India2
MELUHHA WERE PROTO-DRAVIDIAN WITH THE INDUS VALLEY; WERE SEAFARERS TRADED WITH SUMER; WERE THE MEROE NEXT TO EGYPT IN 7 TO 2 CENTURIES BCE.; WERE THE FIRST KUSH NEXT TO EGYPT AND IN INDIA AND POSSIBLY THE FIRST AETHIOPS; MELUHHA HAD CONFLICTS WITH AKKADIANS AND NEO-SUMERIANS. MY HUNCH AT THIS TIME THEY WERE KUSH, THE KASI, R1b YDNA. SEA PEOPLE FROM ATLANTIS WEST COAST EUROPE, IRLAND/BRIT ISLES TO IRAN AND INDIA TO POSSIBLY THE OJIBWAY AND OTHER R1b NATIVE AMERICANS?...
Meluhha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhha
Meluḫḫa or Melukhkha (Me-luḫ-ḫaKI 𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠) is the Sumerian name of a prominent trading partner of Sumer during the Middle Bronze Age. Its identification remains an open question, but most scholars associate it with the Indus Valley Civilization.... Proto-Dravidians with the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) and the Meluhha people mentioned in Sumerian records. According to him, the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian words mel-akam ("highland country").... Asko Parpola relates Meluhha with Mleccha who were considered non-Vedic "barbarians" in Vedic Sanskrit....
Meluhha is also mentioned in mythological legends such as "Enki and Ninhursaga":
"May the foreign land of Meluhha load precious desirable cornelian, perfect mes wood and beautiful aba wood into large ships for you" — Enki and Ninhursaga
Artifacts
There is extensive presence of Harappan seals and cubical weight measures in Mesopotamian urban sites. Specific items of high volume trade are timber and specialty wood such as ebony, for which large ships were used. Luxury items also appear, such as lapis lazuli mined at a Harappan colony at Shortugai (modern Badakhshan in northern Afghanistan), which was transported to Lothal, a port city in Gujarat in western India, and shipped from there to Oman, Bahrain and Sumer. In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at Ras al-Jinz (Oman), located at the easternmost point of the Arabian Peninsula, demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with Oman, and the Middle East in general....
Meluhhan trading colony in Sumer
Towards the end of the Sumerian period, there are numerous mentions in inscriptions of a Meluhha settlement in southern Sumer near the city-state of Girsu. The location of the settlement has been tentatively identified with the city of Guabba. The references to "large boats" in Guabba suggests that it may have functioned as a trading colony which initially had direct contact with Meluhha....
According to some accounts of the Akkadian Empire ruler Rimush, he fought against the troops of Meluhha, in the area of Elam: "Rimuš, the king of the world, in battle over Abalgamash, king of Parahshum, was victorious. And Zahara and Elam and Gupin and Meluḫḫa within Paraḫšum assembled for battle, but he (Rimush) was victorious and struck down 16,212 men and took 4,216 captives. Further, he captured Ehmahsini, King of Elam, and all the nobles of Elam. Further he captured Sidaga'u the general of Paraḫšum and Sargapi, general of Zahara, in between the cities of Awan and Susa, by the "Middle River". Further a burial mound at the site of the town he heaped up over them. Furthermore, the foundations of Paraḫšum from the country of Elam he tore out, and so Rimuš, king of the world, rules Elam, (as) the god Enlil had shown..."
Gudea too, in one of his inscriptions, mentioned his victory over the territories of Magan, Meluhha, Elam and Amurru....
Most scholars suggest that Meluhha was the Sumerian name for the Indus Valley Civilization. Finnish scholars Asko and Simo Parpola identify Meluhha (earlier variant Me-lah-ha) from earlier Sumerian documents with Dravidian mel akam "high abode" or "high country". Many items of trade such as wood, minerals, and gemstones were indeed extracted from the hilly regions near the Indus settlements. They further claim that Meluhha is the origin of the Sanskrit mleccha, meaning "barbarