came the second set of immigrants (the Aryans) from the Eurasian Steppe lands, probably from Kazakhstan, who brought with them an early version of Sanskrit...
A thousand years earlier these Aryan peoples from the Eurasian Steppe lands had moved into Europe, mixing with agriculturists there, and spreading Indo-European languages into Europe. Other genetic studies have brought to light more migrations into India, such as that of the speakers of Austro-Asiatic languages who came from south-eastern Asia....
50% to 65% of the genetic ancestry of almost all Indians derives from the First Indians....Then come the the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman and Indo-European language speakers or Aryans, all of whom found their way into the subcontinent later. ...
Now to the Jewish people: A new genetic analysis supports the historical record of Middle Eastern Jews settling in North Africa during Classical Antiquity, actively proselytizing and marrying local populations, and, in the process, forming distinct populations that later stayed largely intact for over 1500 years....Jews have quietly welcomed converts into the Jewish community, even against the formal rules of medieval rabbis. That is why most Jews in different geographical locations tend to look similar to the local majority after several generations.... modern-day Sephardic (Greek and Turkish), Ashkenazi (Eastern European) and Mizrahi (Iranian, Iraqi and Syrian) Jews that originated in Europe and the Middle East are more related to each other than to their contemporary non-Jewish neighbors, with each group forming its own cluster within the larger Jewish population. Further, each of the four geographical groups’ genes demonstrated Middle-Eastern ancestry plus varying degrees of inclusion of converts to Judaism from the surrounding populations... The current study which extended the analysis to North African Jews, the second largest Jewish Diaspora group, found that they also were more related to each other than to their contemporary non-Jewish North African neighbors...
Why a 4,500-year-old skull is key to the politics of India's Hindu ...
But what has more or less settled the issue is the recent development of DNA technology. Scientists have now established that most Indians are a mixture of two different DNAs called Ancestral North Indian (ANI) and Ancestral South Indian (ASI). Though nobody uses the terms, the distinctions coincide pretty clearly with Aryan and Dravidian. Moreover the ANI DNA shares characteristics with Central Asian DNA, while ASI DNA is uniquely Indian....
Does Rakhigarhi skeleton DNA confirm Dravidian ancestry or reignite Aryan invasion debate?
It is too premature to associate the Rakhigarhi findings to either Dravidian or Aryan ancestry. There is nothing called Aryan DNA or Dravidian DNA for that matter. As an anthropologist, I can say that anthropology has not been able to establish a skeletal feature that is Aryan or Dravidian in nature. The two are only language groups, not races. We have to wait for findings from other sites before we jump to any conclusion....
We have not found significant central Asian components in the Rakhigarhi DNA skeleton....The central Asians came to India at a later point and mixed with the indigenous Indians...We don’t have evidence of contact with the steppe DNA—usually associated with north Indians. However, there is some archaeological evidence showing contact with the steppe land region....
The entire Indian population can broadly be divided into ancestral south Indian population and ancestral north Indian population. The former finds its origins in the Chota Nagpur plateau....
The conclusions reached from a single Harappan skeleton from Rakhigarhi appear to be sweeping generalisations. However, the findings are significant in understanding the lineage of the Indus Valley Civilisation....
Soma (deity)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(deity)
This article is about a Sanskrit word for moon....The Hindu texts state that the moon is lit and nourished by the sun, and that it is moon where the divine nectar of immortality resides.... white colored deity, holding a mace in his hand, riding a chariot with three wheels and three or more white horses (up to ten)....
Soma (drink)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(drink)
In Vedic tradition, soma (Sanskrit: सोम) or haoma (Avestan) is a ritual drink of importance among the early Indians. The Rigveda mentions it, particularly in the Soma Mandala. In the Avestan literature, the entire Yasht 20 and Yasna 9–11 treat of haoma. The texts describe the preparation of soma by means of extracting the juice from a plant... According to recent philological and archaeological studies, and in addition, direct preparation instructions confirm in the Rig Vedic Hymns (Vedic period) Ancient Soma most likely consisted of Poppy, Phaedra/Ephedra (plant) and Cannabis....
Soma, and its cognate the Avestan haoma, are thought to be derived from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-. The name of the Scythian tribe Hauma-varga is related to the word,...
According to professor David W. Anthony, author of The Horse, the Wheel and Language, soma was introduced into Indo-Iranian culture from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC). The Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink soma. According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra...
In the Vedas, the same word (soma) is used for the drink, the plant, and its deity. Drinking soma produces immortality (Amrita, Rigveda 8.48.3)...
Soma
Soma
https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/eastern-religions/hinduism/soma
“We drank Soma, we became immortal...”
https://scfh.ru/en/news/we-drank-soma-we-became-immortal-/
Vali (Ramayana)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vali_(Ramayana)
In the Hindu epic Ramayana, vanara Vali was king of Kishkindha, husband of Taara, son of Indra, biological son of Vriksharaja and Elder brother of Sugriva and father of Angada. He was killed by Lord Rama, an Avatar of Lord Vishnu. Vali was invincible during Threta Yuga. Vali defeated some of the greatest warriors like Ravana and Meghanada. Even Lord Rama & Lord Hanuman couldn't fight against Vali because Vali was blessed that when he will fight with someone he would take 50% of the opponent's strength thus any body would lose their half of strength & Vali goes upper hand with opponent's half strength & his own power & could defeat any one.
In Hare Krishna belief-system, Vali was reincarnated as Jara (the hunter) who killed Krishna with an arrow tipped with a shard of iron from a club borne by Samba(Krishna's son by Jambavati). Vali is also known as Bali in several Indian languages....
Birth: One day, Vriksharaja was on his way to take bath in a water source nearby. After having bath, he came out of it. He was astonished to see his body turned into female form. Soon he turned into beautiful lady. At the same time, Indra & Surya (Sun-god) were on the way to heaven after visiting Brahma. Suddenly their vision got diverted to Vriksharaja (in female form). As a result of which Vali was born as Indra’s son & Sugriva was born as Surya’s son....
Vali was husband of Tara....Vali asked Brahma to give a boon such that 'In any duel with Vali, Vali's opponent loses his half strength to Vali'....Ravana challenged Vali to come & fight....Vali defeated Ravana...Sugriva tells him the story of how Vali became his enemy. In Sugriva's version, he is entirely innocent and Rama believes him....Rama asks Sugriva to challenge Vali and bring him outside Kishkindha. As Rama explains later, for 14 years he cannot enter a city. Moreover, Rama does not want any unnecessary bloodbath of Vali's army with whom he wants to maintain friendly relations. Despite this, killing Vali would not be impossible for Rama as Sugriva and Vali were identical twins....Sugriva formed an alliance with Rama. Rama had been travelling the length of India in search of his kidnapped wife, Sita. Sugriva asked Rama's help in return for his help in defeating Ravana and rescuing Sita. The two hatched a plan to topple Vali from the throne.
Sugriva challenged Vali to a fight. When Vali sallied forth to meet the challenge, Rama emerged from the forest to shoot and kill him with an arrow from the back of a tree.
A dying Vali told Rama, "If you are searching for your wife you should have come to me for help and friendship. Whoever took Sita, be it Ravana himself, I would have defeated them and would have brought them to your feet, to your mercy."
Vali asked the following questions: He made my wife a widow and stole my kingdom. What was my crime? Even if I committed a crime (with my brother), what is your right to kill me? I would have helped you in getting Sita, your father King Dasharatha helped my father King Indra to fight against rakshasas....
It is also said by ISKCON that Rama promised Vali to give him a chance to avenge his unjust murder. Vali was reincarnated as a hunter and archer Jara in Mahabharata (Dwapar Yug). Jara was the cause of the death of Shri Krishna (the reincarnation of Shri Rama) when he struck his feet by an arrow taking them to be a deer....
Maha Shivaratri
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri
Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated annually in honor of Lord Shiva. There is a Shivaratri in every luni-solar month of the Hindu calendar, on the month's 13th night/14th day, but once a year in late winter (February/March, or phalgun) and before the arrival of Summer, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva".... This is an ancient Hindu festival whose origin date is unknown. In Kashmir Shaivism, the festival is called Har-ratri or phonetically simpler Haerath or Herath by Shiva faithfuls of the Kashmir region....Maha Shivaratri is an annual festival dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, and is particularly important in the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism. Unlike most Hindu festivals which are celebrated during the day, the Maha Shivaratri is celebrated at night.... In Shiva temples, "Om Namah Shivaya", the sacred mantra of Shiva, is chanted through the day. ...
Maha Shivaratri is celebrated over three or ten days based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar. Every lunar month, there is a Shivaratri (12 per year). The main festival is called Maha Shivaratri, or great Shivaratri, which is held on 13th night (waning moon) and 14th day of the month Phalguna. In the Gregorian calendar, the day falls in either February or March.... Different legends describe the significance of Maha Shivaratri. According to one legend in the Shaivism tradition, this is the night when Shiva performs the heavenly dance of creation, preservation and destruction...
In Kashmir Shaivism, Maha Shivaratri is celebrated as HaraRatri. It is also known as "Bhairavotsva" or the "Bhairava festival" in the Tantric texts of Kashmir. People believe that on this day, Shiva is said to have appeared in the form of Jwalalinga or Linga of flame....
Samudra Manthan: It is believed that on this particular day Lord Shiva gulped the Halahala produced during Samudra manthan and behelded it in his neck which bruise and turned blue...
Om Namah Shivaya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om_Namah_Shivaya
most popular Hindu Mantra and the most important mantra in Shaivism. Namah Shivaya means "O salutations to the auspicious one!", or “adoration to Lord Shiva". It is called Siva Panchakshara, or Shiva Panchakshara or simply Panchakshara meaning the "five-syllable" mantra (viz., excluding the Om) and is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is a holy salutation to Lord Shiva. This Mantra appears as 'Na' 'Ma' 'Śi' 'Vā' and 'Ya' in the Shri Rudram hymn which is a part of the Krishna Yajurveda and also in the Rudrashtadhyayi which is a part of the Shukla Yajurveda....
Translations among different traditions: ... Na sound represents earth Ma sound represents water Śi sound represents fire Vā sound represents Pranic air Ya sound represents sky or ether ...
Presence of mantra in different scriptures... This Mantra appears as 'Na' 'Ma' 'Śi' 'Vā' and 'Ya' in the Shri Rudram hymn which is a part of the Krishna Yajurveda. Thus predates the use of Shiva as a proper name, in the original context being an address to Lord Rudra (later Shiva), where Shiva retains its original meaning as an adjective, meaning "auspicious, benign, friendly", a euphemistic epithet of Rudra...
Is there a connection with Herath to goddess Hretha (Nerthus, Mother Earth who marries Father Sky as Shiva to conceive the new Sun to Vali the avenger with Rudra Shiva destroyer with most recent festival of Valentines Day on February 14. Kashmiri pundits celebrate Herath as the day Lord Shiva married Goddess Parvati ....
Kashmiri Pandits Celebrate Herath Ahead of Mahashivratri, Wishes Pour In From Across Country
Shivratri, literally the night of Shiva, is one of the most important occasions of the Hindu calendar, typically falling each year on the fourteenth day/night of the dark half of the month of the Phalguna (February–March). However, the festival, considered by Kashmiri Pandits to be the most auspicious of their festivals celebrate the festival a day earlier than the rest of their compatriots around the country, that is, on the 13th day of the Hindu month. The reason for this difference is that the celebratory rituals of Lord Shiva’s festival begin a full fortnight before, and culminated on the day (and night) of Herath. In the Kashmiri Pandit community, every young girl is considered a Parvati, to be married to Shiva, and for them the occasion of Shivratri symbolizes the marriage between Shiva and Parvati, and on this occasion, it is believed that Shiva visits each home to bless his wife, and so offerings of foods and sweets are prepared for his arrival, to satiate the legendary appetites of the Bhairavas and other Ganas accompanying their Lord.
Herath, itself is a phonetic derivation of Har-ratri, or the night of Hara (Shiva), and the festival marks an important is a socio-religious event in the life of Kashmiri Pandits. The main day of celebration incorporates many Tantric rituals, and involves the observance of a fast during the day followed by a yaga or fire sacrifice at night. Special dishes, mainly of meat and fish along with a few vegetarian options, are cooked as sacrificial food. They are then consumed by the celebrating families, after being symbolically offered to the host of deities associated with the festival.
Shivratri (Herath)
http://ikashmir.net/shivratri/index.html
Shivratri is the crown of our festivals, and is spread over a full fortnight of the Phalguna month. Among the Kashmiri Pandits this is known as Herath, a phonetic derivation of Har-ratri the night of Hara (Shiva). It is a socio-religious function that is the very part of our life. It is believed that every Kashmiri girl is a Parvati and is wedded to Shiva. The Shivratri symbolises the wedding of the two, and on this occasion the Bhairavas and other Ganas accompanying Lord Shiva are fed with choicest dishes up to the fill and to their satisfaction.
Kashmiri Pandit festivals
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_Pandit_festivals
Ushas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushas
Vedic goddess of dawn... Her sister is Ratri, or the night....
Vedic uṣás is derived from the word uṣá which means "dawn". This word comes from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hušā́s ("ušā" in Avestan), which in turn is from Proto-Indo-European *h₂éusōs ("dawn")...
Ushas is mentioned in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Forty of its hymns are dedicated to her, while her name appears in other additional hymns....
Ushas is described in Vedic texts as riding in a shining chariot drawn by golden-red horses or cows, a beautiful maiden bedecked with jewels, smiling and irresistibly attractive, who brings cheer to all those who gaze upon her. She dispels darkness, reveals treasures and truths that have been hidden, illuminates the world as it is. Hymn 6.64 associates her with wealth and light, while hymn 1.92 calls her the "mother of cows" and one, who like a cow, gives to the benefit of all people. Hymn 1.113 calls her "mother of the gods", while hymn 7.81 states her to be the mother of all living beings who petition her. She is the goddess of the hearth, states hymn 6.64. She symbolizes reality, is a marker of time and a reminder to all that "life is limited on earth". She sees everything as it is, and she is the eye of the gods, according to hymns 7.75–77.
She is variously mentioned as the sister of Ratri (night), Aditya and one who goes about her ways closely with deities Savitri and Surya. She is also associated with Varuna (sky, water) and Agni (fire).... In the "family books" of the Rig Veda (e.g. RV 6.64.5), Ushas is the divine daughter, a divó duhitâ, of Dyaus Pita ("Sky Father")....
Ushas is regionally worshipped during the festival of Chhath Puja,...
HYMN XLVIII. Dawn.
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv01048.htm
1 DAWN on us with prosperity, O Uṣas, Daughter of the Sky,
Dawn with great glory, Goddess, Lady of the Light, dawn thou with riches, Bounteous One.
HYMN CXXIII. Dawn.
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv01123.htm
5 Sister of Varuṇa, sister of Bhaga, first among all sing forth, O joyous Morning.
HYMN LXXV. Dawn.
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv07075.htm
5 She who is rich in spoil, the Spouse of Sūrya, wondrously opulent, rules all wealth and treasures.
HYMN LXXVI. Dawn.
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv07076.htm
1. SAVITAR God of all men hath sent upward his light, designed for all mankind, immortal.
Through the Gods’ power that Eye was first created. Dawn hath made all the universe apparent.
HYMN LXXVIT. Dawn.
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv07077.htm
She hath beamed forth lovely with golden colours, Mother of kine, Guide of the days she bringeth.
3 Bearing the Gods’ own Eye, auspicious Lady, leading her Courser white and fair to look on,
Depending on denomination Ishwar is not a deity nor supreme god but, to others is. With the name similar linguistically to Ishtar maybe Ishwar by way of migrations from the near east religions who worship Ishtar. During the Akkadian period, Inanna was extensively syncretized with the East Semitic goddess Ishtar. The Akkadian poetess Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon, wrote numerous hymns to Inanna, identifying her with Ishtar. Eventually, Inanna and Ishtar came to be seen as effectively the same. Ishwar may be a semitic influence corrupting the Tur ana, later Mesopotamian Inanna, with the semitic Ishtar which migrated into Ishwar. Ana is the sun goddess Mother Fire believed to be the great White Mother. Living in the water she called out to Father Sky Tanri to create...
Ishwar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishvara
Ishvara is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. In ancient texts of Indian philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme soul, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal god, or special Self.
The root of the word Ishvara comes from īś which means "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of"... vara which means "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage". The composite word, Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover". As a concept, Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Soul, lord, king or ruler, rich or wealthy man, god of love, deity Shiva, one of the Rudras, prince, husband and the number eleven. The word Īśvara never appears in Rigveda. However, the verb īś- does appear in Rig veda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to"....
It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, appears in Samhitas of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being. The word Ishvara appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras.... Ishvara does not mean God, but means Vedas.
Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara, i.e., a supreme being,... Isvara is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God....
Surya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya
Other names: Adithya, Bhaskara, Divakara, surya narayanan. Affiliation: Deva, Navagraha, Adityas. Abode: Suryaloka.
Consort: Chhaya, Ushas(Usha), Saranyu/Sandhya, and Ratri
Children: Shraddhadeva Manu, Yama, Yamuna, Shani, Tapati, Bhadra, Karna, Sugriv
Mantra:
"Om Mitraya Namaha,
Om Ravaye Namah,
Om Suryaya Namaha,
Om Bhanave Namaha,
Om Khagaya Namah,
Om Punshne Namaha,
Om Hiranya Garbhaya Namaha,
Om Marichaye Namaha,
Om Adityaya Namaha,
Om Savitre Namaha,
Om Arkaya Namaha,
Om Bhaskaraya Namaha
Surya is a Sanskrit word that means the Sun.... Surya's iconography is often depicted riding a chariot harnessed by horses, often seven in number... In some hymns, the word Surya simply means sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky; while in others it refers to a personified deity....
The Vedas assert Sun (Surya) to be the creator of the material universe (Prakriti). In the layers of Vedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along with either Agni or Varuna and either Vayu or Indra,...
The Mahabharata...calls him as the "eye of the universe... His chariot driver in both books is stated to be Aruṇa who is seated. Two females typically flank him, who represent the dawn goddesses named Usha and Pratyusha....
Surya in Indian literature is referred to by various names, which typically represent different aspects or phenomenological characteristics of the Sun. Thus, Savitr refers to one that rises and sets, Aditya means one with splendor, Mitra refers to Sun as "the great luminous friend of all mankind", while Pushan refers to Sun as illuminator that helped the Devas win over Asuras who use darkness. Arka, Mitra, Aditya, Tapan, Ravi and Surya have different characteristics in early mythologies, but by the time of the epics they are synonymous. The term "Arka" is found more commonly in temple names of north India and in the eastern parts of India. ...
Surya's synonym Ravi is the root of the word 'Ravivara' or Sunday in the Hindu calendar. ...Sunday is dedicated to the Sun....
Sūrya namaskāra literally means sun salutation. It is a Yoga warm up routine ... The Gayatri Mantra is associated with Surya (Savitr). The mantra's earliest appearance is in the hymn 3.62.10 of the Rigveda....
Om Mitraya Namah
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4tHZQTGRks
Holi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holi
Holi is an ancient Hindu spring festival, originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is celebrated predominantly in India and Nepal... "festival of spring", the "festival of colours", or the "festival of love"... It lasts for a night and a day, starting on the evening of the Purnima (Full Moon day) falling in the Vikram Samvat Hindu Calendar month of Phalgun, which falls somewhere between the end of February and the middle of March in the Gregorian calendar. The first evening is known as Holika Dahan (burning of demon holika) or Chhoti Holi and the following day as Holi....
Holi is an ancient Hindu religious festival... Holi celebrations start on the night before Holi with a Holika Dahan where people gather, perform religious rituals in front of the bonfire, and pray that their internal evil be destroyed the way Holika, the sister of the demon king Hiranyakashipu, was killed in the fire. The next morning is celebrated as Rangwali Holi – a free-for-all festival of colours, where people smear each other with colours and drench each other.... Some customary drinks include bhang (made from cannabis), which is intoxicating...
There is a symbolic legend to explain why Holi is celebrated as a festival of colours in the honour of Hindu god Vishnu...chapter 7 of Bhagavata Purana...The Holika bonfire and Holi signifies the celebration of the symbolic victory of good over evil, of Prahlada over Hiranyakashipu, and of the fire that burned Holika.
In the Braj region of India, where the Hindu deity Krishna grew up, the festival is celebrated until Rang Panchmi in commemoration of the divine love of Radha for Krishna...
Holi is linked to Shiva in yoga and deep meditation, goddess Parvati wanting to bring back Shiva into the world, seeks help from the Hindu god of love called Kamadeva on Vasant Panchami. The love god shoots arrows at Shiva, the yogi opens his third eye and burns Kama to ashes....This return of the god of love, is celebrated on the 40th day after Vasant Panchami festival as Holi....
Days before the festival people start gathering wood and combustible materials for the bonfire...On the eve of Holi, typically at or after sunset, the pyre is lit, signifying Holika Dahan....In North and Western India, Holi frolic and celebrations begin the morning after the Holika bonfire. There is no tradition of holding puja (prayer), and the day is for partying and pure enjoyment.... Holi is of particular significance in the Braj region, which includes locations traditionally associated with the Lord Krishna...
Mathura, in the Braj region, is the birthplace of Lord Krishna.... Intoxicating bhang, made from cannabis, milk and spices, is consumed with a variety of mouth-watering delicacies, such as pakoras and thandai, to enhance the mood of the festival....
Jain symbols
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_symbols
The four arms of the swastika symbolize the four states of existence as per Jainism:
Heavenly beings (devas encantadia"), Human Benefits, Hellish, Tiryancha (subhuman like flora or fauna). It represents the perpetual nature of the universe in the material world, where a creature is destined to one of those states based on their karma....
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. The word in the middle is "ahiṃsā" (non-injury). The wheel represents the dharmachakra,...
Kaliya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliya
Kaliya in Hindu traditions, was a poisonous Naga living in the Yamuna river, in Vrindavan....he had been driven away from there by fear of Garuda, the foe of all serpents. Garuda had been cursed by a yogi dwelling at Vrindavan so that he could not come to Vrindavan without meeting his death. Therefore, Kāliya chose Vrindavan as his residence, knowing it was the only place where Garuda could not come....
Krishna suddenly sprang onto Kāliya's head and assumed the weight of the whole universe, beating him with his feet. Kāliya started vomiting blood and slowly began to die. But then Kāliya's wives came and prayed to Krishna with joined palms, worshiping Krishna and praying for mercy for their husband. Kāliya, recognizing the greatness of Krishna, surrendered, promising he would not harass anybody. Seeing this, Krishna pardoned him. Krishna said your mistake it not yet completely forgiven, he then began to dance on top of Kāliya. After the dance Krishna asked Kaliya to leave the river and go to Ramanaka Dwipa. Ramanaka Dwiwhere and Krishna promised that Kāliya would not be troubled by Garuda... This episode is remembered as the 'Kaliya naag mardan' in South India. And at the last, as per Puranas, Kaliya was pushed into patala loka and is there till today....
Nāga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%81ga
The mythological serpent race that took form as cobras often can be found in Hindu iconography. The nāgas are described as the powerful, splendid, wonderful and proud semidivine race that can assume their physical form either as human, partial human-serpent or the whole serpent. Their domain is in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold and other earthly treasures called Naga-loka or Patala-loka. They are also often associated with bodies of waters — including rivers, lakes, seas, and wells — and are guardians...
Tara (Ramayana)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_(Ramayana)
In the Hindu epic Ramayana, Tara is the Queen of Kishkindha and wife of the monkey (vanara) King Vali. After being widowed, she becomes the Queen of Sugriva, Vali's brother.
Tara is described as the daughter of the monkey physician Sushena in the Ramayana, and in later sources, as an apsara (celestial nymph) who rises from the churning of the milky ocean. She marries Vali and bears him a son named Angada. After Vali is presumed dead in a battle with a demon, his brother Sugriva becomes king and appropriates Tara; however, Vali returns and regains Tara and exiles his brother, accusing him of treachery.
When Sugriva challenges Vali to a duel, Tara wisely advises Vali not to accept because of the former's alliance with Rama—the hero of the Ramayana and an avatar of the god Vishnu—but Vali does not heed her, and dies from Rama's arrow, shot at the behest of Sugriva. The Ramayana and its later adaptations emphasize Tara's lamentation. While in most vernacular versions, Tara casts a curse on Rama by the power of her chastity, in some versions, Rama enlightens Tara....
In the Ramayana, Tara is addressed by Vali as the daughter of the vanara physician Sushena. Sometimes, verses are added in the Bala Kanda, the first book of the Ramayana, which describe principal monkeys created by various deities: Vali and Sugriva are described as sons of the king of the gods, Indra and the sun-god Surya respectively; while Tara is described as the daughter of Brihaspati, the guru of the gods....
In the Mahabharata, there is a reference to Vali and Sugriva fighting over an unnamed woman, who the mythologist Bhattacharya believes to be Tara.... In all versions, Angada is born from Tara's marriage to Vali....
In the Ramayana, Vali goes to fight the demon Mayavi in a cave and instructs Sugriva to close the door of the cave if blood flows out from the cave, implying that he has been killed, but if milk flows out, it indicates that Mayavi is dead. After a year of combat, the dying demon turns the colour of his milky blood to red by sorcery. Sugriva believes that Vali is dead and closes the only opening to the cave. Sugriva also appropriates Vali's "widow" Tara. After Vali returns, rejecting Sugriva's explanation, he exiles Sugriva...
In the Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana, when Sugriva re-challenges Vali for combat...Having heard of the growing friendship between Sugriva and Rama, she cautions Vali. She urges him to forgive Sugriva, to anoint him as the crown prince, as a diplomatic move, and live peacefully with him, and also befriend the exalted Rama.... In the Mahabharata retelling, when Sugriva re-challenges Vali, Tara warns him about Sugriva's alliance with Rama and the plotting of Vali's death at the hands of Sugriva and his advisers. Vali not only disregards Tara's advice, but also suspects Tara of cheating on him with Sugriva. Vali leaves, speaking harshly to Tara....
Ignoring Tara's sound advice, Vali engages in combat with Sugriva. While fighting, Rama shoots an arrow at Vali from behind, fatally wounding him. ... Vali dies in the embraces of Tara, who mourns his death in a painful and rebuking speech....
In North Indian manuscripts of the Ramayana, some interpolations elaborate Tara's lament. Tara mentions the hardships of widowhood and prefers death to it. She blames Rama for unjustly killing Vali and tells him that if they had forged an alliance, Vali could have helped him recover Sita. Tara invokes the power of her chastity and curses Rama so that he will soon lose Sita after he regains her. She declares that Sita will return to the earth. The curse also appears in the North-western Indian manuscripts. In several vernacular adaptations of the Ramayana like the Oriya Vilanka Ramayana by Sarala Dasa, Tara's curse is reiterated. Apart from the usual curse to Rama of his separation from Sita, in the Bengali Krittivasi Ramayana, Tara additionally curses Rama that in his next birth, he will be killed by Vali. The Mahanataka and the Ananda Ramayana narrate that Vali is reborn as the hunter who kills Krishna, Rama's next birth....
After Vali's death, Sugriva acquires Vali's kingdom as well as Tara. The Ramayana does not record any formal marriage or any ritual purification—like the trial by fire Sita had to undergo when she is reacquired by Rama from Ravana—that Tara must undertake to marry Sugriva or return to Vali following his return from the dead. The lack of the description of formal marriage suggests, according to some critics, that Tara's relationship to Sugriva is neither widow re-marriage nor polyandry, but simply appropriation by Sugriva. In the references of the coronation of Sugriva as king, Angada is also described as the heir-apparent crown prince, while Tara is mentioned as Sugriva's wife....
Lakshmana is unable to tolerate Sugriva breaking his vow to Rama, enjoying material and sensual pleasures, while Rama suffers alone.... In some Ramayana adaptations and North-western Indian manuscripts of Ramayana, it is Tara, not Ruma in whom Sugriva is engrossed when Lakshmana arrives. The South Indian manuscripts portray the drunk Sugriva, who is engrossed in lustful revel as being ignorant of Lakshmana's anger and sending Tara to pacify him, in some versions, even though she is drunk. Though intoxicated with "half-closed eyes and unsteady gait", Tara manages to disarm Lakshmana. The intoxication of Tara is also described in original Ramayana, but in a different context. Tara is described as having made it a habit to visit Sugriva always in a tipsy state, before indulging in the "new pleasures of love"....
Lakshmana is reminded of his own widowed mother seeing Tara. Pacified by Tara and praised further by Sugriva, Lakshmana begs for Sugriva's pardon for abusing him. It is only through the diplomatic intervention of Tara that the crisis is averted....
Were Vanara like the berserkers dressing in monkey skins and becoming monkey like warriors like the bear tribes, wolf tribes, etc... And/Or did the Gods crossbreed with the monkeys to produce a hybrid monkeyman (half god and half monkey)? ...
Vanara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanara
Vānara refers to a group of people living in forests (Vān - forest, nara - human) in the Hindu epic the Ramayana and its various versions. In the Ramayana, the Vanaras help Rama defeat Ravana....
Although the word Vanara has come to mean "monkey" over the years and the Vanaras are depicted as monkeys in the popular art, their exact identity is not clear.... The Ramayana presents them as humans with reference to their speech, clothing, habitations, funerals, consecrations etc. It also describes their monkey-like characteristics such as their leaping, hair, fur and a tail. According to one theory, the Vanaras are strictly mythological creatures. This is based on their supernatural abilities, as well as descriptions of Brahma commanding other deities to either bear Vanara offspring or incarnate as Vanaras to help Rama in his mission. The Jain re-tellings of Ramayana describe them as a clan of the supernatural beings called the Vidyadharas; the flag of this clan bears monkeys as emblems.
G. Ramdas, based on Ravana's reference to the Vanaras' tail as an ornament, infers that the "tail" was actually an appendage in the dress worn by the men of the Savara tribe. (The female Vanaras are not described as having a tail.) According to this theory, the non-human characteristics of the Vanaras may be considered artistic imagination. In Sri Lanka, the word "Vanara" has been used to describe the Nittaewos mentioned in the Vedda legends.
Vanaras are created by Brahma to help Rama in battle against Ravana. They are powerful and have many godly traits. Taking Brahma's orders, the gods began to parent sons in the semblance of monkeys (Ramayana 1.17.8). The Vanaras took birth in bears and monkeys attaining the shape and valor of the gods and goddesses who created them (Ramayana 1.17.17-18). After Vanaras were created they began to organize into armies and spread across the forests, although some, including Vali, Sugriva, and Hanuman, stayed near Mount Riskshavat.[citation needed]
According to the Ramayana, the Vanaras lived primarily in the region of Kishkindha (identified with parts of present-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra). Rama first met them in Dandaka Forest, during his search for Sita. An army of Vanaras helped Rama in his search for Sita, and also in battle against Ravana, Sita's abductor.
Conflict: Ramayana says Tara is wife of Vali, then to Sugriva, Vali's brother. This article claims Brihaspati is Tara's consort. In another Tara cheats on Brihaspati and has a son Budha with Chandra...
Brihaspati
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%B9%9Bhaspati
Planet Jupiter. Day Thursday. Consort Tara.
refers to different mythical figures depending on the age of the text. In ancient Hindu literature Brihaspati is a Vedic era sage who counsels the gods... Bṛhaspati, a Vedic deity holding a lotus flower
Bṛhaspati appears in the Rigveda (pre-1000 BCE), such as in the dedications to him in the hymn 50 of Book 4; he is described as a sage born from the first great light, the one who drove away darkness, is bright and pure, and carries a special bow whose string is Rta or "cosmic order" (basis of dharma).... he is sometimes identified with god Agni (fire). His wife is Tara (or goddess who personifies the stars in the sky)....
In medieval mythologies particularly those associated with Hindu astrology, Brihaspati has a second meaning and refers to Jupiter. It became the root of the word 'Brihaspativara' or Thursday in the Hindu calendar... Brihaspati was married to Tara. In medieval mythologies, Tara was abducted by Chandra. Tara bore a son, Budha (planet Mercury).
Chandra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra
Chandra lit. "shining" or "moon") is a lunar deity and is also one of the nine planets (Navagraha) in Hinduism. Chandra is synonymous to as Soma.... Chandra is the father of Budha (planet Mercury).... Chandra, who is also known as Soma and Indu...
In Hindu mythology, there are multiple legends surrounding Chandra. In one, Chandra meets Tara, the wife of Brihaspati (planet Jupiter) and they both fall in love. From their union, Tara became pregnant giving birth to Budha (planet mercury). Brihaspati becomes upset and declares a war. The Devas intervene and Tara returns to Brihaspati. Budha's son was Pururavas who established the Chandravanshi Dynasty....
Chandra literally means the "Moon" in Sanskrit, Hindi and other Indian languages.... Indu, one of the other names for Chandra, is also the name of the first chakra of Melakarta ragas in Carnatic music.
Angada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angada
Ramayana character. Affiliation Vanara dynasty. Predecessor Sugriva.
Family Vali (father). Tara (mother) Indra (grandfather).
Angada is a vanara who helped Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana, in Ramayana. He was son of Vali and Tara and nephew of Sugriva.
Vidyadhara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidyadhara
Vidyadhara(s) are a group of supernatural beings in Indian religions who possess magical powers. In Hinduism, they also attend Shiva, who lives in the Himalayas. They are considered as Upadevas, semi-gods. Vidyadharas appear in Buddhist sources as well.
In the Hindu epics, Vidyadharas are described as essentially spirits of the air....Jain legends describe Vidyadharas as advanced human beings...Mahabharata, Vidyadharas are described as following Indra with other semi-divine beings to the serpent-sacrifice of Janamejaya....In the epics, the women of the Vidyadharas, called Vidyadharis are described to possess great beauty, and were victims of kidnapping by demons like Ravana.... The Vidyadhras with siddhas are said to have milked Mother Earth (Prithvi), who had assumed the form of cow by using the sage Kapila as the calf and collected different yogic mystic powers (siddhis) and the art of flying as milk in the pot of the sky....
Vidyadhara possess mystical powers and abilities in Jainism like flying. Vanara and Rakshasa are two of the many Vidyadhara clans according to Jain literature. Some of the Kings were Ravana, Hanuman and Vali.
Siddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddha
In Jainism, the term is used to refer the liberated souls. Siddha may also refer to one who has attained a siddhi, paranormal capabilities. ... In Jainism, the term siddha is used to refer the liberated souls who have destroyed all karmas and have obtained moksha. They are free from the transmigratory cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra) and are above Arihantas (omniscient beings). Siddhas do not have a body; they are soul in its purest form. They reside in the Siddhashila, which is situated at the top of the Universe. They are formless and have no passions and therefore are free from all temptations. They do not have any karmas and they do not collect any new karmas....
In Hinduism...a siddha refers to a being who has achieved a high degree of physical as well as spiritual perfection or enlightenment. The ultimate demonstration of this is that siddhas allegedly attained physical immortality. ...Siddha were said to have special powers including flight. These eight powers are collectively known as attamasiddhigal (ashtasiddhi). In Hindu cosmology, Siddhaloka is a subtle world (loka) where perfected beings (siddhas) take birth. They are endowed with the eight primary siddhis at birth....
In Hindu theology, Siddhashrama is a secret land deep in the Himalayas, where great yogis, sadhus and sages who are siddhas live. The concept is similar to Tibetan mystical land of Shambhala. Siddhashrama is referred in many Indian epics and Puranas including Ramayana and Mahabharata...
Tara is described as the daughter of the monkey physician Sushena...
Sushena
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushen_(name)
The name Suṣhēn or Suṣhēna or Suṣhēnah or Sushane is one of the names of Lord Vishnu cited in the epic Hindu poem Vishnu sahasranāma ("the thousand names of Vishnu"), an articulated versification of 1,008 names for Vishnu.... Vishnu sahasranama is one of the most sacred and commonly chanted stotras in Hinduism, and the version found in the Mahābhārata is the most popular. It lists names that each eulogise one of Vishnu's great attributes. Stanza 58 of the Vishnu sahasranama contains the name suṣhēnah:
mahāvarāho govindạh suṣhēnah kanakāngade
guhyo gabhēro gahanọ guptaśchakragadādharah
"Suṣhēnah – He who has a charming army. The army of Vishnu is called as His Ganā. They are mainly constituted of great sages and seers and hence, their compelling enchantment." (Adi Shankaracharya 8th century CE) ...
Sushena was son of Karna, one of the central characters of the Mahābhārata....Sushena was a monkey chief at the siege of Lanka, when Rama formed an alliance with the monkey king Sugriva... brother of Emperor Janamejaya, son of Maharaja Parikshit of the Kuru Kingdom....In the Ramayana, Sushena was the son of Varuna the God of the sea....The Raja Vaidya (Royal Doctor) of Ravana's Kingdom was named Sushena with the 'na' ...But the most important meaning of Sushenah, as considered by some scholars explains it as: 'su' meaning good or heavenly and 'shenah' with the 'na' – the ending na of 'ta-kara', meaning vaidya or doctor. Precisely Sushenah means Good Doctor or Heavenly Doctor – which is Vishnu and hence His 540th name in Vishnu Sahasranaama is 'Sushenah'.
Karna is the son of Surya. Sushena was son of Karna. Tara is daughter of the monkey physician Sushena...
Karna
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karna
one of the major characters in the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. He is the son of Surya (the Sun deity) and princess Kunti (later the Pandava queen). He was conceived and born to unmarried teenage Kunti, who hides the pregnancy, then out of shame abandons the new born Karna in a basket on a river. The basket is discovered floating on the Ganges River. He is adopted and raised by foster Suta parents named Radha and Adhiratha Nandana of the charioteer and poet profession working for king Dhritarashtra. Karna grows up to be an accomplished warrior of extraordinary abilities, a gifted speaker and becomes a loyal friend of Duryodhana. He is appointed the king of Anga (Bengal) by Duryodhana. Karna joins the losing Duryodhana side of the Mahabharata war. He is a key antagonist who aims to kill Arjuna but dies in a battle with him during the Kurushetra war....
He is a tragic hero in the Mahabharata...He meets his biological mother late in the epic then discovers that he is the older half-brother of those he is fighting against....In section 3.290.5 of the Mahabharata, Karna is described as a baby born with the ear-rings and armored breastplate, like his father Surya....
Book 5 of the Mahabharata describes two meetings where Karna discovers information about his birth. The first meeting is with Krishna, the second where his biological mother Kunti comes to meet him for the first time.... Krishna tells Karna that Kunti is his biological mother and Pandavas are his half-brothers. In section 5.138 of the epic, according to McGrath, Krishna states, "by law, Karna should be considered as the eldest born of Pandavas", that he can use this information to become the king. Through his relationship to his mother Kunti, all Vrishnis on Krishna's side will also recognize him and be his tributary, he can be the emperor with power over everyone....Karna declines the offer. Karna replies that though he was born from Kunti, it was the wife of a charioteer "Radha who gave him love and sustenance", and that makes her his real mother. Similarly, it is from the love and affection and "not scripture" that he knows Adhiratha to be his real father. He is already married, says Karna, he has two sons and now grandsons, all because his father Adhiratha helped him settle into his married life....Krishna then went to Kunti and asked her to meet Karna and tell him that he is her first born son and the Pandavas were his brothers....
By the thirteenth day of the Mahabharata war, numerous soldiers, kings, brothers and sons of Kauravas (Karna's side) and Pandavas (Arjuna's side) had been killed...Since all previous commanders of Duryodhana had been killed, he anoints Karna as the senapati (commander of all his forces) for the first time. Karna and Shalya head into the battlefield together, though they keep insulting each other's abilities and intent, lack mutual devotion and teamwork. Together they reach Arjuna with Krishna. They battle that day, each showing his martial skills of attack as well as his ability to neutralize all weapons that reach their chariot. Then, the wheel of Karna's chariot gets stuck in the ground. Karna steps out of his chariot and is distracted while trying to unstick it. Arjuna – whose own son was killed by the Kauravas a day ago while he was trying to unstick his chariot's wheel – takes this moment to launch the fatal attack. Karna dies....
The Karna-Arjuna story has parallels in the Vedic literature and may have emerged from these more ancient themes. According to McGrath, the Vedic mythology is loaded with the legendary and symbolism-filled conflict between Surya (sun) and Indra (clouds, thunder, rain). Indra cripples Surya in the Vedic mythology by detaching his wheel, while Arjuna kills Karna while he tries to fix the wheel that is stuck in the ground. As another example of parallels, Surya too has a birth mother (Night) who abandons him in the Vedic texts and he too considers his adoptive mother (Dawn) who raises him to his bright self as the true mother just like Karna. This idea was first discussed by the philologist Georges Dumézil, who remarked that similar mythology and details are found in other ancient Indo-European stories. ...
Similar to cernunnos, budha, shiva, shaman,
Pashupati
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupati
Lord of the Animals... Pashupati is an incarnation of the Hindu god Shiva as "lord of the animals". He is revered throughout the Hindu world, but especially in Nepal... Paśupati "Lord of all animals" was originally an epithet of Rudra in the Vedic period and now is an epithet of Shiva. Pashupatinath is an avatar of Shiva, one of the Hindu Trinity. He is the masculine counterpart of Shakti.
Pashupati seal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupati_seal
The Pashupati Seal is a steatite seal that was discovered at the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization. ...It is purported to be one of the earliest depictions of the Hindu god Shiva ("Pashupati", meaning "lord of animals", is one of Shiva's epithets) or Rudra, who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three heads. The figure has often been connected with the widespread motif of the Master of Animals found in ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean art, and the many other traditions of horned deities....
In the first place the figure has three faces and that Siva was portrayed with three as well as with more usual five faces, there are abundant examples to prove. Secondly, the head is crowned with the horns of a bull and the trisula are characteristic emblems of Siva. Thirdly, the figure is in a typical yoga attitude, and Siva was and still is, regarded as a mahayogi—the prince of Yogis. Fourthly, he is surrounded by animals, and Siva is par excellence the "Lord of Animals" (Pasupati)—of the wild animals of the jungle, according to the Vedic meaning of the word pashu, no less than that of domesticated cattle. ...
Objections and alternate interpretations...Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles, mounts) of deities for the four cardinal directions....proto-Shiva archetype...some non-aryan deities...
What happened to the vanaras post Ramayana?
https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-vanaras-post-Ramayana
Most Vanaras did not live in present India, even during Ramayana era. Sugreeva asks his fellow men to call upon all vanaras from across the globe to assemble in kishkinda before marching towards lanka for war. This was ordered after hanuman returns from lanka and confirms seetha’s location.
Sugreeva asks Jambavantha to assemble his race of about 2 mllion bhallukas. All types of vanaras came in from all parts of world.... Total was about 20 million who attacked lanka. After war, they left to their original places. One such place, from where Vanaras came in, could be today’s egypt. Temple of Hathor at Dendera, built by Pharaoh Pepi I ca. 2250 BCE has carvings of Vanaras ... So, vanaras were left in ancient India, but most of them were dispersed....
According to this list Kishkinta - kingdom of vanaras is near Hampi in modern day karnataka.Anjanadri near Hosipet is the birthplace of Hanuman. In the British records of the gazette of Bellary district , which is very near modern day Hampi or Kishkinta of earlier times , it was noted that the forest tribes of that area call themselves Vanara people and used monkey as their symbol in their monumental sculptures and flags. So it is believed that this tribes are the descendants of Vanaras mentioned in Ramayana. [THIS INDICATES THE MONKEY IS THE TOTEM ANIMAL FOR THESE TRIBES LIKE THE WOLF, BEAR, RAVEN, SERPENT, LION, AND OTHER ANIMALS WERE USED. I DOUBT THEY WERE MONKEY MAN HYBRIDS. THEY PROBABBLY JUST USED MONKEY SKINS AND LIVED AND IMITATED THE MONKEYS IN WARFARE.]
Vanars were not exactly a race, they were a tribe forest dwellers who lived in western Ghats. Vanar means Van Nar or men of the forest. They were not apes but we're not part of Vedic Aryan society either.
Their territory was called Kishkindha. It would encompass Northern Karnataka, and Goa. These tribes continued to exist after Ramayana. Angad and his descendants ruled the Kingdom after Sugreev. Krishna's second wife Jambavati was from Riksha tribe who were allies of Vanars.
Lord Hanuman and monkey totem
https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/musings/lord-hanuman-and-monkey-totem/692304.html
Mesha Sankranti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Sankranti
first day of the solar cycle year, that is the solar New Year in the Hindu luni-solar calendar....the day of transition of sun into the Aries zodiac sign.... Mesha Sankranti falls on 13 April usually, sometimes 14 April. This day is the basis for major Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist festivals, of which Vaisakhi and Vesak are the most well known....
Vaisakhi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisakhi
also known as Baisakhi, or Vasakh is a historical and religious festival in Hinduism and Sikhism. It is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year...The festival coincides with other new year festivals celebrated on the first day of Vaisakh...The first day of Vaisakh marks the traditional solar new year and it is an ancient festival that predates the founding of Sikhism. The harvest is complete and crops ready to sell, representing a time of plenty for the farmers....However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five-day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Ugadi, Gudi Padwa and Cheti Chand, which falls a few weeks earlier....
Rama Navami
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama_Navami
Hindu festival that celebrates the birthday of lord Rama....
Navami Tithi Begins = 01:11 on 13/Apr/2019
Navami Tithi Ends = 23:05 on 13/Apr/2019
Varanasi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varanasi
also known as Benares, Banaras, or Kashi (Kāśī [ˈkaːʃi], is a city on the banks of the river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, India, ... it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities (Sapta Puri) in Hinduism and Jainism, and played an important role in the development of Buddhism and Ravidassia.... Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BCE when he gave his first sermon, "The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma", at nearby Sarnath.... Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Rama's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi....
Traditional etymology links "Varanasi" to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city's borders: Varuna, still flowing in northern Varanasi, and Assi... In the Rigveda the city is referred to as Kāśī (Kashi) from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś- "to shine", making Varanasi known as "City of Light", the "luminous city as an eminent seat of learning". The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha's days. Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi, such as Kāśikā (Sanskrit: "the shining one"), Avimukta (Sanskrit: "never forsaken" by Shiva), Ānandavana (Sanskrit: "the forest of bliss"), and Rudravāsa (Sanskrit: "the place where Rudra/Śiva resides").
According to Hindu mythology, Varanasi was founded by Shiva, one of three principal deities along with Brahma and Vishnu. During a fight between Brahma and Shiva, one of Brahma's five heads was torn off by Shiva. As was the custom, the victor carried the slain adversary's head in his hand and let it hang down from his hand as an act of ignominy, and a sign of his own bravery. A bridle was also put into the mouth. Shiva thus dishonored Brahma's head, and kept it with him at all times. When he came to the city of Varanasi in this state, the hanging head of Brahma dropped from Shiva's hand and disappeared in the ground. Varanasi is therefore considered an extremely holy site.
During the time of Gautama Buddha, Varanasi was part of the Kingdom of Kashi....
Bharata Chakravartin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharata_Chakravartin
He was the eldest son of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism. According to the Jains and the Hindu Puranas, the ancient name of India was named "Bhāratavarsha" or "Bhārata" or "Bharata-bhumi" after him. He had two sons from his chief Queen Sunanda - Arkakirti and Mariachi. He conquered all the six parts of the world and fought with Bahubali (his brother) in the end to conquer the last remaining city. The Jaina literature credits Bharata Chakravartin to be the one who established the Brahmin priestly caste. According to the Digambara sub-tradition of Jainism, in his later years, he renounced the world, led an ascetic life and attained kevalajnana (omniscience)....
Chakravartin ruler will be born to them who will conquer whole of the world. Then, Bharata was born to them ...He was a Kshatriya born in Ikshvaku dynasty.... After Rishabhanatha developed a desire for renunciation, he distributed his kingdom to his hundred sons, of whom Bharata got the city of Vinita (Ayodhya) and Bahubali got the city of Podanapur (Taxila). His coronation was followed by a long journey of world conquest... 98 of his brothers became munis (ascetics) and submitted their kingdoms to him. Bahubali refused to submit and challenged him for a fight....Bahubali, developed a desire for renunciation and gave up his kingdom to become a Jain monk.... Bharata married many princesses during his world conquest. He was succeeded by his son Arka Kirti (founder of Suryavansha). ...
According to Jain texts, one day Bharata discovered a white hair in his head and taking it to be the messenger and herald of old age, immediately decided to become a Jain monk.... India was named "Bhāratavarsha" or "Bhārata" or "Bharata-bhumi" after him....
(Rama is of the Solar Dynasty Ikshvaku.)
Bharata (Ramayana)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharata_(Ramayana)
Bharata was the younger half brother of Lord Rama. Ramayana holds Bharata as a symbol of dharma and idealism.... Bharatá is a Vedic Sanskrit word. Monier Monier-Williams states that it means "to be or being maintained."...
In the Ramayana Bharata, the eldest son of Dasharatha and Kakeyi and half-brother of Rama, served as the king of Ayodhya as a sage for the 14 years of Rama, Sita and Lakshman's exile. His mother was the reason that Lord Ram was exiled, since she wished Bharat to become the King instead of Ram. Bharat was sad with his mother's act. He also attempted to bring Rama back to Ayodhya... Ikshvaku clan, which they belonged to[Solar Dynasty]....
(Sunanda, wife of Bharata, was a Kasi.)
Bharata (Mahabharata)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharata_(Mahabharata)
This article is about legendary king Bharata of Mahabharata. For the emperor after whom India was named Bharatvarsha, see Bharata Chakravartin. In Hindu scriptures, Bharata is an ancestor of the Pandavas and the Kauravas in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. Though the Bhāratas are a prominent community in the Rigveda, the story of Bharata is first told in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, wherein he is the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.... According to the Mahābhārata (Adi Parva), Bharata was the son of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala and thus a descendant of the Lunar dynasty of the Kshatriya Varna. He was originally named Sarvadamana...
Bharat had a son named Bhúmanyu. In the Adi Parva of Mahabharata, it tells two different stories about Bhúmanyu's birth. The first story says that Bharat married Sunanda, the daughter of Sarvasena, the King of Kasi Kingdom and begot upon her the son named Bhumanyu. According to the second story, Bhúmanyu was born out of a great sacrifice that Bharata performed for the sage Bharadwaja. Emperor Bharat gave his name to the dynasty of which he was the founder. It was in the Bharat's' dynasty that later the Pandavas of epic Mahabharata were born.
Shakuntala
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakuntala
wife of Dushyanta and the mother of Emperor Bharata.
Family: Vishwamitra (father) and Menaka (mother). Children: Bharata ...
Vishwamitra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra
Vishvamitra was a king in ancient India, also called Kaushika (descendant of Kusha) and belonged to Amavasu Dynasty. Vishwamitra was originally the Chandravanshi (Somavanshi) King of Kanyakubja. He was a valiant warrior and the great-grandson of a great king named Kusha.
Family: Gaadhi (father) Children: ...Shakuntala (from Menaka)
Gaadhi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaadhi
son of Kushanabha. They belong to Chandravansha Clan. He is father of Rajarshi Kaushik ( later became Brahmarshi Vishvamitra).
Kushanaabha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushanaabha
Kushanaabha was the King of Amavasu dynasty and belongs to Chandravamsha clan. He was the son of Kusha. ... he started worshipping lord Indra and performed austerities wishing to have a son like Indra. At last Indra consented and became his son, by incarnation, being born as Gaadhi.
Kusha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusha
Maharaja... Kusha was a Chandravamsha king. He is father of Kushanaabha...
(Some articles say Budha and Kreeshna was solar race, and some say lunar.)
Lunar dynasty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_dynasty
According to Hindu mythology, the Lunar dynasty is one of the four principal houses of the Kshatriya varna, or warrior–ruling caste. This legendary dynasty was said to be descended from moon-related deities (Soma or Chandra). According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, the dynasty's founder Pururavas was the son of Budha (himself often described as the son of Soma) and the gender-switching deity Ila (born as the daughter of Manu). Pururavas's great-grandson was Yayati, who had five sons named Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu, and Puru: these seem to be the names of five Indo-Aryan tribes as decribed in the Vedas.
According to the Mahabharata, the dynasty's progenitor Ila ruled from Prayag, and had a son Shashabindu who ruled in the country of Bahli. Ila's descendants were also known as the Ailas or Chandravansha
Manu and the Solar Dynasty
https://www.speakingtree.in/blog/manu-and-the-solar-dynasty
The Solar dynasty or the Surya Vansh is considered as the pure dynasty because the other, Lunar dynasty branched from it. Surya is Brahma's grandson and Surya's son, Manu or Shraddha Deva Manu, is believed to be the father of humanity. Manu's daughter Ila was married to Buddha, son of Chandra, and Manu's son Ikshvaku was the father of the Solar dynasty. Manu is believed to be the first king because he gave rise to civilization....
When the fish grows bigger than the ocean, it reveals itself as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu who warns Manu of a great flood that will occur in near future. Vishnu instructs him to make a large boat, big enough to accommodate Manu's family, the Saptarishi, all types of seeds and a pair of all species of animals. When the great flood occurred, Vishnu returned in the form of the giant fish and rowed Manu's boat to the top of Malaya mountains and after the flood, they all repopulated the earth.
Manu had sixty sons, out of which fifty perished quarreling each other. One son named Sudyumna got transformed into a woman named Ila because of a curse and gives birth to the Chandra Vansh. Another son named Rushabhdev later came to be known as Ikshvaku, meaning sugarcane, because his kingdom was famous for good sugarcanes. Ikshvaku fathered 101 children of whom most illustrious were Vikukshi, Nimi and Danda. Ikshvaku's 50 children were the protector of northern countries while 48 were the prince of southern countries. Nimi was the ruler of Mithila region and started the kingdom of Janaka. After the death of Ikshvaku, his son Sasada succeeded him. Great rulers like Harishchandra, Bhagirath, Dasaratha, Ram, etc. were a part of this dynasty. Even Siddharth Gautam, later known as Gautam Buddha is believed to be a part of the Surya Vansh....
Kings of the Solar dynasty proved to be brave warriors while those of the Lunar dynasty were rather cunning and witty. Ramayana is the story of the Solar dynasty while Mahabharata is the story of the Lunar dynasty. Hence said, "Ram-charitra-param-pavitra, Krishna-charitra-maha-vichitra- ", meaning Ram's character (of the Solar dynasty) is extremely pure and simple while Krishna's character (of the Lunar dynasty) is extremely mischievous and complex.
Dushyanta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dushyanta
He was the husband of Shakuntala and the father of the Emperor Bharatha.... According to the Mahābhārata, Dushyanta is the son of Ilina and Rathantara. He was king of Hastinapur and ancestor of the Kuru dynasty....
Maha Bharatam Adiparvam Chapter 4
http://www.telugubhakti.com/telugupages/Monthly/Mahabharat/content4.htm
The story-teller UgraSravasu continued to tell the story to Saint Sounaka and other saints. King Yayaati nstalled his son Pooru on the throne and performed the coronation ceremony. Pooru was ruling the people to heir utmost satisfaction. Pooru’s son was JanamEjaya. JanamEjaya’s son was Praachinvanta. Praacinvanta’s on was Samyaathi. Samyaathi’s son was Ahamyaathi. Ahamyaathi’s son was Saarvabhouma. arvabhouma’s son was JayathsEna. JayatsEnaa’s son was Avaachina. Avaachina’s son was Ariha.
Ariha’s son as Mahabhouma. Mahaabhouma’s son was Yuthaaneeka. Yuthaaneeka’s son was AkrOdhana.AkrOdhana’s son was DEvaathidhi. DEvaathidhi’s son was Rucheeka. Rucheekaa’s son was Rukshu. Rukshu’s son was Mathinaara.
The said Matinaaraa performed Satrayaaga for a period of twelve years on the banks of River Sarasvathi. River Sarasvathi fell in love with Ruceeka and married him. Thrasa was born to both of them. Thrasa’s son was Ilina. Ilinaa’s son was King Dushyanta....
(If Rama and Bharata are half brothers, and both have same father of the solar dynasty would make Bharata also a solar tribe by his father but, his mother Shakuntala is of the lunar tribe making Bharata half solar and half lunar. Thus, Bharats are half solar half lunar.
Kasi is pure Solar.)
DASARAT'HA according to Wilson the son of Aja and father of Rama a distinguished prince of the solar dynasty. Buchanan supposes him to have lived in the fifteenth century before the christian era. According to Wilson the sons of Dasaratha were Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Satrughna. At the time that Sita was married to Rama Urmila the other daughter of Janaka was given to Lakshmana and the two other brothers were married to Mandavi and Srutakirtti the daughters of Kusadhwajn the sovereign of Sankasya or according to the Agni Purana, of Kasi or Benares, and brother of Janaka Hindoo Theatre Vol I p 288 289 See Avataram Inscriptions p 382 Polygamy
Source: Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial ..., Vol 2 by Edward Balfour
The Indian Magazine and Review, Issues 289-300
(The following account of the history if the State of Orchha has been written by the Crown Prince of that State It has been forwarded to us by the Private Tutor to the sons of HH the Maharaja) ...
Such was the state of the country when we for the first time made our appearance in it. We were formerly the rulers of Benares or Kashi and were called the Gahrwar Rajputes of the Solar dynasty. We are all thus descended from Lava the eldest son of Ram Chundra the hero of Ramayan (the Ramayana). Hemkarana son of Devodas 121st in descent from Rama on account of some family dissension with his brother quitted Benares and resolved to make a separate kingdom of his 0wn also to become an independent ruler of the same The place that he chose for his residence was Vindyachal that lay in the region lying round about the Vindhya mountains and as he and his successors afterwards ruled over that region they were therefore named Vindhyelas or the rulers of the country round the Vindhya ranges The modern word Bundela is merely a corruption of the word Vindhyela which is composed of the Sanscrit roots Vindhya ela the former meaning the Vindhya ranges while the latter means the earth We were from that period up to the present date termed Bundelas a surname added after the names of all the members of the descent We were a very bold intelligent and warlike people and always used to lead the life of hard labourers In the time of our rule a good many temples castles and several architectural buildings had been erected They are up to the present date proclaiming our glory as the triumphal monument of the Bundelas We were at that time well skilled in governing the State and also possessed a thorough knowledge of administering all the civil and criminal affairs We were most expert in performing warlike operations and military tactics on account of which we were successful in adding a large portion of land to our own and thus to be the chief governors of the whole province of Bundelkhand the portion of land governed by the Bundela Rajputes From the time of Maharajah Hemkarana till the end of Maharajah Udet Singh's reign the whole province of Bundelkhand was in aflourishing state and we were the independent rulers of the territory and the strict followers of unity But no sooner the reign of Maharajah Udet Singh came to an end the rays of disunion began to peep out and the country was parcelled out into petty kingdoms which afterwards resulted in reducing the strength of the nation and making it feeble In accordance with the evil custom prevalent in those days each son of a Rajah was granted a jagir which was soon after the death of the father king separated from the main dominion But this method of granting jagi rs is not a good one...
The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume 5
The tract of country north of the river Gogra and between Oudh and Behar which now forms the Districts of Gorakhpur and Basti was originally included in the ancient kingdom of Kosala of which Ajod hya was the capital It was visited by the deified hero Rama whose death may be placed at about 750 bc Gautama Buddha the founder of the widespread religion which bears his name was bom at Kapila just beyond the border and died at Kasia within this District A colossal statue still marks the place of his decease Gorakhpur thus became the head quarters of the new creed and was one of the first tracts to receive it Tradition further recounts that a prince belonging to the Solar dynasty of Ajodhya attempted to found here a great city which should rival the glories of Kasi or Benares but that when it was nearly completed he was overwhelmed by an irruption of the Tharus and Bhars These aboriginal and mixed races held all the country north east of Oudh and the Ganges for a long period and drove out the Aryans who had at first conquered them Their reappearance was apparently connected with the rise of the Buddhist faith The Bhar chieftains seemed to have held the country at first independently and afterwards as vassals of the Magadha Buddhists On the fall of that dynasty the Bhars regained their autonomy till about 550 ad From this time the Aryans began to recover their lost ground and in 600 ad the Rahtors of Kanauj invaded the District which they conquered up to the modem town of Gorakhpur Hweng Thsang the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited this part of India about the year 630 notices the large number of monasteries and towers the latter a monument of the continuous struggle between the aboriginal Bhars and their Aryan antagonists the Rahtors
I GET THE FEEL THERE WERE SOME POWER CLASHES BETWEEN THE PRAJAPATIS AGAINST NARADA ON BEHALF OF DAKSHA AS WELL AS SOME OTHERS. A DEFAMATION OF RELIGIONS? ...
Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic by W.J. Wilkins [1900]
https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hmvp/index.htm
DAKSHA IS SON OF BRAHMA, FATHER OF UMAY. UMAY CONSORT TO SIVA. DAKSHA IS A PRAJAPATI (LORD OF CREATURES). DAKSHA IS CALLED GLORIOUS RISHI, AND GREAT MUNI. DAKSHA HAS THE HEAD OF A GOAT....
DAKSHA.
https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hmvp/hmvp38.htm
"WHEN Brahmā wished to populate the world, he created mind-born sons, like himself; viz. Bhrigu, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Angiras, Marichi, Daksha, Atri, and Vasishtha: these are the nine Brahmās or Brahmārishis celebrated in the Purānas."... These Brahmārishis are also called Prajāpatis (lords of offspring), Brahmāputras (sons of Brahmā), and Brāhmanas. The "Vishnu Purāna" teaches that Bhrigu married his niece Khyāti, a daughter of Daksha, who bore to him Sri or Lakshmi;
At the great sacrifice of Daksha, to which Siva was not invited, Bhrigu officiated as priest; and because he reviled that god and his followers, and justified Daksha in slighting him, he suffered the loss of his beard....
Bhrigu himself being one of the narrators of the Mahābhārata....They were the discoverers of fire, and then brought it to men. He adds that the race has a connection with history, as one of the chief Brāhmanical families bears the name... In the Rāmāyana there are not many references to Bhrigu; he is there called a Maharishi; and Rāma is induced to slay a female demon by the remembrance that Vishnu slew Brigu's wife when she aspired to Indra's throne....
Pulastya married Prithi, a daughter of Daksha, by whom he had a son, the sage Agastya; the Bhāgavata calls his wife Havisbhu, whose sons were Agastya and Visravas, the father of Kuvera, Rāvana, and other Rākshasas....
Marichi is better known through his descendants than from any work of his own, his most illustrious child being Kasyapa, as a son of whom Vishnu came, in his incarnation as a dwarf. Amongst Kasyapa's thirteen wives were Diti and Aditi, who by him became the mothers of gods....Accordingly they were born the sons of Kasyapa, the son of Marichi by Aditi; thence named the twelve Ādityas, whose names were Vishnu, Sakra, Aryaman, Dhuti, Tvastri, Pushan, Vivasvat, Savitri, Mitra, Varuna, Ansa, and Bhaga." *... "These classes of divinities are born again at the end of a thousand ages according to their own pleasure, and their appearance and disappearance are spoken of as a birth and death; but they exist age after age in the same manner as the sun sets and rises again." By his wife Diti, Kasyapa had two sons, Hiranyakasipu and Hiranyāksha, whom Vishnu, here said to be the son of her sister Aditi; became incarnate to destroy; these mortal enemies were therefore cousins....
8. DAKSHA. Daksha, the father of Umā, the consort of Siva, has attained pre-eminence amongst his brethren largely through the greatness of his son-in-law. He, too, is a mind-born son of Brahmā; or, according to other accounts, sprang from the thumb of his father. He is one of the chief Prajāpatis.... The term Prajāpati means a lord of creatures; the Prajāpatis, therefore, are regarded as the progenitors of mankind.... Sometimes Brahmā alone is intended by the term Prajāpati; he is the "lord of creatures;" sometimes it is employed for the first-formed men from whom the human race sprang. The word was originally employed as an epithet of Savitri and Soma, as well as of Hiranyāgarbha, or Brahmā. It afterwards, however, came to denote a separate deity, who appears in three places in the Rig-Veda. Prajāpati is sometimes identified with the universe, and described (in the same way as Brahma, or entity, or non-entity in other places) as having alone existed in the beginning, as the source out of which creation was evolved: "e.g. Prajāpati was this universe; Vach was a second to him. She became pregnant, she departed from him, she produced these creatures. She again entered into Prajāpati." * At the same time he is "sometimes described as a secondary or subordinate deity, and treated as one of thirty-three deities."
The Mahābhārata † gives two distinct accounts of the origin of Daksha:—"Daksha, the glorious Rishi, tranquil in spirit, and great in austere fervour, sprang from the right thumb of Brahmā. From the left thumb sprang the great Muni's wife, by whom he begot fifty daughters." "Born with all splendour, like that of the great Rishis, the ten sons of Prachetas (another Prajāpati) are reputed to have been virtuous and holy, and by them the glorious beings (trees, plants, etc.), were formerly burnt up by fire springing from their mouth. From them was born Daksha Prāchetasa; and from Daksha, the parent of the world, (were produced) these creatures. Cohabiting with Virini, the Muni Daksha begat a thousand sons like himself, famous for their religious observances." In the Harivansa, Vishnu is identified with Daksha. At the end of a thousand Yugas the Brāhmans of a previous age, "perfect in knowledge and contemplation, became involved in the dissolution of the world. Then. Vishnu, sprung from Brahma, removed beyond the sphere of sense, absorbed in contemplation, became the Prajāpati Daksha, and formed numerous creatures."
Fuller particulars of Daksha's origin we find in the "Vishnu Purāna."...The "Vishnu Purāna" § also speaks of Daksha as a son of the Prāchetasas, and gets over the difficulty by the statement that he was born first as a son of Brahmā, and afterwards as the son of the Prāchetasas.... Soma, the sovereign of the vegetable world, seeing nearly all the trees destroyed, went to the patriarchs and said, Restrain your indignation, and listen to me. I will make an alliance between you and the trees. Prescient of futurity, I have nourished this maiden, the daughter of the woods. She is called Mārishā, and, as your bride, she shall be the multiplier of the race of Druva. From a portion of your and my lustre the patriarch Daksha shall be born, who, endowed with a part of me and composed of your vigour, shall be resplendent as fire, and shall multiply the human race.'" Soma then informs the brothers respecting Mārishā's origin. "There was formerly a sage named Kandu, eminent in wisdom and austerity, on the banks of the Gomati. Indra sent the nymph Pramlochā to divert the sage from his devotions: they lived together for 150 years, during which time the Muni was given up to pleasure. ... The Muni sees now that the nymph must have been sent by Indra purposely to interrupt his devotions, and deprive him of the divine knowledge he had desired. And though very angry with her at first, he bids her depart in peace, as he says, "The sin is wholly mine."... the child she had conceived by the Rishi came forth from the pores of her skin in drops of perspiration. The trees received the living dews, and the winds collected them into one mass. 'This,' said Soma, 'I matured by my rays, and gradually it increased in size, till the exhalation that had rested on the tree-tops became the lovely girl named Mārishā. The trees will give her to you, Prāchetasas; let your indignation be appeased. She is the progeny of Kandu, the child of Pramlochā, the nursling of the trees, the daughter of the wind and moon.'"... Soma informs his hearers that it was this princess who was born as Mārishā. "Soma having concluded, the Prāchetasas took Mārishā, as he had enjoined them, righteously to wife, relinquishing their indignation against the trees, and upon her they begot the eminent patriarch Daksha, who had (in a former life) been born as the son of Brahmā. This great sage, for the furtherance of creation and the increase of mankind, created progeny...subsequently by his will gave birth to females, ten of whom he bestowed on Dharma, thirteen on Kasyapa, and twenty-seven, who regulate the course of time, on Soma (the moon). ...
Daksha's first attempts at populating the world were unsuccessful. A thousand sons were born to him by Asikni, but these were induced by Nārada not to propagate offspring. A thousand other sons by the same wife were born, who also were advised by Nārada not to be troubled with children. The Prajāpati, incensed, cursed Nārada, and proceeded to create sixty daughters by Asikni, whom he gave to various husbands, by whom they had children.At length, when a time of peace and prosperity prevailed on the earth, and the gods had their proper places assigned to them, to Daksha was given the position as chief of the Prajāpatis—progenitors of mankind. In the account of Siva it was noticed that as a punishment for the insults Daksha had offered to his illustrious son-in-law, the great god changed his head for that of a goat; a perpetual sign of his ignorance and stupidity.... [ IS THIS THE AUTHORS BIAS, OR THE BIAS FROM HIS REFERENCE? ]
Nārada's name is not found in the list of Brahmā's sons in the "Vishnu Purāna,"...He is the messenger of the gods, and is often described as imparting information that was only known to them. It was he who persuaded the sons of Daksha not to beget offspring, and who was cursed for his interference; it was he who informed Kansa of the approaching birth of Krishna, which led that king to slay the children of Vasudeva: hence his common name is Kalikāraka, the strife-maker, and in modern plays he is introduced as a spy and marplot. The name Nārada is frequently employed as a term of abuse. It is used to describe a quarrelsome, meddling person.... In another birth Nārada was the son of Kasyapa ‡ and a daughter of Daksha. Daksha was greatly incensed when he dissuaded the Prajāpati's sons from peopling the world, and declared that he should not have a resting-place; hence his wandering nature. On one occasion Nārada was cursed by his own father, and he in return cursed Brahmā. "Brahmā exhorted his son Nārada to take a wife, and assist in peopling the world. Nārada, who was a votary of Krishna, becomes angry, affirms that devotion to that god is the sole way to attain felicity, and denounces his father as an erring instructor. Brahmā, in reply, curses Nārada, and dooms him to a life of sensuality, and subjection to women. Nārada pays back the imprecation... Nārada was the friend and companion of Krishna... Krishna played many practical jokes on his friend; on one occasion he went so far as to metamorphose him into a woman. *...Great honour is given to Nārada because he is said to have revealed to Valmiki the "Rāmāyana,"...
ANOTHER INTERPRETATION OF HOW DAKSHA BECAME GOAT HEADED. HE DISAPPROVED OF HIS DAUGHTER SATI MARRYING SHIVA. WAS PUBLICLY SHAMED SO SATI THROWS HERSELF IN THE PURIFYING SACRIFICIAL FIRE. THIS ENRAGES SHIVA. HE INVOKES HELP TO DESTRYOY THE PREMISES AND DAKSHA IS DECAPITATED WHO IS LATER FORGIVEN AND GIVEN LIFE BACK BY AFFIXING A RAM'S MALE GOAT HEAD....
Daksha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daksha
(Sanskrit: "able, dexterous, or honest one")... head of an ibex-like creature with spiral horns. ... Daksha was angry with Inter galactic traveller Narada... According to Vishnu Purana and Padma Purana, Daksha and his wife Prasuti had 24 daughters. The names of these 24 daughters are:... According to Matsya Purana, Daksha and his wife Panchajani (Virani) had 62 daughters, not one of whom resembled their father:... According to Padma Purana, when Daksha felt the number of women are still not sufficient, he decided to have 60 more daughters. Sati was the daughter married to Shiva.... The 13 daughters married to sage Kashyapa are: Aditi, Diti, Danu,...
Story of Sati and Shiva: One of the daughters of Daksha (often said to be the youngest) was Sati (Dakshayani), who had always wished to marry Shiva. Daksha forbade it, but Sati disobeyed him and did so anyway... Daksha criticizing Rudra for insulting him in the Satrayaga
Daksha Yagna was an important turning point in the creation and development of sects in Hinduism. It is the story behind the 'Stala Purana' (Origin story of Temples) of Shakti Peethas. There are 51 (some say 108) Shakti Peethas shrines all over South Asia. The story replaced goddess Sati by Shree Parvati as Shiva's consort, and lead to the story of Lord Ganesha and Lord Kartikeya.
Shiva carrying the corpse of his consort Sati:
Daksha organised a huge yaga and intentionally avoided Shiva and Sati. Even though discouraged by Shiva, who told her not to go to a ceremony performed by Daksha where she and her husband were not invited; the parental bond made Sati ignore social etiquette and her husband's wishes. Sati went to the ceremony alone. She was snubbed by Daksha and insulted by him in front of the guests. Sati, unable to bear further insult, ran into the Sacrificial fire and immolated herself. Shiva, upon learning about the terrible incident, in his wrath invoked Virabhadra and Bhadrakali by plucking a lock of hair and thrashing it on the ground. Virabhadra and Bhoota ganas marched south and destroyed all the premises. Daksha was decapitated and the yagnja shaala was devastated in the rampage. The Bhutaganas' celebrated victory by plucking the beard of 'Presiding Master' of the yagnja, Sage Bhrigu as a war souvenir.
Daksha was later forgiven and given life by fixing a ram's (male goat's) head and the yagna was allowed to complete, in all the divinities' presence.
The story continues with the act of Vishnu pacifying Shiva, who was in deep grief in seeing the half burned corpse of his beloved wife. Vishnu embraced Shiva to pacify him. Shiva unable to part with Sati took her corpse and wandered. Vishnu helped him get rid of this attachment by severing the corpse with his divine discus. The body parts of the corpse of Sati Devi fell in the places Shiva travelled. The places where the body parts Sati Devi's corpse fell came to be known as Shakti Peethas.
IS UMAY ANA (TENGRI'S DAUGHTER) THE SAME AS UMAY (DAKSHA'S DAUGHTER AND SIVA'S CONSORT)?
Umay (The Turkic root umāy originally meant 'placenta, afterbirth') is the goddess of fertility and virginity. Umay resembles earth-mother goddesses found in various other world religions and is the daughter of Tengri.
Tengri is considered to be the chief god who created all things. In addition to this celestial god, they also had minor divinities (Alps) that served the purposes of Tengri. As Gök Tanrı, he was the father of the sun (Koyash) and moon (Ay Tanrı) and also Umay, Erlik, and sometimes Ülgen.
Umay (Ana)) is the goddess of fertility in Turkic mythology and Tengriism.... Umay resembles earth-mother goddesses... The earth was considered a "mother" symbolically....
As Umay is associated with the sun... She is depicted as having sixty golden tresses that look like the rays of the sun....
Daksha, the father of Umā, the consort of Siva...
Umā
https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hmvp/hmvp34.htm#page_285
Umā is the name by which the consort of Siva is first known. In the sacred books she appears in many forms, and is known by many names;... When Devi (the goddess) appears as Umā, she is said to be the daughter of Daksha, a son of Brahmā....
she is also called Sati, in allusion to the fact that when her father slighted her husband by not inviting him to the great sacrifice he made, she voluntarily entered the sacrificial fire and was burned to death in the presence of the gods and Brāhmans;... Ambikā, another name of Umā, in one of the earliest books, is said to be the sister of Rudra; and yet in the later ones she is declared to be his wife... Umā, Ambikā, Pārvati, Haimavati, belong to the wife of Rudra, others as Kāli carry us back to the wife of Agni;...
Rāmāyana, * Umā is said to be the daughter of Himavat and Mena; the two forms of lima and Pārvati being confounded in the writer's mind. "To Himavat, the chief of mountains, the great mine of metal, two daughters were born in beauty unequalled upon earth. The daughter of Meru, Mend by name, the pleasing and beloved wife of Himavat, was their slender-waisted mother. Of her was born Gangā, the eldest daughter of Himavat, and his second daughter was Umā, who, rich in austere observances, having undertaken an arduous rite, fulfilled a course of severe austerity. This daughter lima, distinguished by severe austerity, adored by the worlds, the chief of the mountains gave to the matchless Rudra. These were the two daughters of the King of the Mountains: Gangā, the most eminent of rivers, and Umā the most excellent of goddesses."...
Several of the names under which Umā is now known and worshipped are to be found in the older writings of the Hindus, though at that time they did not refer to Siva's wife. Umā, as we have already seen, was "Wisdom;" Ambikā was a sister of Rudra; Durgā "in a hymn of the Taittiriya Āranyaka is an epithet of the sacrificial flame; and Kāli, a word which occurs in the Mandaka Upanishad, is the name of one of the seven flickering tongues of Agni, the god of fire." * Umā is called the mother of Kartikeya, and in a certain sense of Ganesa too; but it is not at all clear whether it was really as Umā or in her succeeding birth as Pārvati that she had these children.
The "Kurmā Purāna" * has an account of Umā's creation which takes us back, a stage anterior to her birth as a daughter of Daksha. "When Brahmā was angry with his sons for adopting an ascetic life [and refusing to perpetuate the human race], a form half male and half female was produced from that anger, to whom Brahmā said, 'Divide thyself,' and then disappeared. The male half became Rudra, and the female, at the command of Brahmā, became the daughter of Daksha under the name of Sati, and was given in marriage to Rudra, and when she subsequently gave up her life on being treated with disrespect by her father, she was born a second time as the daughter of Himavat and Mena, and named Pārvati."...
PĀRVATI.: seated on Mount Kailāsa...Siva reproached her for the blackness of her skin. This taunt so grieved her that she left him for a time, and, repairing to a deep forest,
performed a most severe course of austerities, until Brahmā granted her as a boon that her complexion should be golden, and from this circumstance she is known as Gauri....
She then, as Brahmā had requested, divided herself into three parts; one white, one red, and one black. The white was " Sarasvati, of a lovely, felicitous form, and the cooperator with Brahmā in creation; the red was Lakshmi, the beloved of Vishnu, who with him preserves the universe; the black was Pārvati, endowed with many qualities and the energy of Siva." In the preceding legend it was narrated how Pārvati, originally black, became golden-coloured....
DURGĀ.: the wife of Siva, she acted as an ordinary woman, and manifested womanly virtues; as Durgā she was a most powerful warrior, and appeared on earth, under many names, for the destruction of demons who were obnoxious to gods and men. She obtained the name Durgā because she slew an asura named Durgā...
Rāvana observed her festival. Rāma, seeing the help his enemy received from this goddess, began himself to worship her. This was in the autumn. Durgā was delighted with the devotion of Rāma, and at once transferred her aid to him....
DASABHUJĀ.: "Mārkandeya Purāna" describes these incarnations in the following order:—(1) As Durgā she received the message of the giants; (2) As Dasabhujā (the ten-armed) she slew part of their army; (3) As Singhavāhini (seated on a lion) she fought with Raktavija; (4) As Mahishāmardini (destroyer of a buffalo) she slew Sumbha in theform of a buffalo; (5) As Jagaddhātri (the mother of the world) she overcame the army of the giants; (6) As Kāli (the black woman) she slew Raktavija; (7) As Muktakesi (with flowing hair) she overcame another of the armies of the giants; (8) As Tāra (the saviour) she slew Sumbha in his own proper shape; (9) As Chinnamustaka (the headless) she killed Nisumbha; (10) As Jagadgauri (the golden-coloured lady renowned through the world) she received the praises and thanks of the gods....
"This new goddess now ascended Mount Himālaya, where Chanda and Manda, two of Sumbha and Nisumbha's messengers, resided. As these demons wandered over the mountain, they saw the goddess; and being exceedingly struck with her charms, which they described to their masters, advised them to engage her affections,...
JAGADDHĀTRI.: Jagaddhātri (the mother of the world) destroyed another army of the giants; is dressed in red garments, and is seated on a lion....she carries a conch-shell, discus, bow and arrow. In all the above forms she is represented as a fair, beautiful, gentle-looking lady....
KALI.: Kāli (the black woman), or, as she is more commonly called, Kāli Mā, the black mother,...slew Raktavija, the principal leader of the giant's army.... Kāli is represented as a black woman with four arms; in one hand she has a sword, in another the head of the giant she has slain, with the other two she is encouraging her worshippers... In the "Adhyatma * Rāmāyana," † is a legend giving quite a different origin of Kāli; the object of the writer evidently being to enhance the glory of Sita, by showing that Kāli was but a form that she had assumed.... KĀLI DANCING ON SIVA.... There can be no doubt that human sacrifices were formerly offered to Kāli, though now they are forbidden both by British law and the Hindu scriptures...
MUKTAKESI.: Muktakesi * (having flowing hair) destroyed another part of the giant's forces. In appearance there is little to distinguish her from Kāli: she has four arms; holds a sword and a helmet in her left hands, and with her right she is bestowing a blessing and dispelling fear. She, too, is standing upon the body of her husband.
TARA: Tārā (the saviour) slew Sumbha, and holds his head in one hand and a sword in another. Her appearance, too, is similar to that of Kāli. She must not be confounded with Tārā, the wife of Vrihaspati; or Tārā, the wife of Bāli, the asura king.
Chinnamustaka (the beheaded) slew Nisumbha, the other giant... for her head is half-severed from her body. She is painted as a fair woman, naked, and wearing a garland of skulls, standing upon the body of her husband.
Jagadgauri (the yellow woman [renowned] through the world) received the thanks and praises of the gods and men for the deliverance she wrought; in her four hands she holds a conch-shell, a discus, a club, and a lotus....
Pratyangirā (the well-proportioned one). Of this form of Durgā no images are made, but at night the officiating priest, wearing red clothes, offers red flowers, liquors, and bloody sacrifices. The flesh of animals dipped in some intoxicating drink is burned;
Annapurnā (she who fills with food) is represented as a fair woman, standing on a lotus, or as sitting on a throne. In one hand she holds a rice bowl, and in the other a spoon used for stirring rice when it is being boiled. Siva, as a mendicant, is receiving alms from her.... Siva and Durgā as together forming one body...
Ganesajanani (the mother of Ganesa) is worshipped with her infant in her arms.
Krishnakrora (she who holds Krishna on her breast). When Krishna fought with the serpent Kaliya in the river Yamuna, he was bitten, and in pain called upon Durgā for help. She heard his cry, and, by suckling him from her breast, restored him to health.
This list might be almost indefinitely enlarged. From the number of her names, it is evident she is largely worshipped in North India...
Originally the term Sakti signified the energy, or power of a deity. In process of time this energy was supposed to dwell in the wife, and as a result the devotion of the worshippers was transferred to her. And for many centuries a special name has been given to those who pay their supreme worship to the energy of the gods that are, so to speak, incarnated in their wives. These are known as Saktas... The goddesses, and especially Devi, or Durgā, the wife of Siva, are the supreme objects of worship amongst the Saktas... The authority for this form of Hinduism are the Tantras, not the Purānas....
Genetic Study Suggests Denisovans Were the Mythological Rakshasas
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/denisovan-dna-0012974
A new genetic study of 1739 Asian individuals from 219 populations has found that on the Indian sub-continent today Denisovan DNA exists mostly among isolated, tribal communities. It also found that considerably less Denisovan ancestry exists among Asians in India and Pakistan of clear Indo-European descent. Yet the greater implications of these findings relate to the possible presence in South Asia in the distant past of Denisovans, who in Indian mythology may well be remembered as blood thirtsy demons known as the Rakshasas. The study, which was led by US and Asian scientists... in India indigenous tribal and non-Indo-European-speaking populations possessed the highest amounts of Denisovan DNA, adding that it was less evident among ‘upper’ caste groups. Indo-European speakers, particularly those of Pakistan, faired worse with the lowest recorded Denisovan component of all groups.... Indigenous tribal people of India had the highest amounts of Denisovan DNA... Denisovan ancestry present among the indigenous populations of the Indian sub-continent was that of the Sunda Denisovans, and not their northern cousins... Siberian Denisovan and Sunda Denisovan, but also a third type, which was most likely a breakaway from the Sunda Denisovans.... a second admixture event between the Aeta and Denisovans must have occurred after the separation of the Aeta and Melanesians, perhaps even as recently as 20,000 years ago. A suggestion of this second admixture event involving Denisovans and indigenous peoples of Indonesia and the Philippines...
I FOUND THIS ARTICLE CONTRADICTORY ON SEVERAL POINTS. ARTICLE ENDS BY ADMITTING A NEED FOR A FURTHER STUDY OF MUCH LARGER SAMPLES, MORE POPULATION GROUPS, AND INCREASED RESOLUTIONS.
BUT, FROM THIS RESEARCH WHICH COMPARES TWO TRIBAL GROUPS WITH CASTE POPULATIONS OF INDIA. SHOWS mt DNA M AND N HG's AS THE ORIGINAL FEMALES FOR BOTH TRIBAL AND CASTE GROUPS. M WAS BROUGHT FROM EAST AFRICA 60KYA.
H, L, AND R2 ARE FOUND IN BOTH CASTE AND TRIBAL MALES. THE R1a Y-DNA HG MAY BE INDO ARYANS, OR NOT, ARE PREDOMINATELY OF THE CASTE MALES FROM EAST EUROPE/ CENTRAL ASIA ARE THE MOST COMMON MALE HG.
J HG CAME RECENTLY FROM MID EAST AND EAST AFRICA WHO MINGLED WITH THE R1a PEOPLE IN PUNJAB.
LESS THAN 2% OF INDIA GENES ARE FROM THE FAR EAST. MALE C HG IN INDIA CAME FROM THE ORIGINAL SPREAD OF C HG FROM THE EARLIEST SOUTHERN ROUTE MIGRATION.
VERY LITTLE EUROPEAN AND WEST&CENTRAL ASIAN IN INDIA ESPECIALLY THE FEMALES WHO ARE FOUND IN LOW FREQUENCY AMONG ONLY THE CASTE, AND VERY RARE IN TRIBAL.
I REPEAT ALOT OF CONTRADICTORY INFORMATION....
The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC379225/
Two tribal groups from southern India—the Chenchus and Koyas—were analyzed for variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the Y chromosome, and one autosomal locus and were compared with six caste groups from different parts of India, as well as with western and central Asians. In mtDNA phylogenetic analyses, the Chenchus and Koyas coalesce at Indian-specific branches of haplogroups M and N that cover populations of different social rank from all over the subcontinent. Coalescence times suggest early late Pleistocene settlement of southern Asia and suggest that there has not been total replacement of these settlers by later migrations. H, L, and R2 are the major Indian Y-chromosomal haplogroups that occur both in castes and in tribal populations and are rarely found outside the subcontinent. Haplogroup R1a, previously associated with the putative Indo-Aryan invasion, was found at its highest frequency in Punjab but also at a relatively high frequency (26%) in the Chenchu tribe. This finding together with the higher R1a-associated short tandem repeat diversity in India and Iran compared with Europe and central Asia, suggests that southern and western Asia might be the source of this haplogroup. Haplotype frequencies of the MX1 locus of chromosome 21 distinguish Koyas and Chenchus, along with Indian caste groups, from European and eastern Asian populations. Taken together, these results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene....
More than 60% of Indians have their maternal roots in Indian-specific branches of haplogroup M. Because of its great time depth and virtual absence in western Eurasians, it has been suggested that haplogroup M was brought to Asia from East Africa, along the southern route, by the earliest migration wave of anatomically modern humans, ~60,000 years ago. Another deep late Pleistocene link through haplogroup U was found to connect western Eurasian and Indian populations. Less than 10% of the maternal lineages of the caste populations had an ancestor outside India in the past 12,000 years....
In contrast, the Y-chromosome genetic distance estimates showed that the chromosomes of Indian caste populations were more closely related to Europeans than to eastern Asians. The tendency of higher caste status to associate with increasing affinities to European (specifically to eastern European) populations hinted at a recent male-mediated introduction of western Eurasian genes into the Indian castes’ gene pool. The similarities with Europeans were specifically expressed in substantial frequencies of clades J and R1a in India....
coalescence time estimate 61,800+/-12,600 years for Chenchu and Koya haplogroup M HVS-I sequences...All of the non-M sequences (31% of Koya mtDNAs) belonged to unclassified branches of haplogroup R, with the exception of one Indian-specific U2....
When compared with Indian caste populations, Chenchus and Koyas are characterized by the rarity of haplogroup U and, like tribal groups from West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, by the lack of western Eurasian lineage clusters HV, TJ, N1, and X. These four clades combined cover ~60% of the western Asian mtDNAs in India. Their frequency is the highest in Punjab, ~20%, and diminishes threefold, to an average of 7%, in the rest of the caste groups in India. The most frequent M subcluster in Chenchus and Koyas was M2...
The haplogroup R lineages of the Koyas (31%) and Chenchus (1%) did not further subdivide into western Eurasian–specific (HV, U, TJ, and R1; or eastern Eurasian-specific branches (B and R9) and showed a coalescence time of 73,000+/-20,900 years...
Y-Chromosomal Variation
19 different haplogroups can be distinguished in India, 9 of which occur in four or more different populations and each of which constitutes 15% of the total Y-chromosomal variation in India....When compared with European and Middle Eastern populations Indians (i) share with them clades J2 and M173 derived sister groups R1b and R1a, the latter of which is particularly frequent in India;... In common with eastern and central Asian populations most Indian populations have clade C lineages.... Altogether, three clades—H, L, and R2—account for more than one third of Indian Y chromosomes. They are also found in decreasing frequencies in central Asians to the north and in Middle Eastern populations to the west. Unclassified derivatives of the general Eurasian clade F were observed most frequently (27%) in the Koyas.... Interestingly, more than one-third of Andhra Pradesh middle and lower caste Y chromosomes were defined as clade 1R in a previous study which resolves into clades G, F*, and H in the present study. Hence, it seems likely that M52 is not a “tribal”-specific marker but that its frequency is concentrated regionally around Andhra Pradesh...
The spread of clade L is confined mostly to southern, central, and western Asia. Being virtually absent in Europe, it is also found irregularly and at low frequencies in populations of the Middle East and southern Caucasus....
Clades Q and R share a common phylogenetic node P in the Y-chromosomal tree defined by markers M45 and 92R7 (YCC 2002). The P*(xM207) chromosomes are widespread—although found at low frequencies—over central and eastern Asia and were also found only in two Indian samples. In contrast, their sister branch R, defined by M207, accounts for more than one-third of Indian Y chromosomes and is the most common clade throughout north western Eurasia. Its daughter clades R1 and R2 are both found in tribal and caste groups. Clade R1 splits into R1a and R1b, which are similarly variable in Indians and western Asians but are less so in Estonians, Czechs, and central Asians. R2 (previously misidentified as “P1” [YCC 2002]) has a more specific spread, being confined to Indian, Iranian, and central Asian populations.
Clade J accounts for 13% of Indian Y chromosomes, almost exclusively because of its subcluster J2, define by M172...
Clade C is widespread in central and eastern Asia, Oceania, and Australia but is rarely found or absent in western Asia and Europe. In Indians, the defining RPS4Y marker persists at an average frequency of 5%, consistent with its previous accounts in the Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu caste groups of different ranks and tribes. Most eastern Asians and virtually all central Asians with the RPS4Y711 T allele belong to clade C3...
The high frequency of M17 among eastern European and central Asian populations places them next to the Indian cluster. Furthermore, the high frequency of M269 in the Lambadis positions them away from Indians and between the southern and western European populations, among whom this marker is more commonly found...
We did not find new Indian-specific mutations, consistent with the idea that the observed variation in the locus has largely arisen in Africa. Haplotype 5, which is common in eastern Asia and Africa but virtually absent in Europe, was found in intermediate frequencies in all Indian populations considered here. Similarly, haplotype 8, which is common in Europe but absent in eastern Asia, was found in India at low frequencies. As is the case in other Eurasian and African populations, haplotypes 3 and 4, which are specific to Australian and Papuan populations, were not found in India....
Discussion
India as an Incubator of Early Genetic Differentiation of Modern Humans Moving out of Africa
Phylogeographic patterns of the Y chromosome and mtDNA support the concept that the Indian subcontinent played a pivotal role in the late Pleistocene genetic differentiation of the western and eastern Eurasian gene pools. All non-Africans, including Indian populations, have inherited a subset of African mtDNA haplogroup L3 lineages, differentiated into groups M and N. Although the frequency of haplogroup M and its diversity are highest in India, there is no phylogenetic evidence yet from the mtDNA coding region demonstrating that its presence in Africa is due to a back migration. Also, the lack of L3 lineages other than M and N in India and among non-African mitochondria in general suggests that the earliest migration(s) of modern humans already carried these two mtDNA ancestors, via a departure route over the horn of Africa (i.e., the southern route migration. More specifically, the ubiquity in India of diverse branches sharing the characteristic 12705T and 16223C transitions, suggests that the N branch had already given rise to its daughter clade R, which later, in eastern Asians, differentiated into clusters B and R9 and in western Asia gave rise to haplogroups HV, TJ, and U. The coalescence time of major M subclusters in the Indian subcontinent, which are comparable in diversity and even older than most eastern Asian and Papuan haplogroup M clusters, suggests that the Indian subcontinent was settled soon after the African exodus and that there has been no complete extinction or replacement of the initial settlers. In a similar way, Indians show the presence of diverse lineages of the three major Eurasian Y-chromosomal haplogroups C, F, and K, although they have obviously lost the fourth potential founder, D. The presence of several subclusters of F and K (H, L, R2, and F*) that are largely restricted to the Indian subcontinent is consistent with the scenario that the coastal (southern route) migration(s) from Africa carried the ancestral Eurasian lineages first to the coast of Indian subcontinent (or that some of them originated there). Next, the reduction of this general package of three mtDNA (M, N, and R) and four Y-chromosomal (C, D, F, and K) founders to two mtDNA (N and R) and two Y-chromosomal (F and K) founders occurred during the westward migration to western Asia and Europe. After this initial settlement process, each continental region (including the Indian subcontinent) developed its region-specific branches of these founders, some of which (e.g., the western Asian HV and TJ lineages) have, via continuous or episodic low-level gene flow, reached back to India. Western Asia and Europe have thereafter received an additional wave of genes from Africa, likely via the Levantine corridor, bringing forth lineages of Y-chromosomal haplogroup E, for example, which is absent in India.
Gene Flow from Eastern Asia
Although both Indian and eastern Asian populations share, at the interior phylogenetic level, two major trunks of the mtDNA tree (haplogroups M and N), their subsequent branching into boughs and limbs is different: <2% of Indians, whether with tribal or caste affiliation, can trace their maternal ancestry back to eastern Asian–specific branches. Analogously, the subclades of the Y-chromosomal clusters C, F, and K do not overlap in southern and eastern Asia. The major continental eastern Asian clade O was virtually absent both in tribal and caste populations, although one particular O subcluster, defined by M95, has been reported in three other tribes of Andhra Pradesh and in castes and tribes of Tamil Nadu. The frequency of M95 is highest in Austro-Asiatic speakers, Burmese-Lolo, and the Karen of Yunnan, China and is virtually absent (1/984) in central Asia (Wells et al. 2001). Its irregular distribution from India to Yunnan might possibly be related to the equally uneven spread of the Austro-Asiatic speakers. Indian RPS4 1T chromosomes (clade C), like their Y71 Indonesian counterparts, cannot be apportioned between clusters specific to eastern Asian (/M217) and Oceanic populations (/M38, /M210). Given the high hierarchical position of the C clade in the Y binary tree, its wide distribution in the eastern hemisphere, and its high STR variability in India, it seems plausible that the original spread of C was associated with the southern route migration. Although haplogroup C displays idiosyncratic occurrences in Europe, its presence at 5% in India (perhaps its most reliable westernmost distribution) suggests that the RPS4Y mutation originated in or arrived with the earliest immigrants. Invoking back migrations to India as an explanation is unwarranted, since the absence of derivative RPS4Y lineages common in eastern Asia and Oceania suggests that these differentiations happened after RPS4Y lineages had already transited the subcontinent. Furthermore, the MX1 data distinguish the Indians from the Oceanian population, in which RPS4Y occurs frequently.
Gene Flow from Western Asia, Europe, and Central Asia
Indians virtually lack the HIV-1–protective Dccr5 allele that is frequent in Europe, western Asia, and central Asia, implying either that this allele arose very recently in Europe or that there has not been substantial gene flow to India from the northwest. Western Eurasian–specific mtDNA haplogroups occur at low frequencies in Indian caste populations and are virtually absent among the tribes. Southern and western Asian–specific U2i and U7 lineages, which are rare or absent in Europe, however, are found occasionally in the tribes. The copresence of most haplogroup U subclusters (U1–U8) in populations around the Middle East suggests that the differentiation of haplogroup U occurred mostly west of India. If the ancestor of haplogroup U was brought to the Middle East via northern Africa by the northern route migration—a hypothesis still awaiting support from genetic data—then the presence of haplogroup U in India would be due to an early, Upper Palaeolithic migration from western Asia. Alternatively, one might consider the scenario that all western Eurasian mtDNA variation stems from the coastal southern route migration and that U had already differentiated from R in southern Asia, where it survived only in U2i (and perhaps U7) descendants. Interestingly, mtDNA haplogroup U7, like Ychromosomal clade L, is also found, though at low frequencies, in western Asia and occasionally in Mediterranean Europe. The differences in STR modal haplotypes of the L clade between the Caucasus and India point to their independent expansions from two distinct founder populations. Given the deep time depth of U7, it is possible that this east-to-west link predates the Last Glacial Maximum.
The lack of western Asian and European-specific mtDNA lineages among the tribes and their low frequency in castes of southern and eastern India indicates that the spread of these lineages in India might have been communicated by the caste populations of northwestern India and that there has been limited maternal gene flow from castes to tribes thereafter. The most common Y-chromosomal lineage among Indians, R1a, also occurs away from India in populations of diverse linguistic and geographic affiliation. It is widespread in central Asian Turkic-speaking populations and in eastern European Finno-Ugric and Slavic speakers and has also been found less frequently in populations of the Caucasus and the Middle East and in Sino-Tibetan populations of northern China. No clear consensus yet exists about the place and time of its origins. From one side, it has been regarded as a genetic marker linked with the recent spread of Kurgan culture that supposedly originated in southern Russia/Ukraine and extended subsequently to Europe, central Asia, and India during the period 3,000–1,000 B.C. Alternatively, an Asian source or a deeper Palaeolithic time depth of ∼15,000 years before present for the defining M17 mutation has been suggested. Interestingly, the high frequency of the M17 mutation seems to be concentrated around the elevated terrain of central and western Asia. In central Asia, its frequency is highest (>50%) in the highlands among Tajiks, Kyrgyz, and Altais and drops down to <10% in the plains among the Turkmenians and Kazakhs. Our low STR diversity estimate of haplogroup R1a in central Asians is also consistent with the low diversities found by Zerjal et al.(2002) and suggests a recent founder effect or drift being the reason for the high frequency of M17 in southeastern central Asia. In Pakistan, except for the Hazara, who are supposedly recent immigrants in the region, the frequency of M17 was similarly high in the upper and lower courses of the Indus River valley. The frequency of R1a drops from ∼30% in eastern provinces to <10% in the western parts of Iran. Both Pakistanis and Iranians showed STR variances as high as those of Indians, when compared with the lower values in European and central Asian populations. Unexpectedly, both southern Indian tribal groups examined in this study carried M17. The presence of different STR haplotypes and the relatively high frequency of R1a in Dravidian-speaking Chenchus (26%) make M17 less likely to be the marker associated with male “Indo-Aryan” intruders in the area. Moreover, in two previous studies involving southern Indian tribal groups such as the Valmiki from Andhra Pradesh and the Kallar from Tamil and Nadu, the presence of M17 was also observed, suggesting that M17 is widespread in tribal southern Indians. Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation. Compared with western Asian populations, Indians show lower STR diversities at the haplogroup J background and virtually lack J*, which seems to have higher frequencies in the Middle East and East Africa and is common also in Europe. Therefore, J2 could have been introduced to northwestern India from a western Asian source relatively recently and, subsequently, after comingling in Punjab with R1a, spread to other parts of India, perhaps associated with the spread of the Neolithic and the development of the Indus Valley civilization. This spread could then have also taken with it mtDNA lineages of haplogroup U, which are more abundant in the Northwest of India, and the western Eurasian lineages of haplogroups H, J, and T....
The Caste and Tribe Distinction
The example of phylogenetic reconstruction of mtDNA haplogroup M2 showed that individuals from populations of different geographic origin and social status in India share the same branches of the tree. Similarly, since there is no grouping according to language families among the caste groups, no clusters of considerable time depth seem to be rank-specific to Indian tribal or caste groups. Phenomena like the upward social mobility of caste women could have introduced some tribal genes to the castes more recently, but, given the relatively low proportion of the tribal population size today, recent unidirectional gene flow can be assumed to be a minor modifying force in the formation of the genetic profile of the caste population. “Gothra” is an identity carried by male lineage in India from time immemorial. The lack of clear distinction between Indian castes and tribes was shown by Ramana et al. (2001), using a two-dimensional PC plot of Y-chromosome haplogroups. The close clustering of Chenchus with the caste groups in our MDS analysis supports this finding. However, substantial heterogeneity observed in the haplogroup frequencies of the tribes and their generally lower haplotype and haplogroup diversity (e.g., the wide range in frequencies of major clades C*, J, F*, O, and R1a in tribal groups of this study) suggests that conclusions about Indian prehistory cannot be based on the examination of one or a few groups. Although, on a general scale, we can argue for largely the same prehistoric genetic inheritance in Indian tribal and caste populations, this does not refute the existence of genetic footprints laid down by known historical events. This would include invasions by the Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, Muslims, English, and others. The political influence of Seleucid and Bactrian dynastic Greeks over Northwest India, for example, persisted for several centuries after the invasion of the army of Alexander the Great. However, we have not found, in Punjab or anywhere else in India, Y chromosomes with the M170 or M35 mutations that together account for >30% in Greeks and Macedonians today. Given the sample size of 325 Indian Y chromosomes examined, however, it can be said that the Greek homeland (or European, more generally, where these markers are spread) contribution has been 0%–3% for the total population or 0%–15% for Punjab in particular. Such broad estimates are preliminary, at best. It will take larger sample sizes, more populations, and increased molecular resolution to determine the likely modest impact of historic gene flows to India on its pre-existing large populations.
DIWALI LIGHT FESTIVAL IS SLIGHTLY SIMILAR TO THE LIGHTING OF BALI (BEL) FIRES AT SAMHAIN. CHREESHNA IS SUN. RAMA GOD OF SOLAR KINGDOM. YAMA IS GOD OF THE UNDERWORLD. KALI OR CALIEAGH AS GODDESS OF WINTER OR DARK MOTHER AS MOTHER EARTH IN THE DARK TIME WHICH IS WINTER, AND AS THE MORRIGAN CARRIES AWAY FALLEN WARRIORS.
BALIPRATIPADA CELEBRATES MAHABALI RETURNS EVERY YEAR FROM THE NETHERWORLD WHICH WAS GIVEN TO BALI BY VAMANA. VAMANA IS SON OF ADITI AND KASHYAPA. VAMANA CAME TO RESTORE INDRA'S AUTHORITY.
IT IS PROBABLE THAT SAMHAIN OF IRLAND AND DIWALI OF INDIA MAY HAVE SOME COMMON HISTORY ALBEIT CORRUPTED OVER TIME.
Diwali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diwali
2020 date: November 12th (Dhanteras) 13th (Naraka Chaturdashi) 14th (Lakshmi Puja/Kali Puja) 15th (Govardhan Puja/Balipratipada) 16th (Bhai Dooj/Vishwakarma Puja
Indian festival of lights, usually lasting five days and celebrated during the Hindu Lunisolar month Kartika (between mid-October and mid-November).... The festival is widely associated with Lakshmi, to Sita and Rama, Vishnu, Krishna, Yama, Yami, Durga, Kali, Dhanvantari, or Vishvakarman. Furthermore, it is, in some regions, a celebration of the day Lord Rama returned to his kingdom Ayodhya after defeating the demon-king Ravana. ... the Bengali Hindus generally celebrate Diwali, by worshipping Goddess Kali....
The five-day celebration observed every year in early autumn after the conclusion of the summer harvest and coincides with the new moon, known as the amāsvasya – the darkest night of the Hindu lunisolar calendar....The darkest night is the apex of the celebration and coincides with the second half of October or early November in the Gregorian calendar.... The Diwali festival is likely a fusion of harvest festivals in ancient India. It is mentioned in Sanskrit texts such as the Padma Purana, the Skanda Purana both of which were completed in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.... celebrated by Hindus on the day of the New Moon in the month of Kartika.... In western states such as Gujarat, and certain northern Hindu communities of India, the festival of Diwali signifies the start of a new year....
Diwali is a five-day festival, the height of which is celebrated on the third day coinciding with the darkest night of the lunar month. During the festival, Hindus, Jains and Sikhs illuminate their homes, temples and work spaces with diyas, candles and lanterns...
DIWALI: 2020 date November
12th (Dhanteras/Yama Deepam)
13th (Naraka Chaturdashi/Kali Chaudas/Hanuman Puja)
14th (Lakshmi Puja/Kali Puja/Sharda Puja/Kedar Gauri Vrat)
15th (Govardhan Puja/Balipratipada/Gujarati New Year)
16th (Bhai Dooj/Vishwakarma Puja
DIWALI FESTIVAL:
https://www.diwalifestival.org/bhai-duj.html
Yama Deepam / Yamadeepdaan Nov. 12, 2020
https://www.diwalifestival.org/yamadeepdaan.html
Dhanteras is also known as Yamadeepdaan and lamps are kept burning through the night in reverential adoration to Yama - and prayers offered to him to keep away death and despair....Dhanteras came to be known as the day of "Yamadeepdaan" and lamps are kept burning throughout the night in remembering Yam, the god of Death.
Thirteen lamps made of wheat flour and lit with oil are placed outside the house, facing southwards (direction of Lord Yama), in the evening. A lamp is never kept facing southwards except on this day. Then, reciting the following mantra one should offer obeisance: "I offer these thirteen lamps to the son (Lord Yama) of the Sun deity (Surya), so that He liberates me from the clutches of death and bestows His blessings."
Yama or Yamarāja, also called Imra, is a god of death, the south direction and the underworld, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities. In Sanskrit, his name can be interpreted to mean "twin". In the Zend-Avesta of Zoroastrianism, he is called "Yima". According to the Vishnu Purana, his parents are the sun-god Surya and Sandhya, the daughter of Vishvakarma. Yama is the brother of Sraddhadeva Manu and of his older sister Yami, which Horace Hayman Wilson indicates to mean the Yamuna. According to Harivamsa Purana her name is Daya. There is a temple in Srivanchiyam, Tamil Nadu dedicated to Yama. In the Vedas, Yama is said to have been the first mortal who died. By virtue of precedence, he became the ruler of the departed, and is called "Lord of the Pitrs". Mentioned in the Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhism, Yama subsequently entered Buddhist mythology in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism as a dharmapala under various transliterations. He is otherwise also called as "Dharmaraja".
Mantra of Lord Yama
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPKdZJuedrs
Om Surya puthraya Vidhmahe
Maha Kalaya Dheemahe
Thanno Yama Prachodayath
Kali Chaudas Nov 13, 2020
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naraka_Chaturdashi
The Hindu literature narrates that the asura (demon) Narakasura was killed on this day by Krishna, Satyabhama and Kali....
In the state of West Bengal the day before the Kali Puja is observed as Bhoot Chaturdashi. The veil between the two worlds is thin and it is believed on the eve of this dark night the souls of the deceased come down to earth to visit their dear ones. It is also believed that the 14 forefathers of a family visit their living relatives and so 14 Diyas are placed all around the house, to guide them homewards and especially to chase away the evil ones. Every dark corner and nook is illuminated with light....
Kali Choudas
https://www.diwalifestival.org/kalichoudas.html
Kali Chaudas is the day allotted to the worship of Maha-Kali or Shakti and is believed that on this day Kali killed the wicked Raktavija....
Narakasura
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narakasura
Narakasura was a mythical asura king, the legendary progenitor of all three dynasties of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa, and the founding ruler of the legendary Bhauma dynasty of Pragjyotisha. Though the myths about Naraka are first mentioned in the Mahabharata...He is claimed as one who established Pragjyotisha. He was killed by Krishna and Satyabhama. His son Bhagadatta—of Mahabharata fame—succeeded him. The 10th-century Kalika Purana embellishes the myths further...
Narakasura and his kingdom, Pragjyotisha, find mention in both the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, in the sections which were written not before the first century, where he is not depicted as the son of Bhudevi (earth) and Varaha incarnation of Vishnu. His son, Bhagadatta, is said to have fought for the Kauravas in the Mahabharata battle....
In the 7th-century copper place inscriptions, Naraka is claimed as the originator of the Varman dynasty and that he lived three thousand years earlier. The Bhagavata Purana (8th-10th century), which was composed even later, expands the story even further. The Naraka myth gets the most extensive elaboration in the Upapurana called Kalika Purana (10th century)...
The pious Naraka became evil, in association with Asura named Banasura and 'asura' (demon) was added to his name.... he brought all the kingdoms on earth under his control....Even the mighty Indra could not withstand the assault of this son of Vishnu and had to flee the heavens. Narakasura had become the overlord of both the heavens and earth. Addicted to power, he stole the earrings of Aditi, the heavenly mother goddess, and usurped some of her territory... All the Devas, led by Indra, went to Vishnu to ask him to deliver them from Narakasura. Vishnu promised them that he would attend to this matter, when he would be incarnated as Krishna. As promised to Mother Earth, Narakasura was allowed to enjoy a long reign. At last Vishnu was born as Krishna. Aditi, who was a relative of Krishna's wife Satyabhama (believed to be an Avatar of Bhudevi - Narakasura' mother), approached Satyabhama for help....As promised to the Devas and Aditi, Krishna attacked the great fortress of Narakasura, riding his mount Garuda with wife Satyabhama....when Narakasura tried to kill Lord Krishna with a trident, Lord Krishna beheaded him with his Sudarshana Chakra (discus)....
Raktabīja
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raktab%C4%ABja
In Hinduism, Raktabīja was an asura (loosely translated as demon) who fought with Shumbha and Nishumbha against Goddess Parvati and Goddess Kali or Goddess Chamunda. Raktabīja had a boon that whenever a drop of his blood fell on the ground, a duplicate Raktabīja would be born at that spot (rakta = blood, bīja = seed; "he for whom each drop of blood is a seed")....Ambika's battle with Raktabīja as part of her battle against the asuras Shumbha and Nishumbha, who had disenfranchised the gods from heaven. Raktabīja was wounded, but drops of blood falling on the ground created innumerable other Raktabījas, and Ambika and the Matrikas were in difficulty. At this point, the Goddess Kali joined the battle, who collected blood pouring from Raktabīja's body in a bowl while other goddesses wounded him. Kali devoured his duplicates into her gaping mouth. This form who drank the demon's blood is also called Raktheshwari. Ultimately, Raktabīja was annihilated....
Kali Mantra Jaap 108 Repetitions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qUMGhUi1ETw
Kali Puja Nov 14, 2020
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_Puja
festival, originating from the Indian subcontinent, dedicated to the Hindu goddess Kali, celebrated on the new moon day (Dipannita Amavasya) of the Hindu month Kartik.... It coincides with the Lakshmi Puja day of Diwali. While the Hindu Bengalis, Rajbongshis, Odias, Assamese, Sylhetis, Chittagonians and Maithils worship the goddess Kali on this day, the rest of India and Nepal worships goddess Lakshmi on Diwali.
As per the Kalikula sect of Shaktism, the supreme celestial Mother goddess Mahakali took 10 manifestations to slay evils on the Earth, which are collectively known as Dasa Mahavidyas....most Indians celebrate Deepavali as a Vaishnavite-oriented festival and thus worship the Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Lord Mahavishnu as the supreme mother Goddess. However, in Eastern & Northeastern India, the Kalikuli Shakta faith being dominant, the root goddess of Kamalatmika, Mahakali is worshipped. Thus, the day eventually becomes Kali puja....
The festival of Kali Puja is not an ancient one. Kali Puja was practically unknown before the 18th century; however, a late 17th-century devotional text Kalika mangalkavya –by Balram mentions an annual festival dedicated to Kali. It was introduced in Bengal during the 18th century, by King (Raja) Krishnachandra of Krishnanagar, Nadia, West Bengal . Kali Puja gained popularity in the 19th century...
Shaktism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaktism
"doctrine of energy, power, the eternal goddess" is a major sect of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, all considered aspects of the same supreme goddess. Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focused on gracious Parvati to that of fierce Kali.... The pantheon of goddesses in Shaktism grew after the decline of Buddhism in India, wherein Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, a list of ten goddesses. The most common aspects of Devi found in Shaktism include Durga, Kali, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. The Goddess-focused tradition is very popular in Northeastern India particularly West Bengal, Odisha and Assam,...
The earliest archaeological evidence of what appears to be an Upper Paleolithic shrine for Shakti worship were discovered in the terminal upper paleolithic site of Baghor I in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, India.... dated the Baghor formation to between 9000 B.C and 8000 B.C. The origins of Shakti worship can also be traced to Indus Valley Civilization. One of the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of God in Hinduism appears in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, also called the Devi Suktam hymn:
I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome.
I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.
Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.
–Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8
The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than Gods Indra, Agni and Soma.... Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later (100 to 300 CE) added Harivamsa section of it....the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, by about the third or fourth century.... Where the goddess(kali) is seen as the destroyer of evil....
EVIL THEN IS DEFINED BY THE VICTOR. EVIL TO ONE SIDE MAY NOT BE EVIL TO THE OTHER SIDE. EVENTUALLY THE PEOPLE FORGET WHAT SIDE THEY ARE REALLY ON, AND WORSHIP THE EVIL SIDE IN ERROR FORGETTING THEIR ROOTS, BEGIN TO SIDE WITH THEIR ORIGINAL ENEMY KILLING OFF THEIR OWN SIDE. THESE STORIES PORTRAY ONE SIDE AS THE EVIL, THEN THE OTHER SIDE PORTRAYS THE OTHER AS EVIL SO TO THE NEUTRAL OBSERVER YOU DONT KNOW WHOM THE REAL EVIL IS CREATING CHAOS. TO ONE SIDE BALI IS GOOD, AND TO OTHER SIDE BALI IS EVIL. TO ONE SIDE KALI IS THE GREAT MOTHER, BUT THE OTHER SIDE SAYS LAKSHMI IS GREAT MOTHER. YET ANOTHER SAYS DANU IS GREAT MOTHER. ONE SIDE SAYS ASURAS ARE EVIL BUT THE OTHER SIDE SAYS SURAS (DEVAS) ARE EVIL. VISHNU MUST HAVE LIKED BALI BUT, YET SIDES WITH SURAS IN TREASON, THEN GIVES BALI THE NETHERWORLD FROM WHICH BALI RETURNS EACH YEAR.
WHO IS BALI? BALI IS A DAITYA ASURA WHO DESCENDS FROM DITI AND KASHYAPA. DANAVA ARE SONS OF DANU THE DAUGHTER OF DAKSA, AND KASHYAPA. THE DEVAS ARE THEIR HALF BROTHERS.
ARE THE ASURA SAME AS THE AESIR? ...
Balipratipada Nov 15, 2020
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balipratipada
Vamana (blue faced dwarf) in the court of King Bali (Mahabali, right seated) seeking alms... Festival of lights as celebration of return of Asura king Bali to earth for a day...
It is celebrated in honour of the notional return of the daitya-king Bali to earth....
The Balipratipada is an ancient festival. The earliest mention of Bali's story being acted out in dramas and poetry of ancient India is found in the c. 2nd-century BCE Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali on Panini's Astadhyayi 3.1.26. The festival has links to the Vedic era sura-asura Samudra Manthan that revealed goddess Lakshmi and where Mahabali was the king of the asuras. The mythology and festivities find mention in the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and several major Puranas, such as the Brahma purana, Kurma purana, Matsya purana and others.
Balipratipada commemorates the annual return of Mahabali to earth and the victory of Vamana – one of many creative incarnations of Vishnu and the fifth incarnation in the Dashavatara list. It marks the victory of Vishnu over Mahabali and all asuras, through his metamorphosis into Trivikrama. At the time of his defeat, Bali was already a Vishnu-devotee and a benevolent ruler over a peaceful, prosperous kingdom. Vishnu's treacherous victory over Mahabali using "three steps" ended the war. According to Hindu mythology, Mahabali asked for and was granted the boon by Vishnu, whereby he returns to earth once a year when he will be remembered and worshipped, and reincarnate in a future birth as Indra....
The Balipratipada and Bali-related mythology is ancient. The earliest mention of Bali's story is found in the c. 2nd-century BCE Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali on Panini's Astadhyayi 3.1.26. ... the festival has links to the Samudra Manthan legend found in Vedic texts. These describe a cosmic struggle between suras and asuras, with Mahabali as the king of the asuras. It is this legendary churning of cosmic ocean that created Lakshmi – the goddess worshipped on Diwali. The remembrance and festivities associated with Lakshmi and Mahabali during Diwali are linked.... The Hindu text Dharmasindhu in its discussions of Diwali states that day after the Diwali night, Balipratipada is one of three most auspicious dates in the year...
Legend
Mahabali was Prahlada's grandson. He came to power by defeating the gods (Devas), and taking over the three worlds. Bali, an Asura king was well known for his bravery, uprightness and dedication to god Vishnu. Bali had amassed vast territories and was invincible. He was benevolent and popular, but his close associates weren't like him. They were constantly attacking the suras (Devas) and plundering the gods who stood for righteousness and justice.
According to Vaishnavism mythology, Indra and the defeated suras approached Vishnu for help in their battle with Mahabali. Vishnu refused to join the gods in violence against Mahabali, because Mahabali was a good ruler and his own devotee. But, instead of promising to kill Bali, Vishnu promised to use a treacherous means to help the suras.
Mahabali announced that he will perform Yajna (homa sacrifices) and grant anyone any gift they want during the Yajna. Vishnu took the avatar of a dwarf Brahmin called Vamana and approached Mahabali. The king offered anything to the boy – gold, cows, elephants, villages, food, whatever he wished. The boy said that one must not seek more than one needs, and all he needs is the property right over a piece of land that measures "three paces". Mahabali agreed. The Vamana grew to enormous proportions, metamorphosing into the Trivikrama form, and covered everything Mahabali ruled over in just two paces. For the third pace, Mahabali offered his own head to Vishnu who pushed him as the king of patala (nether world).
Pleased with the dedication and integrity of Bali, Vishnu granted him a boon that he could return to earth for one day in a year to be with his people, be worshipped and be a future Indra. It is this day that is celebrated as the Bali Padyami, the annual return of Bali from the netherworld to earth.
Another version of the legend states that after Vamana pushed Bali below ground (patalaloka), at the request of Prahlada (described as a great devotee of Vishnu), the grandfather of Bali, Vishnu pardoned Bali and made him the king of the netherworld. Vishnu also granted the wish of Bali to return to earth for one day marked by festivities and his worship....
Mahabali
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabali
Daitya king found in Hindu texts. Mahabali is the grandson of Prahlada, a descendant of Rishi Kashyapa. There are many versions of his legend in ancient texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas....
Mahabali is described in early Hindu mythologies as a benevolent and generous king...
Mahabali also temporarily possessed the amrita (nectar for eternal life) obtained by the asuras. The amrita allowed his associates to bring him back to life after his death in one of the wars between suras and asuras. Mahabali was, thus, immune from death. After many wars, the invincible Bali had won the heaven and earth. The suras (Devas) approach Vishnu to save them. Vishnu refused to join the war or kill his own devotee Mahabali. He used a tactical approach instead and incarnated as the dwarf Brahmin avatar, Vamana. While Mahabali was performing Ashvamedha Vedic sacrifices to celebrate his victories and giving away gifts to everyone, Vamana approached him and asked for "three steps of land". Mahabali granted him the gift. Vamana then metamorphosed into Vishnu's giant Trivikrama form, taking all of heaven in one step and earth in second. Mahabali realized that the Vamana was none other than Vishnu and offered his own head for the third step. Some Hindu texts state that Mahabali was taken to patala (netherworld), some state he was dragged there by Garuda, in others he entered heaven with the touch of Vishnu, while another version states he became chiranjivi (immortal). Others even have Bali admitted into Vaikunta, which was an even higher place than the realm of Devas. According to Hindu mythologies, Vishnu granted Bali a boon whereby he could return to earth every year. The harvest festivals of Balipratipada and Onam are celebrated to mark his yearly homecoming....
King Bali is also found in the mythologies of Jainism. He is the sixth of nine Prativasudevas (Prati-narayanas, anti-heroes). He is depicted as an evil king who schemed and attempted to rob Purusha's wife. He is defeated and killed by Purusha....
Daitya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daitya
In Hinduism, the Daityas (Sanskrit: दैत्य) are a clan or race of Asura along with the Dānavas. They were the children of Diti and the sage Kashyapa. The Devas were their half-brothers with whom they fought against as a result of their jealousy. The Manusmṛti classifies the Daityas as good, while placing them at a lower level than the Devas:
Tāpasā yatayo viprā ye ca vaimānikā gaṇāḥ Nakṣatrāṇi ca daityāśca prathamā sāttvikī gatiḥ Ascetics and hermits, Brāhmaṇas, celestial beings, lunar asterisms, and Daityas represent the first state partaking of ‘Sattva.’ — Manusmṛti 12.48
Some of the notable Daityas mentioned in Indian mythology include:
Hiraṇyakaśipu - 1st son of Kashyapa and Diti. Hiraṇyākṣa - 2nd son of Kashyapa and Diti. Holikā - 1st daughter of Kashyapa and Diti. Andhakasura - Son of Hiranyaksha. Prahlāda - Son of Hiranyakashipu. Simhika - Daughter of Hiranyakashipu. Virocana - Son of Prahlada, father of Bali. Devamba - Mother of Bali. Bali - Son of Virochana. Bāṇāsura - Son of Bali.
DANAVA MAY BE THE SAME AS DANAUS WHO WERE THE DESCENDANTS OF BEL SON OF POSEIDON AND LYBIA. DANU WAS GREAT MOTHER RESIDING IN THE WATERS. DANAUS WAS THE TRIBE OF DANAAN OR TUATHE DE DANAAN. ARE THE ASURA SAME AS THE AESIR? ARE THEY FROM THE SEA PEOPLE GROUP DESCENDED FROM ATLANTIS?...
Danava (Hinduism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danava_(Hinduism)
In Hindu mythology, the Dānavas were a race descending from Dakṣa. They were the sons of Danu, the daughter of Dakṣa. Danu is connected with the waters of the heavens and is likely associated with the formless, primordial waters that existed prior to creation.
Under the leadership of Bali and others, the Dānavas revolted against the Devas. Despite initial successes, the Dānavas were defeated by the god Vāmana (fifth incarnation of Lord Vishnu)who came in front of Bali for three steps of land. Bali, a justful and always generous king, said yes to his wish. But, after King Bali's yes, Vamana took enormous form, so big that the entire earth was his first step, the second step covered entire heaven and hell. Now there was no place to put the third step. King Bali knew that the Vamana is none other than Lord Vishnu. King Bali, being an ardent devotee of Vishnu, showed his head for his third step. Vamana being pleased by his devotion, gave him a boon before placing in Pathala, that once in a year, he will be allowed to see his subjects. This day is celebrated as Onam, also the harvest festival of Kerala, as King Bali was the king of Kerala. It is said that there are 100 Danava sons of Danu. The Dānavas were not considered to be universally evil and individual Dānava may be aligned with good or evil....
Origin
The Danavas are a collective, mythological group of demons that are found in a range of Hindu texts. The Danavas are a part of a larger group of the Asuras and are typically portrayed as opposed to the Hindu deities. However, historically their role in Hinduism is varied and at times, the distinction between the Danavas and Hindu deities is unclear and they are difficult to distinguish from one another.
Etymology
The name ‘Danavas’ stems from the mother’s name: Danu. Both Danavas and Danu are derived from the Vedic word ‘Da’...Another interpretation of their name is associated with Danu’s relationship with her first son (and demon), Vrta. In Indian mythology, in an attempt to deceive the Vedic god Indra, Vrta hides away in the primordial water or blessed water from him. In this myth, Danu herself is embodied as being the primordial water in which he hides in. However, the names of Danu and Danavas as well as the individual names given to many of the sons of Danu differ across Vedic and Puranic literature, causing confusion as to where their etymological origins lie.
While, many scholars attest the Danavas are Asura-like beings, the definition and etymology of the Asura are contested. W. E Hale suggests an alternate theory of origin that influenced by pre-Zoroastrianism, specifically between the Ahura and the Asuras. In the Indo-Iranian period , significant literature represented Ahuras’ positive or good nature while the Daevas or Devas represented evil. The swapping of these inherent qualities of these beings may have confused the earlier formations of Hindu mythological beings.
History
The devas exiled the Danavas from heaven during the Krita Yuga. After exile, the Danavas took refuge in the Vindhya Mountains or the Vindhya Range.
Genealogy
The genealogical history of Asuras is laid out in a range of texts, most notably in the Mahabharata. The genealogy of the demons or Asuras begins with Brahma’s 6 sons. One son, Marici fathered Kashyapa, who wed 143 of Daksha’s daughters, including Diti and Danu. Diti and Danu’s children are among the most well known demons in Hindu mythology. Diti’s children are known as the Daityas and Danu’s offspring are known as the Danavas. It is important to note, that the names of Danavas and the Daiteyas are irregularly found and depicted throughout early Vedic literature such as the Rig Veda along with the Mahabharata.The Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism states, “... in the Mahābhārata Vṛtra is the son of Danāyu, (and) the Ṛigveda (1.32.9) speaks of Vṛtra as the son of Danu.” However, in books 2-7 of the Rig Veda, Vrta is not considered an Asura or demon and, there is no mention of Danu or the Danavas at all.
Brahma> Marici> Kashyapa> Danu> ...
Physical Appearance
The Daityas and Danavas share the same physical features and characteristics as their counterparts, the Devas. In Hindu myth, the power of Maya or the power of illusion is possessed by both good and evil supernatural beings. The power of illusion allows beings to change their physical form....
In the Natyashastra, the Danavas are depicted as evil demons, meddling with dancers. Particularly, in the first chapter of the Natyashastra, the Danavas freeze and stop the performance of the dancers during an important event dedicated to the Hindu deities. Angering the deities, the Danavas are attacked and defeated by Indra...
Indra-Vrta Myth
The Indra-Vrta myth is the only known myth that contains a prominent son of Danu and, therefore is a member of the Danavas. These myths are what later cement the rivalry of the Devas and Asuras. The struggle between Indra and Vrta act as a, “cosmogonic myth” as it discusses the birth of sat (order) from asat. (chaos).
Maya Sura
Maya Danava or Mayasura is a prominent member of the Danavas and is extensively found throughout the Mahabharata. He was known to be a popular architect and rival to the architect to the gods, Vishwakarma. He is also known as being the father in law to Ravana, a prominent demon in Hindu Mythology. He wrote the Surya Siddhanta. However, he is most known for his architecture. In the Book 2, Section 1: Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata, Maya Danava built the ‘Maya Sabha’ or the palace of illusions for the Pandava brothers. Here, Maya Sura or Maya Danava asked Arjuna for guidance and advised he wished to built something of value for him and the Pandavas. After Arjuna and Vaisampayana discuss what shoudl be built, Krishna advised Maya to build godlike palace. As translated by Ganguli, Krishna contemplates and announces what he desires. Interestingly, Maya is referred to being the son of Diti, despite being addressed as Maya Danava during the entirety of Book 2.
“Krishna, the Lord of the universe and the Creator of every object, having reflected in his mind, thus commanded Maya,--'Let a palatial sabha (meeting hall) as thou choosest, be built (by thee), if thou, O son of Diti, who art the foremost of all artists, desirest to do good to Yudhishthira the just. Indeed, build thou such a palace that persons belonging to the world of men may not be able to imitate it even after examining it with care, while seated within. And, O Maya, build thou a mansion in which we may behold a combination of godly, asuric and human designs.” Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (1883–1896). [[s:|]] – via Wikisource.CS1 maint: date format
Elsewhere, Mayasura built the Tripura also known as the three cities of gold, silver and iron. Also, he built the city of Lankapuri in Sri Lanka.
Vishwakarma Puja Nov 16, 2020
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishwakarma_Puja
Vishwakarma Jayanti is a day of celebration for Vishwakarma, a Hindu god, the divine architect. He is considered as swayambhu and creator of the world. He constructed the holy city of Dwarka where Krishna ruled, the Maya Sabha of the Pandavas, and was the creator of many fabulous weapons for the gods. He is also called the divine carpenter, is mentioned in the Rig Veda, and is credited with Sthapatya Veda, the science of mechanics and architecture. It falls on 'Kanya Sankranti' of Hindu Calendar. It is generally celebrated every year on gregorean date of 16 or 19 September...
Vishwakarma puja is also celebrated a day after Diwali,...
Vishvakarman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvakarman
God of Architecture. Mantra: Om Vishwakarmane Namah.
Consort: Virochanā. Children: Saranyu and her shadow Chhaya, Maya and Trisiras
He is considered to be the first monotheistic God concept...
The term Vishvakarman was originally used as an epithet for any supreme god[5] and as an attribute of Indra and the Sun. The name Vishvakarman occurs five times in the tenth book of the Rigveda. The two hymns of the Rigveda identify Vishvakarman as all-seeing, and having eyes, faces, arms and feet on every side and also has wings. Brahma, the later god of creation, who is four-faced and four-armed resembles him in these aspects.... In the last phase of vedic period and during the growth of monothesism ,one can see Vishwakarma [the invisible creative power] emerged as the supreme god...He sacrificed himself to himself for the evolution of this visible world (Sarvamedha)...
Vishvakarma [ God ] created five prajapathies – from his five faces such as Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpuruṣha, Īsāna. They are Manu, Maya, Twosta, Silpy, Viswajna and their respective Rishis (Gothra rishis of Vishwakarma (caste))...
Since Vishwakarma is the divine engineer of the world, as a mark of reverence, he is not only worshiped by the engineering and architectural community but also by all professionals. It is customary for craftsmen to worship their tools in his name....
Even among those who believe that there is a birthday there is no agreement as to when it actually occurs. Visvakarma birthday is celebrated on two days under different names:
Vishwakarma Puja. "Vishwakarma Puja" always celebrated in India on the 17/18 September of every Year....
Bhai Duj / Bhaiya Duj / Bhai Dooj Nov 16, 2020
https://www.diwalifestival.org/bhai-duj.html
The fifth or the last day of diwali is Bhaiya Dooj, popularly know as Bhai Dooj. The reason why this festival is known as bhai dooj is that it falls on the second day after the new moon, that is the Dooj day. And it is a day to pray for the long life of the brother, which is referred as “bhayya or bhai”. According to religious scriptures, Yamaraj, the God of death, went to visit his sister's house after a long period of separation. His sister, Yami was very happy to see him and welcomed him by putting an auspicious mark on his forehead for his welfare. Yami and Yamraj then shared a meal. He was so pleased with his sister's reception, he proclaimed that every year, on the dooj day, if a sister puts a tilak on her brother's forehead, then no one can harm her brother. Till date, this tradition is followed. Sisters perform puja for their brothers safety and well being. Brothers in return give gifts to their sisters as a token of love.
Another version Lord Krishna, after killing Narakasur, the asura king, went to meet his sister Subhadra. Subhadra welcomed him in the traditional way by showing him a light and putting on his forehead a tilak of her sisterly protection....
The essence of the Bhai dooj festival is that it is celebrated to strengthen the love between brothers and sisters. It is a day of food-sharing, gift-giving and reaching out to the inner most depths of the hearts. Brothers and sisters indulge themselves on this day by gifting each other gifts....
25 Amazing Scientific Reasons Behind Indian Traditions & Culture - Hinduism Facts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-M8l2bdG8g
Temple Bells - The Scientific Reason Behind Bells in Hindu Temples
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BzsYdBVbmE
Aum sound on bronze bell 0:09 / 0:09
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ROePk3Q_94
Hindu Temple Bell Sound Effects
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5MHks7RfF0o
Hindu Temple Bells, Sankh Sound
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkSjoz1Q6TA
Temple Bells | Sankh, Sound, Mandir ka Ghanta | with drum
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ge6MaDc1Rpg
LAKSHMI MAY HAVE EVOLVED FROM A WORD MEANING POWER, FORTUNE, GOOD LUCK INTO A MOTHER GODDESS. WHICH THEN EVOLVED INTO A TRINITY GODDESS. SOME CLAIM SHE IS DAUGHTER OF VARUNA THE SEA GOD. ADITI IS VARUNA'S MOTHER, AND KASSIOPA IS VARUNA'S FATHER. SHE FIRST LIVED WITH THE DEMONS (ASURA) THEN BECAME THE GODS (DEVAS) PROBABLY AFTER INDRA DEFEATS VRTRA.
I CANNOT FIND LAKSHMI'S MOTHER. ALTHOUGH THE CONCEPT OF THESE STORIES FOLLOWS SIMILAR WITH OTHER CULTURES OF GREAT MOTHER EARTH WHO DWELLS IN THE SEA, AND COMBINED WITH A GREAT FATHER WHO DWELLS IN THE SKY. SOME STORIES HAVE GREAT MOTHER DWELLS IN THE SKY WITH GREAT FATHER. ASURA DEMONS AND DEVA GODS IS SIMILAR TO FOMORIAN DEMONS AND THE LATER GODS IN THE WEST. AND THE COSMIC OCEAN IS SIMIALR TO ATLANTIS AND POSEIDON THE SEA GOD IS LIKE VARUNA. MAY BE SAME STORY MIGRATES CORRUPTED OVER TIME BY DIFFERENT NAMES FOR DIFFERENT AGE, GEOGRAPHY, AND PEOPLES?...
The ancient story of goddess Lakshmi—bestower of power, wealth and sovereignty
The Greeks had Core, the corn-goddess, who was known to Romans as Demeter. The Egyptians had Isis, Sumerians had Innana, Babylonians had Ishtar, Persians had Anahita and Vikings had Freia. Shri-Lakshmi is the Hindu form of the timeless mother-goddess who nurtures and nourishes all life. In India, not only Hindus but also Buddhists and Jains adore Lakshmi. Buddhism and Jainism are primarily monastic orders that turned away from Vedic rituals and Brahmanical dogmas about 2,500 years ago....
Shri-Lakshmi has a long history testified by the fact that her first hymn, the Shri Shukta, was added to the Rig Veda, the oldest and most revered of Hindu scriptures, somewhere between 1000 and 500 BC. Considering her popularity amongst Buddhists and Jains, it has been proposed that her worship may predate the Vedic culture and may have developed independently before she was brought into the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain folds. Scholars are of the view that initially the words Shri and Lakshmi referred to anything that was auspicious or brought good luck or bestowed riches and power. Later the two words were personified into two goddesses who eventually merged. Thus, Shri-Lakshmi came into being....
Stories of Lakshmi first appeared in the epics Ramayana and Mahabharta, that were composed between 300 BC and 300 AD, a period that witnessed the waning popularity of Vedic gods and the rise of gods who offered moksha such as Shiva and Vishnu. Gods and demons fought over her and both strove to churn her out of the ocean of milk. As folk heroes such as Rama and Krishna were viewed as incarnations of Vishnu, their consorts Sita, Radha and Rukmini became increasingly identified with Lakshmi....
The mythology of Lakshmi acquired full form in the Puranas, chronicles of gods, kings and sages that were compiled between 500 and 1500 AD. In them, the goddess came to be projected as one of the three primary forms of the supreme mother-goddess, the other two being Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, and Kali or Durga, the goddess of power. Lakshmi was visualised both as an independent goddess and as Vishnu’s consort, seated on his lap or at his feet. Prithvi, the Vedic earth-goddess, became Bhoodevi in the Puranas and a manifestation of Lakshmi. In south India, the two goddesses were visualised as two different entities, standing on either side of Vishnu, Bhoodevi representing tangible wealth while Lakshmi or Shridevi representing intangible wealth. In north India, the two goddesses became one....
According to Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas, the goddess Lakshmi first lived with the demons before the gods acquired her. She graced asuras such as Hiranayaksha, Hiranakashipu, Prahalad, Virochana and Bali, rakshasas such as Ravana and yakshas such as Kubera before she adorned the court of Indra, king of devas, the most renowned of Vedic gods. Cities of the asuras (Hiranyapura), yakshas (Alakapuri), rakshasas (Lanka) and nagas (Bhogavati) have all been described as cities of gold, Lakshmi’s mineral manifestation.
Within the Vedic pantheon, Lakshmi was linked with many gods, especially those associated with water bodies: Indra, the rain-god (bestower of fresh water); Varuna, the sea-god (source of all water); Soma, the moon-god (waxer and waner of tides). Indra’s wife Sachi was also known as Puloma, which is the name of an asura-woman suggesting entry of Lakshmi from the world of asuras into world of devas.
As the Vedic gods waned into insignificance around the fifth century BC, two gods came to dominate the classical Hindu worldview: the world renouncing hermit-god Shiva and the world affirming warrior-god Vishnu. Lakshmi was briefly associated with Shiva before she became the faithful consort of Vishnu-Narayana, the ultimate refuge of man....
In the twelfth century AD, a new form of Vaishnavism called Shri-Vaishnavism evolved in South India....
Lakshmi is often differentiated from Maha-Lakshmi. While the former is the consort of Vishnu and the goddess of wealth, Maha-Lakshmi is viewed as an autonomous entity, the supreme embodiment of the mother-goddess. When worshipped as Maha-Lakshmi, Lakshmi is not visualised as a beautiful goddess seated on a lotus, pot in hand, but like a virginal warrior-goddess riding a lion, much like Durga. This form of the goddess is especially popular in Maharashtra....
LAKSHMI CAME WITH THE ASURAS BORN OUT OF THE SEA BY VARUNA THE SEA GOD. SHE IS A TRAITORESS WHO SWITCHED SIDES FROM ASURA TO DEVA...
Lakshmi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmi
Adi Shakti, The Mother Goddess, Goddess of Fortune, Wealth, Love, Prosperity, Joy, Beauty, Fertility and Maya. Member of Tridevi.... Other names: Sri, Narayani, Bhagavati, Māyā, Padmā, Kamalā, Hemā, Vaishnavi. Affiliation: Devi, Tridevi, Ashta Lakshmi, Durga. Abode: Vaikuntha. Consort: Vishnu. ...
Along with Parvati and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses (Tridevi).
Lakshmi is both the wife and divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, who according to Vaishnavism is the protector, the destroyer and regenerator of the universe and all life. Lakshmi as prakriti (Mahalakshmi) is identified with three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga and assist Lord Vishnu (purusha) during the creation , sustenance , and destruction of the entire universe.... Whenever Vishnu descended on the earth as an avatar, Lakshmi accompanied him as wife, assuming forms appropriate to these avatars. Dashavatara are the ten primary avataras (incarnations) of Vishnu. Out of the ten, in his most important avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as Sita and Rukmini (according to Vishnu Purana).... The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor....
Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda...In Atharva Veda, transcribed about 1000 BCE, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations....Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa). For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati,...
The gods are bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and gifts. Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendour, Saraswati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms.... According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as wife of Dharma, mother of Kāma, sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Shaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharatasrama and as Sita, wife of Rama....
In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands... Upanishads...Stotram and sutras...Puranas...dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her as Sri....Sri, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world....
Creation and legends
Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrita, the divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning Kshirasagar ('Ocean of Milk'). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirasagar with Mount Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea....
Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along with divine cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, Parijat tree, Apsaras, Chandra (the moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita ('nectar of immortality'). When she appeared, she had a choice to go to Devas or Asuras. She chose Devas' side and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.... Lakshmi is of the Vaishnavism tradition...Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali...
Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to 2nd century BCE. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BCE...
GOD OF THE OCEAN
Varuna
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna
God of Water and Sky. Member of the Pancha Bhoota. Affiliation: Ādityas, Deva.
Abode: Jalloka (Ocean). Planet: Uranus and Neptune. Mantra: Om Varunaaya Namah
Parents: Kashyapa (father). Aditi (mother). Consort: Varunani
Children Sushena, Vandi, Vasishtha (sons) and Varuni (daughter)
Vedic deity associated initially with the sky, later also with the seas as well as Ṛta (justice) and Satya (truth). He is found in the oldest layer of Vedic literature of Hinduism, such as hymn 7.86 of the Rigveda. He is also mentioned in the Tamil grammar work Tolkāppiyam, as the god of sea and rain. He is said to be the son of Kashyapa (one of the seven ancient sages). In the Hindu Puranas, Varuna is the god of oceans, his vehicle is a Makara (crocodile) and his weapon is a Pasha (noose, rope loop). He is the guardian deity of the western direction....
Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as Asuras in the Rigveda (e.g. RV 5.63.3), although they are also addressed as Devas as well (e.g. RV 7.60.12). Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra....
Aditi is identified to be same as the goddess earth. She is stated in the Vedic texts to be the mother of Varuna and Mitra along with other Vedic gods, and in later Hindu mythology she as mother earth is stated to be mother of all gods....
Rama interacts with Varuna in the Hindu epic Ramayana. For example, faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean to Lanka, where his abducted wife Sita is held captive by the demon king Ravana...Rama prepares to attack the oceans to dry up the waters and create a bed of sand for his army of monkeys to cross...Rama shoots his weapon sending the ocean into flames. As Rama increases the ferocity of his weapons, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, stating that he himself did not know how to help Rama because the sea is deep, vast and he cannot change the nature of sea.... Varuna promised to Rama that he will not disturb him or his army as they build a bridge and cross over to Lanka....
ARE THE AESIR SAME AS ASURA. AS PEOPLE TRAVELED AND MIXED OVER THE AGES THE STORIES WERE SIMILAR BUT NAMES CHANGED OR SPELLINGS DIFFER AS LANGUAGES CHANGE. AND THE CHARACTER NATURE ALSO CHANGED AS ASURAS WHO WERE ONCE GOOD BECAME DEMONIZED. THEN DEVAS AND ASURAS COULD EACH BECOME GOOD OR BAD AND SWITCH SIDES.
ITS LIKELY DANAANS WERE FATHERED BY BEL THE SON OF THE ATLANTEANS R1b POSEIDON WITH LYBIA BERBA U6. SOME DANAANS MIGRATE UP THE DANUBE INTO EUROPE. PART OF DANAANS MIGRATE UP INTO ANATOLIA AND PUSH SOME SHEMITES OUT INTO SYRIA. ALL THESE PEOPLE MIX OVER TIME. SOME FIND THEIR WAY INTO INDIA WHO PROBABLY WERE THE DANAVA ASURAS. AND THEY THEN GET RUN OFF AND SOME MIGRATE ALL THE WAY TO BALTICS AND WHERE EVER ELSE....
Asura
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura
The asuras battle constantly with the devas. Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna, while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra. In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of their being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called Devas, while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods". Asuras are part of Indian mythology along with Devas, Yakshas (nature spirits) and Rakshasas (ghosts, ogres)....The concept of Asura-Devas migrated from India to southeast Asia in 1st millennium CE....
Asu (असु), which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits....Asura to *asera- of Uralic languages, where it means "lord, prince".... In nine hymns, Indra is described as asura. Five times, he is said to possess asurya, and once he is said to possess asuratva. Agni has total of 12 asura descriptions, Varuna has 10, Mitra has eight, and Rudra has six. Bhargava gives a count of the word usage for every Vedic deity.[citation needed] The Book 1 of Rig Veda describes Savitr (Vedic solar deity) as an Asura who is a "kind leader"....
none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.... Asura is linguistically related to the Ahuras of Indo-Iranian people and pre-Zoroastrianism era. In both religions, Ahura of pre-Zoroastrianism (Asura of Hinduism), Vouruna (Varuna) and Daeva (Deva) are found, but their roles are on opposite sides....
Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the word Asura may be related to proto-Uralic and proto-Germanic history. The Aesir-Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic Sanskrit Asura and Old Norse ֶsir and Proto-Uralic *asera, all of which mean 'lord, powerful spirit, god'.... In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas and Asuras.... Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (Prajapati), share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology;...
Herr=>Asus-ISSI-Asura-Ashur-Erus-Ahura-ֶsir
https://uzunbacakadem.blogspot.com/2019/05/herrasus-issi-asura-ashur-erus-ahura-sir.html
Older Futhark : Ansuz : God
IndoEur: Asu-s = der Herr
Zend: Anhu = Herr
Latin: Erus (Era, Esa (Old form)) = Herr
OldTurk: Is-sı (As) = Herr (owner) => Er: Mann
Sans: Isha, Ishta (Asura) = Herr
Avest: Ahura = Herr
Bibel: Assurbanipal = Aššur-bāni-apli; 'Ashur is the creator of an heir'
Norse: בss, בs [oss, os] = a member of the principal pantheon in Norse religion (plural: ֶsir), Ase: God, AS-gard: The Place of the As!
Asia: The Land where the Gods came from
Latin Erus, Era and the old Form Esa are all very similar to Turkish words Er (the man), Eras <=> er-ıs, the Owner (Der Besitzer), Esa: Issı (Herr).
Issı-z (Modern Turkish word): Without owner (deserted Place, nicht bewohnter Ort).
The combination of Letters "e-r" and/or "a-s" is common in nearly all these words above.
Aššur-bāni-apli, the Hunter- Recurve Bow
Asena (The Mother Wolf of the Turks-1927-5Lira)
ODIN THE FIRST OF ֶSIR-ASE MAJEUR
AESIR, ASSURA, HITTITES, ANATOLIAN, CAPPADOCIA, BLACK SEA, DON, AFTER SEA PEOPLE SWAMP THE AREA THE HITTITES POUR INTO NORTH SYRIA ARE THEN CALLED KATTI OR HATTI, SOME HITTITES INTERMARRY WITH AMORITES, EGYPTIANS REPRESENTED THE AMORITES WITH RED HAIR, AMORITES WERE BLONDE HAIR, THESE AMORITES MOVE INTO PERSIA THEN CALLED GERMAN, KERMAN, CARMANIAN, CASIRI A CATTI TRIBE, AESTII TRIBE KNOWN AS SUDVA OR DAINAVA OR DAINAS, ARYAN ORIGINATE FROM HITTITE RULED MESOPOTAMIA 2000BC-1200BC, BROTHER OF DEDAN WAS SHEBA (SUEBI, SHWABI), ASSHURUM DESCENDS FROM DEDAN, HITTITES INTO NORTH INDIA, DAN IS VEDAN OR WODAN, ASURA UNDER YIMA SETTLED IN THE BALTIC, CATTI SAME AS ASURA, AESTII AND BORUSI SIMILAR PEOPLE, ...
The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny
By Craig M. White
de·va a member of a class of divine beings in the Vedic period, which in Indian religion are benevolent and in Zoroastrianism are evil. Indian (in general use) a god. Origin from Sanskrit, literally ‘shining one’, later ‘god’.
Deva (Hinduism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)
Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader.... Deva (; Sanskrit: देव, Deva) means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence", and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is a masculine term; the feminine equivalent is Devi....
post-Vedic...Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful but malevolent half-brothers, referred to as the Asuras.... Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE.... The Sanskrit deva- derives from Indo-Iranian *daiv- which in turn descends from the Proto-Indo-European word, *deiwo-, originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from the root *diw meaning "to shine", especially as the day-lit sky....
It is related to *Dyeus which while from the same root, may originally have referred to the "heavenly shining father", and hence to "Father Sky", the chief God of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in Sanskrit Dyaus. The abode of the Devas is Dyuloka....
Shiva/Rudra has been a major Deva in Hinduism since the Vedic times. Above is a meditating statue of him in the Himalayas with Hindus offering prayers....
The concept of Hindu Devas migrated to East Asia in the 1st millennium, and was adopted by Japanese Buddhist schools as Jūni-ten. These included Indra (Taishaku-ten), Agni (Ka-ten), Yama (Emma-ten), Vayu (Fu-ten), Brahma (Bon-ten) and others...
The Samhitas, which are the oldest layer of text in Vedas enumerate 33 devas, either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2 Asvins in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic texts. The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11, O ye eleven deities whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your dwelling, Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O deities, with pleasure.... The most referred to Devas in the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni (fire) and Soma...
Important Devas: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the destroyer, Ganesha the deity of intelligence, Hanuman the deity of Ashta siddhi, Nav Nidhi and bhakti, Kartikeya the deity of wars, Narada the deity of news, Vishwakarma the deity of architecture, Dhanvantari the deity of doctors and Ayurveda, Dyaus the deity of sky, Vayu the deity of wind, Varuna the deity of water, Agni the deity of fire, Samudra the deity of sea, Kubera the deity of wealth, Kamadeva (or)Manmadha the deity of love, Bariyadeva the deity of diseases, Chitradeva the deity of art, Indra the king of deities and deity of thunder, Surya the deity of sun and light, Chandra the deity of moon and night, Mangala the deity of Mars, Budha the deity of Mercury, Brihaspati the deity of Jupiter and teacher of gods (gyan), Shukra the deity of Venus and worship (bhakti) and teacher of asuras, Shani the deity of Saturn and deeds (karma)....
Characteristics of Devas in the Vedic literature: Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are similar to the Olympian gods and Titans of Greek mythology.... All-powerful beings, good or evil, are called Devas and Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much-studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas). They are born from the same father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor; his sons are envisioned as the Asuras and Devas. They all share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asuras who become Devas" from "Asuras who remain Asuras" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.
Upanishads: The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras.... Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes Devas, Men, and Asuras as sons of Prajapati, the primordial father....
Puranas and Itihasas: Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad...Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the Ramayana and the legend of Asura Hiranyakashipu and Deva Vishnu as Narasimha...
Bhagavata Purana: In Bhagavata Purana, Brahma had ten sons: Marichi, Atri, Angira, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasistha, Daksa, Narada. Marici had a son called Kasyapa. Kasyapa had thirteen wives: Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kadru etc. The sons of Aditi are called Adityas, the sons of Diti are called Daityas, and the sons of Danu are called Danavas. Bṛhaspati (Jupiter, son of Angiras) is a guru of devas (vedic gods). Shukracharya (Venus, son of Bhrigu) is a guru of asuras (vedic demons) or/and Danavas....
Deva (Buddhism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)
Types: Deva refers to a class of beings or a path of the six paths of the incarnation cycle. It includes some very different types of beings which can be ranked hierarchically according to the merits they have accumulated over lifetimes. The lowest classes of these beings are closer in their nature to human beings than to the higher classes of deva. Devas can be degraded to humans or the beings in the three evil paths once they have consumed their merits.... all of those within a single group are able to interact and communicate with each other. On the other hand, the lower groups have no direct knowledge of even the existence of the higher types of deva at all.... Ārūpyadhātu have no physical form or location... Rūpadhātu have physical forms, but are sexless and passionless. They live in a large number of "heavens" or deva-worlds that rise, layer on layer, above the earth....Kāmadhātu have physical forms similar to, but larger than, those of humans. They lead the same sort of lives that humans do, though they are longer-lived and generally more content;... The higher devas of the Kāmadhātu live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of the lower world....Yāma devas...
The lower devas of the Kāmadhātu live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the world, Sumeru. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting. They are:
The Trāyastriṃśa devas, who live on the peak of Sumeru and are something like the Olympian gods. Their ruler is Śakra. Sakka, as he is called in pali, is a Sotapanna and a devotee of the Buddha. (These are also known as the Devas of the Thirty-Three.)
The Cāturmahārājikakāyika devas, who include the martial kings who guard the four quarters of the Earth. The chief of these kings is Vaiśravaṇa, but all are ultimately accountable to Śakra. They also include four types of earthly demigod or nature-spirit: Kumbhāṇḍas, Gandharvas, Nāgas and Yakṣas, and probably also the Garuḍas.
Sometimes included among the devas, and sometimes placed in a different category, are the Asuras, the opponents of the preceding two groups of devas, whose nature is to be continually engaged in war. Humans are said to have originally had many of the powers of the devas: not requiring food, the ability to fly through the air, and shining by their own light. Over time they began to eat solid foods, their bodies became coarser and their powers disappeared....
Powers:
Devas are invisible to the human eye. The presence of a deva can be detected by those humans who have opened the "Divine eye" (divyacakṣus)...Their voices can also be heard by those who have cultivated divyaśrotra, a power similar to that of the ear. Most devas are also capable of constructing illusory forms by which they can manifest themselves to the beings of lower worlds; higher and lower devas sometimes do this to each other.
Devas do not require the same kind of sustenance as humans do, although the lower kinds do eat and drink. The higher orders of deva shine with their own intrinsic luminosity.
Devas are also capable of moving great distances speedily, and of flying through the air, although the lower devas sometimes accomplish this through magical aids such as a flying chariot....
Deva (Jainism)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Jainism)
Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers of Dharma). But in common usage it is used to refer to the heavenly beings. These beings are born instantaneously in special beds without any parents just like hell beings (naraki).... The abode of Devas is Svarga (heaven)....
Daeva
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daeva
Daeva (Avestan: 𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀 daēuua) is an Avestan language term for a particular sort of supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristics. In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon, the daevas are "gods that are (to be) rejected". This meaning is – subject to interpretation... In the Younger Avesta, the daevas are divinities that promote chaos and disorder. In later tradition and folklore, the dēws are personifications of every imaginable evil.... Daeva, the Iranian language term, shares the same origin of "Deva" of Indian mythology, later incorporated into Indian religions....etymologically related, their function and thematic development is altogether different....
While in the post-Rigvedic Indic texts the conflict between the two groups of devas and asuras is a primary theme, this is not a theme in either the Rigveda nor in the Iranian texts...and therefore cannot have been a feature of a common heritage. The use of asura in the Rigveda is unsystematic and inconsistent and "it can hardly be said to confirm the existence of a category of gods opposed to the devas". Indeed, RigVedic deva is variously applied to most gods, including many of the asuras. Likewise, at the oldest layer, Zoroastrianism's daevas are originally also gods (albeit gods to be rejected), and it is only in the younger texts that the word evolved to refer to evil creatures. And the Zoroastrian ahuras (etymologically related to the Vedic asuras) are also only vaguely defined, and only three in number. Moreover, the daemonization of the asuras in India and the daemonization of the daevas in Iran both took place "so late that the associated terms cannot be considered a feature of Indo-Iranian religious dialectology"....
In the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and credited to Zoroaster himself,...daevas are a distinct category of "quite genuine gods, who had, however, been rejected"...In Yasna 32.3 and 46.1, the daevas are still worshipped by the Iranian peoples. Yasna 32.8 notes that some of the followers of Zoroaster had previously been followers of the daevas; though, the daevas are clearly identified with evil (e.g., Yasna 32.5). In the Gathas, daevas are censured as being incapable of discerning truth (asha-) from falsehood (druj-). They are consequently in "error" (aēnah-), but are never identified as drəguuaṇt- "people of the lie". The conclusion drawn from such ambiguity is that, at the time the Gathas were composed, "the process of rejection, negation, or daemonization of these gods was only just beginning, but, as the evidence is full of gaps and ambiguities, this impression may be erroneous".
In Yasna 32.4, the daevas are revered by the Usij, described as a class of "false priests", devoid of goodness of mind and heart, and hostile to cattle and husbandry (Yasna 32.10–11, 44.20). Like the daevas that they follow, "the Usij are known throughout the seventh region of the earth as the offspring of aka mainyu, druj, and arrogance. (Yasna 32.3)". Yasna 30.6 suggests the daeva-worshipping priests debated frequently with Zoroaster, but failed to persuade him. ...
In Vendidad 10.9 and 19.43, three divinities of the Vedic pantheon follow Angra Mainyu in a list of demons: Completely adapted to Iranian phonology, these are Indra (Vedic Indra), Sarva (Vedic Sarva, i.e. Rudra), and Nanghaithya (Vedic Nasatya). The process by which these three came to appear in the Avesta is uncertain. Together with three other daevas, Tauru, Zairi and Nasu, that do not have Vedic equivalents, the six oppose the six Amesha Spentas....
Many of the medieval texts develop ideas already expressed in the Vendidad ("given against the demons"). A fire (cf. Adur) is an effective weapon against the dews, and keeping a hearth fire burning is a means to protect the home. The dews are "particularly attracted by the organic productions of human beings, from excretion, reproduction, sex, and death". Prayer and other recitations of the liturgy, in particular the recitation of Yasht 1 (so Sad-dar 57), is effective in keeping the demons at bay. Demons are attracted by chatter at mealtimes and when silence is broken a demon takes the place of the angel at one's side. According to Shayest-ne-Shayest 9.8, eating at all after nightfall is not advisable since the night is the time of demons. In the 9th century rivayats (65.14), the demons are described as issuing out at night to wreak mayhem, but forced back into the underworld by the divine glory (khvarenah) at sunrise....
Deva
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva
Rivers
Deva (river), a river in Northern Spain, between Asturias and Cantabria
River Dee, Aberdeenshire, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland
River Dee, Galloway, in southwest Scotland
River Dee, Wales, a river in the United Kingdom
Towns
Deva, Gijón, a parish of Gijón, in Asturias, Spain
Deva, Romania, a city in Hunedoara county, Romania
Deva Victrix, a Roman fortress and town, now Chester, England
Deva Village, India
The Indo-European Sky Father
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIfB1LI79OQ
Dyeus = daylight sky god = old Irish dia = Sanskrit deva = latin dei = old norse tivar = Lithuanian Dievas = Greek Zeus = Latin (Jupiter) djous pater =
Vedic Sanskrit = Dyauspitr = the bull. Twin Horses Hengest and Horsa progenitors of the english race claim descent from sky father Wodan....
HG C POSSIBLY THE FIRST MODERN HUMANS IN INDIA THEN H, R2, O2a, AND R1a1 BETWEEN 30 AND 50 KYA. NO MAJOR INDO EUROPEAN TAKEOVER RATHER THEIR PRESENCE IN INDIA SINCE THE PLEISTOCENE. R2 IS INDIGENOUS TO INDIA BUT R LINEAGE IS ORIGINALLY CENTRAL ASIAN.
mt INDIA FOUNDERS IS MAINLY PROTO ASIAN M AND N. WHILE THE CASTE OF Y HG'S IS MOSTLY WEST EURASIAN ESPECIALLY THE HIGHER RANKING CASTES.
WHICH SHOWS A CENTRAL ASIAN CONNECTION TO INDIA.
TODAY THE DRAVIDIAN SPEAKERS OF SOUTH INDIA ARE CLAIMED TO BE THE DESCENDANTS OF THE FIRST SETTLERS....
Genetic Imprints of Pleistocene Origin of Indian Populations:
A Comprehensive Phylogeographic Sketch of Indian Y-Chromosomes
This study revealed a total of 24 paternal lineages, of which haplogroups H, R1a1, O2a and R2 portrayed for approximately 70% of the Indian Y-Chromosomes.... 45-50 KYA for H and C haplogroups signified an early settlement of the subcontinent by modern humans.... a common Pleistocene origin of Indian populations... Based on distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups (H, C, O2a, and R2) and deep coalescing time depths for these paternal lineages, we propose that the present day Dravidian speaking populations of South India are the descendants of earliest Pleistocene settlers while Austro-Asiatic speakers came from SE Asia in a later migration event....
The present-day populations of India belong to 4635 endogamous communities and speak as many as 350 living languages (ethnologue), which fall under the four major supra-language families, i.e., Indo-European, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Austric. The nature of extensive diversity among varied groups reported with 54 classical markers showed a typically north-south geographic division of populations and placed Indians closer to European populations than either with east-Asians or Africans in the genetic distance trees. A number of studies based on mt DNA, Y-chromosome and other nuclear DNA markers have invariably supported these observations. Most of the studies conclude that maternal gene pool of Indian populations are proto-Asian in origin with limited west-Eurasian admixture. While the Ychromo-somes of the caste populations were found to be more similar to Europeans than Asians; with greater west-Eurasian admixture in castes of higher rank recent studies provide congruent evidence against any major influx of Indo-European speakers into the Indian gene pool and have ascertained a late Pleistocene South Asian origin for majority of Indian populations. These new findings are consistent with archeobotanical evidences and linguistic data which suggest a recent common root for Elamite and Dravidic languages. It is hypothesized that the same prehistoric gene pool of southern Asian Pleistocene coastal settlers from Africa provided inocula for both Indian castes and tribes, and subsequent diversification of the gene pools was probably due to the genetic imprints laid down by later migrants, such as Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, and others... While the Austro-Asiatic tribes have been presumed to be descendants of the early modern humans based on nucleotide diversity of mitochondrial M haplogroup, analysis of the Indian Y chromosomes undertaken in this study depicts a different scenario....
24 different paternal lineages were observed, out of which, haplogroups H-M69, R1a1-M17, R2-M124 and O2a-M95 together account for 69% of the paternal diversity in South Asia. Another 20.9% of the genetic variation in Indian males is described by haplogroups L-M11, J2-M172, O3e-M134, K2-M70, F-M89 and C-RPS4Y711, while the Y711 presence of other haplogroups- R1b3-M269 and G-M201 could be attributed to recent admixture with Europeans.... Overall haplogroup diversity among Indians was relatively high when compared to European or East Asian populations....
Table 4: Y-Chromosome haplogroup TMRCA age estimates in years:
R1a1= 32,015. H= 43,556. C= 49,438. O2a= 35,795. R2= 39,648.
genetic differentiation was high among Indians; percent variation among different groups added up to 27.11%, suggesting that gene pool of India males was highly structured....India is a relict area, which is likely to have served as an incubator during the early dispersal of modern humans out of East Africa... Overall haplogroup diversity among Indian populations was relatively high (0.893) in contrast to other European or East Asian populations, but was closer to that of Central Asia. This pattern of high NRY diversity (Y-SNP and Y-STR) indicates an early settlement of the Indian subcontinent by anatomically modern humans. Four haplogroups; H= 23%; R1a1=17.5%; O2a=15% and R2=13.5%, form major paternal lineage of Indians and together account for ~70% of their Y-chromosomes. Being largely restricted to the Indian subcontinent, haplogroup H is assumed to be associated with the eastward expansion of M89 Y-chromosomes from the Leventine corridor, which also carried the two late Pleistocene mtDNA haplogroups, U2 and U7 into India....
M17 lineage among diverse linguistic families (Indo-European, Altaic, Uralic and Caucasian) and geographic regions (Central Asia, Europe, Caucasus, Middle East), it has been associated with the Kurgan culture, domestication of horses and spread of Indo-European languages, all which supposedly originated in southern Russia/Ukraine and subsequently extended to Europe, Central Asia around 3000 B.C. Its presence in India has been linked to the “Aryan” migration and subsequent spread of Indo-European languages, appearance of iron and Painted Grey Ware culture in North West frontier. However, antiquity and geographic origin of this lineage still remains contentious. Our study reveals that this lineage is present in a significant proportion among the Indian Indo-European speakers, and is proportionately high among upper caste groups. The dispersion of this lineage into the southern tribal groups and the fact that it is proportionately distributed between the Dravidian and Indo-European tribal groups provides significant evidence against any major influx of Indo-European speakers that could have drastically changed the Indian male gene pool. The high average STR variance (0.896) and TMRCA supports a rapid population growth and expansion of M17 Y-chromosomes, which contributed M17 lineages both to Central Asian nomads and South Asian tribes much before the Indo-European introgression into India....
The observed high frequency of R2 Y chromosomes in Indians, which is equivalent to that of haplogroup H among Dravidian speakers, corroborates previous reports suggesting its Indian origin. The deep coalescence time for R2 lineages, dating back to Late Pleistocene, supports its indigenous origin. Outside India, it is found in Iran and Central Asia (3.3%) and among Roma Gypsies of Europe, known to have historical evidence of their migration from India....
mt DNA analysis from different geographic region and social status showed that maternal haplogroups in India are derived from a limited number of founder lineages of M and N clades supporting a common proto-Asian ancestry with limited gene flow from later migrants. Our study reveals that there is virtually no genetic difference in the Y-chromosomes between the caste groups and tribes. Whatever minor difference is present is largely due to haplogroup O2a, contributed exclusively by the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman tribes.... SE Asian origin of Indian Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman speakers. We hypothesize that the Tibeto-Burman speakers came as a number of migratory events, while the Austro-Asiatic tribes probably arrived in India as a single event. The two groups probably migrated into India at different time period is evident from the absence of O3e lineages among Austro-Asiatic speakers, which probably are the earliest immigrants of the two....
Based on socio-cultural and linguistic evidences and results based on mt DNA HVSI nucleotide diversity and highest frequencies of mitochondrial M haplogroup it was asserted that Austro-Asiatic tribes are the earliest settlers in India. The present comprehensive Y-chromosome analysis, which includes populations of all linguistic and socio ethnic affiliations, however, suggests people of south India as the original settlers of the subcontinent. The total lineage diversity and distribution of Indian-specific Y-chromosome haplogroups (H, L, C, R1a1 and R2) in different geographical and socio-linguistic layers of the Indian populations provides substantial support in favor of this hypothesis....
Recent archeological and linguistic evidences corroborate a Neolithic expansion of Austro-Asiatic languages from Yangtze River basin and our present study supports an east-west clinal expansion of Austro-Asiatic males from South East Asia, which was
not associated with any female gene flow. Further, deeper coalescence age for the Y-chromosome haplogroups C, H, R2 compared to O2a is consistent with hypothesis that Austro-Asiatic speakers cannot be considered as the earliest settlers of South Asia.
CONCLUSIONS
Haplogroup distribution and AMOVA results provide tandem evidence in support a common Pleistocene origin of Indian populations, which was subsequently followed by migrations of Austro-Asiatic speaking tribal males from SE Asia. The Tibeto-Burman populations were later migrants who took two different routes and carried both male and female lineages specific to East Asia. Based on deep coalescence age estimates of H, R2 and C Y-chromosome lineages, their diversity and distribution pattern, our data suggests an early Pleistocene settlement of South Asia by Dravidian speaking south Indian populations; the Austro-Asiatic speakers migrated much later from SE Asia and probably contributed only paternal lineages while amalgamating with the aboriginal populations of the region.
Junapani Stone Circles: India’s Astronomical Megalithic Tombs
https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/junapani-stone-circles-0014945
Something that may be less known about the Indian subcontinent is its many megalithic sites. Many of these sites are found across India. The megalithic monuments in that region are believed to have been constructed during the Iron Age (1500 BC-200 AD).... Junapani stones at the Napo megalithic site in Jharkhand, eastern India, which have been marked with cup marks or cupules.... The stone circles are sepulchral, meaning that they mark burial places. The deceased were probably buried within the stone circles and covered with stony material. There are some circles that were not covered with material and appear to be circles that were constructed for a clan or family burial, which were ultimately left unused. There are over 150 stone circles in India, which were probably constructed between 1000 BC and about 300 AD.... The construction of the earliest stone monuments in India dates to around 3000 BC in the Indus Valley....
The Junapani stone circles may reflect an astronomical tradition in India that dates to before 1000 BC....In the Vedanga Jyotisha , the author defines a yuga as consisting of five years, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, and 62 synodic lunar months. The author also describes a lunisolar calendrical system in which intercalary months are added to keep the calendar from falling out of sync with the motion of the sun....
Conclusions: The Junapani stone circles are part of a megalithic tradition in India which began around 3000 BC with the Indus River Valley civilization and continued until around 900 AD. The stone circles themselves were all constructed between 1000 BC and 300 AD. They were most likely sepulchral megalithic structures that were constructed to bury the dead. They also appear to have astronomical alignments which make them significant for the history of cultural astronomy in India. ...
THE BRATS GOT RICH FROM THE BRONZE AGE TIN TRADE WHICH STRETCHED TO AT LEAST THE IR AND BRAT ISLES AND POSSIBLY AMERICAS. IN INDIA IT WAS THE VEDIC SARASVATI, HARAPPA, OR INDUS CIVILIZATION IN THE 8TH MILLENIUM BCE. ASURA WERE THE BEGINNING HERE AND SPOKE MELUHHA. THE ADITYA MAKE LAWS WHICH IS WHERE THEIR USURPATIONS MAKE THEM STRONG BY WAY OF MISINTERPRETATIONS AND FABRICATIONS OF THEIR LAWS THEY THEN USE AS WEAPONS OF WAR. ROOT OF RIGVEDA SAYS SOMA IS A METAPHOR FOR A METAL. THIS ARTICLE SHOWS VARIOUS AND DIFFERENT SOMAS USED IN DIFFENT WRITINGS. SOMA FROM THE VEDIC PEOPLE IN THE BRONZE AGE. TOCHARIAN MLECCHA MAY BE DASYU WERE LINEAGE OF ANU, PURU, KURU, MIGRATE TO IRAN SETTLE IN TURKMEN, AFGHAN TURKISTAN, AND TURKEY. TUSHARA KINGDOM IN NW INDIA. VEDIC BHARATAS RITE OF 12 MONTH YEAR KNOWN AS PRAJAPATI ENDING YEAR BEHEADING PRAJAPATI BY RUDRA AND ASHVINS RESTORE HIS HEAD IN NEW YEAR. SOUNDS LIKE PRAJAPATI BECOMES THE SCAPEGOAT...
Bharata, the wealthiest nation of the world 1 CE
https://www.academia.edu/30677823/Bharata_the_wealthiest_nation_of_the_world_1_CE
Sarasvati Civilization (also called Harappa or Indus Valley Civilization) evolved on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati in the Sapta-Sindhu region.... Matching these artifacts (including over 8000 Harappa Script inscriptions which are metalwork catalogues) with the wealth-creation activities detaled in the ancient texts of the Veda dated to ca. 10,000 years Before Present... ‘wealth’ of Artha, Vedic Sarasvati civilization in 1 CE is directly and substantially related to the Bronze Age Tin Bronze Revolution in Bharata (India, Vedic
rastram) and long-distance trade which stretched along the Maritime Tin Route... Vedic times, ca. 8th millennium BCE which resulted in the status of Bharata as the richest nation on the globe...
The full history of the processes leading to the creating the wealth of Bharatam has to be told. A first step has been taken, deciphering the 7000+ inscriptions of the civilization dated from ca. 4th millennium BCE [the early writing system is established by the discovery of a potsherd with Harappa script discovered by Harvard HARP archaeology team (signifying tin smithy) is dated to ca. 3300 BCE]. A synonym for pyrites is: madhu dhatu. A knowledge system of metallurgical processes or madhu-vidya or pravargya vidya related to such ores are narrated in the Veda. Data archives documenting these processes are found in Harappa Script hypertexts and in Yajñavaraha metaphors in Veda texts and sacred Yajñavaraha sculptures with iconographic details as hypertexts. The discovery of yajñakundas in many sites and the stellar evidence of Binjor yajñakunda with
octagonal pillar and Seal with Harappa Script attesting to metalwork of the Bronze Age affirm the civilization as a continuum of Vedic cultura, Soma SamsthA. It is thus apposite to designate the civilization as Vedic Sarasvati Civilization with roots traceable to ca. 8th millennium (evidenced by the Bhirrana archaeological site with carbon-14 dates confirmed between ca. 7570 BCE to 6200 BCE)....
yajña is performance of worship. The governing principle, dharma is: work is worship, which is a prayer to the paramaatman who has endowed the people with competence to relate to environmental phenomena and earth’s resources. The ancient people of Bharata who participated in the processes of creation of wealth from Vedic times and during the Bronze Age Tin Bronze Revolution have left for us the legacy of yajña and a writing system called mlecchita vikalpa, 'Meluhha cipher.’...
There are three groups of yajñas, depending on the type of offering made to fire in the sacred prayer: (a) haviryajña (b) pakayajña and (c) somayajña. Each of these in turn consists of seven subgroups of yajñas. The haviryajña group offering consists of “havis”,
such as milk, clarified butter, food- grains, etc. Pakayajña material offerings include cooked food-grains. somayajña s in which the offering is the juice of the crushed plant made to the deity soma...
The origin of somayajña: the hawk brought soma
As is well known by the legend, soma was originally in heaven, and was brought to earth by the chandas gayatri. This legend is known in Rgveda:...(RV IV. 26. 6)“The straight flying hawk, conveying the plant from afars the bird resolute with purpose brought the exhilarating soma attended by the gods, having taken it from the lofty heaven.”
(RV IV.26.7)“The hawk, having taken the Soma brought it for the performance of thousands and tens of thousands of yajñas. Here the unbewildered (steady minded) performer of many deeds (Indra) destroyed the bewildered enemies with the help of soma.”... The references to Anzu in ancient Mesopotamian tradition parallels the legends of syena 'falcon' which is used in Vedic tradition of Soma yajña attested archaeologically in Uttarakhand with a syenaciti, 'falcon-shaped' fire-altar....
If Tocharian speakers were aware of the Mujavant mountain and if Soma came from this mountain, what did Tocharian's call Soma? Ancu! 'iron'. This word 'ancu' is cognate with amsu which is used in the Rgveda to describe Soma. Soma was a metallic ore, a compound of silver and gold called by metallurgists as: electrum. Thus, for Rgvedic kavi, description of soma in metaphoric terms comparing it to a plant should not be treated literally as a reference to a 'plant'. The reference could as well have been to a metallic ore subjected to refining process of smelting in fire which could raise upto 1500 degrees C in a yajña -- agnishthoma, for example -- which lasted continuously for 5 days and 5 nights. Substitution of Soma with ‘plants’ is attested in many texts which post-date Rigveda and also in Avesta tradition of haoma, which is clearly a reference to a plant. But, the original reference in the root text of Rigveda can be explained as a metaphor for a metal/mineral ore of the Bronze Age....
In the beginning all here was with the Asuras... One statement is emphatic in RV 10.124.3 which uses the expression pitre asurAya,’Father Asura’ as the primeval world of undivided unity. I suggest that Asura signified mleccha, meluhha speakers....
references to Soma in chandas text should be interpreted metaphorically. So, it is NOT a plant, it is the phenomenon of some divine intervention in transmutation of mere earth and stones in the medium of fire-altar. It is clear that the text of the chandas is at many levels of prayer, from the gross material resource level to transcendence....
RV 9.71.2 The metaphors and narratives of RV ..71.2 refer to Sauma’s asurya varNam, ‘Asuric colour’ placing asura-s as elder brothers of deva-s declaring them as two moieties (say, dasa varNa and arya-varNa). Like Varuna, Sarasvati, Agni, Soma is also Asurya. In the course of the yajña, Soma casts off his Asura moiety that is his and becomes deva....
5:2:1:2424. He then spreads the goat-skin thereon; for truly the he-goat is no other than Prajâpati, for they, the goats, are most clearly of Prajâpati (the lord of generation or creatures);--whence, bringing forth thrice in a year, they produce two or three 2: thus he thereby makes him (the Sacrificer) to be Prajâpati himself,--this is why he spreads the goat-skin thereon....
Hence, the metaphor of vajra, thunderbolt weapon...is the thunderbolt weapon of Indra.... "That soma is king; this is the devas' food. The devas eat it." [Chandogya.Upanishad (Ch.Up. 5.10.4]... 1. Mortals do not taste Soma. RV 10.85.3, 4 which suggest that Brahmana and those who dwell on earth do NOT partake of Soma....
RV 10.85.1-4: 1. TRUTH is the base that bears the earth; by Surya are the heavens sustained. By Law the Adityas stand secure, and Soma holds his place in heaven. 2 By Soma are the Adityas strong, by Soma mighty is the earth. Thus Soma in the midst of all these constellations hath his place. 3 One thinks, when they have brayed the plant, that he hath drunk the Soma's juice; Of him whom Brahmans truly know as Soma no one ever tastes. 4 Soma, secured by sheltering rules, guarded by hymns in Brhati, Thou standest listening to the stones none tastes of thee who dwells on earth.
soma is not a drink of mortals: "one thinks to have drunk soma, when they crush the plant. Of him (soma), which the braahmanas know, no one ever tastes.": RV X.85.3; same hymn in AV. XIV.1.3; "No earthly one eats you." : RV X.85.4; soma is for Indra: "Boldy drink soma from the beaker, Indra!..." AV VII.77;...
[Legend: VanaParva, Mahabharata: gods, being oppressed by the Kalakeya asura-s, solicited from the sage Dadhica his bones, which he gave them, and from which Tvas.t.a fabricated the thunderbolt with which Indra slew Vr.tra and routed the asuras. The text: Indra, having taught the science called pravargya vidya and madhu-vidya to Dadhyan~c, threatened that he would cut off his head if ever he taught them to any one else; the Asvins prevailed upon him, nevertheless, to teach them the prohibited knowledge, and, to evade Indra's threat, took off the head of the sage, replacing it by that of a horse; Indra, apprised of Dadhyan~c's breach of faith, sturck off his equine head with the thunderbolt; on which, the Asvins restored to him his own. The pravargya is said to imply certain verses of the r.k, yajur and sama vedas, and the madhu-vidya the BrahmaNa]...
Perspiration born of fieriness of grief poured off from all his limbs, as the snow heated by solar rays melts and flows from Himavat mountain Bharata, the son of Kaikeyi was pressed by the weight of that colossal mountain of agony consisting of rocky caverns in the shape of settled contemplations on Rama, minerals in the shape of groans and sighs, a cluster of trees in the shape of depressive thoughts, summits in the form of sufferings and fatigue, countless wild beasts in the shape of swoons, herbs and bamboos in the form of his exertions....
Metals were not fully distinguished from their alloys; all carried names such as aes, electrum etc. Ayas meant metal. Asem denoted the natural alloy of silver and gold; it also meant any bright metal made with copper, tin, lead, zinc, arsenic and mercury. Twelve or thirteen different alloys were called asem. Egyptian Asem is Rigveda soma. Gold was the flesh of the sun god by association it assured immortality...
amsu of Rigveda with anzu of Tocharian. In Tocharian it means 'iron'. Tocharian language as an Indo-European language has revealed a word in Tocharian anzu
which meant 'iron'... If Tocharian was spoken in Mt. Mujavant (Muztagh Ata), the mleccha-speakers were dasyu, mleccha -vacas, who like arya vacas were also dasyu. They brought soma impregnated within ancu ‘iron’ for Rigvedic people to process it. This añcu is metaphorically referred to by Valmiki in the context of suryamsu and ayah-jalani‘net of iron’ which was smashed by the falcon. Gayatri was the falcon who fetched soma. Tocharians, Tushara, were mleccha (meluhha) who spoke Tocharian, a satem branch of Indo-European....descendants of Anu...Puru and Kuru...Anu descendants migrate to Iran... Tusharas settle in Turkmenistan, Turkistan, and Turkey... Tusharas Kingdom in NW India...
Out of which member glows the light of Agni? Form which proceeds the breath of
Matarisvan? From which doth Chandra measure out his journey, travelling over Skambha's mighty body?... 7)Who out of many, tell me, is that Skambha, On whom Prajapati set up and firmly stablished all the worlds? 8)That universe which Prajapati created, wearing all forms,, the highest, midmost, lowest, How far did Skambha penetrate within it? What portion did he leave unpenetrated? 9)How far within the past hath Skambha entered? How much of him hath reached into the future? That one part which he set in thousand places,how far did Skambha penetrate within it?... 12)Who out of many, tell me, is that Skambha On whom as their foundation earth and firmament and sky are set; In whom as their appointed place rest Fire and Moon and Sun and Wind?
13)Who out of many, tell me, is that Skambha He in whose body are contained all three-and thirty Deities?...22)Who out of many, tell me, is that Skambha In whom Adityas dwell, in whom Rudras and Vasus are contained, In whom the future and the past and all the worlds are firmly set;...
Within the womb Prajapati is moving: he, though unseen, is born in sundry places. He with one half engendered all creation. What sign is there to tell us of the other?
All men behold him with the eye, but with the mind they know not him.Holding aloft the water as a water-bearer in her jar....
To summarize, the submission is that Soma was a contribution by Vedic people to the Bronze Age Revolution....
Out of 2600 sites of the civiization, over 80% (2000+) are on the Sarasvati river basin. Most of the sites are part of a maritime civilization with seafaring merchants reaching into Eurasia across the Persian Gulf and Tigris-Euphrates doab engaging in trade transactions catalyzed by the Bronze Age Revolution of Tin-Bronzes and cire perdue artefacts...
The profundity of the metaphor of...(RV 10.125) is the...metaphor proclaiming the inexorable sacred sound of the pranava, Om This metaphor of divine guidance should lead us to abhyudayam...'welfare' and 'bliss', uniting every...with the... protecting... dharma-dhamma; esha dhammo sanantano,...said the Buddha Gautama. ...
Binjor seal: A seal made of steatite stone found in one of the trenches in 4MSR. It is a sure sign that the site belongs to the Mature Harappan phase. The seal has the carving of a unicorn standing in front of an incense burner and a hypertext inscription with five
Indus Script hieroglyphs on the top part.
Binjor Seal Text: Together, the message of the Binjor Seal with inscribed text is a proclamation, a metalwork catalogue (of) 'metallic iron alloy implements, hard alloy workshop'...
“Kutai Kingdom was the oldest Hindu Kingdom in Indonesia placed in Muara Karman, East Borneo. This inscription formed Yupa, a stone pillar that is used to bind the victim in the form of animals or humans to be sacrificed to the gods. There are seven Yupa which contains the inscription, but only 4 were successfully read and translated. This inscription use Pallawa Pre-Nagari letters and in Sanskrit, which is estimated from the shape and type dating from around 400 AD. Fill Yupa first inscription mentions that the first king of the kingdom of Kutai is Kudungga. Kudungga which is the original name of Indonesia at that time showed that he was not the founder of the royal family....
days of Patanjali's Mahabhashya mentioning the performance of a horse sacrifice is also very interesting. This is s a proof of the fact that Nagri and its vicinity was not only the centre of Buddhist activities and Greek incursions but it was also a stronghold of
Brahminical faith and horse sacrifices were performed there. It was also the centre of
Samkarshana Vasudeva worship in whose honour a stone enclosure (Silaprakara) was
constructed there...An inscriptional reference to the performance of Vajapeya sacrifice is also available from an epigraph of the 4th century AD to which period belongs a Yupa pillar also. A terracotta seal found by Col. Hendley at Sambhar during excavations by him was studied by DR Sahni and he interprets the principal impression as displaying a sacrificial post (Yupa) surrounded by a railing. The upper portion of the post is bent down to about the middle of the shaft taken by Sahni to display the mystic symbol Swastika while the sixth one as showing a triangular pattern with five cross bars. This last device appears to represent the ladder by which the sacrificer and his wife ascended to the top of the Yupa and looking in the different directions silently enchanted prayers and offered by Prajapati 17 pieces of salt tied up to Pippala leaves. The setting up of Yupas in the celebration of Yajñas stands recorded in the Atharva Veda. Several ancient inscriptions on stone and other monumental evidences show the performance of such sacrifices done I the 5th or the 6th centuries AD also...
Simultaneously in the Vedic stream of the Bharatas, the school of Prajapatya Vaishvamitras instituted a rite to commemorate the twelve month year also known as Prajapati, with a twelve day pouring to the deities: Savita, agni, matarishvan, the adityas, the nakshatras, the Rta dhAta, Brihaspati, Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Soma. The end of the year was marked symbolically by the beheading of Prajapati by Rudra. The restoration of his head in the new year was through the surgery of the Ashvins. The myth of the cephalic surgery on Prajapati and Dadhici served as the fusion point of these rites during the early settlement of the Bharatas in the sub-continent. This resulted in the Pravargya rite which marks the restoration of the head of yajña or the Prajapati also called Makha’s head in the Brahmana literature. Thus, the Taittiriya Aranyaka states...The head in the Pravargya rite is symbolically denoted by a Pravargya pot. Thus is the rite performed....
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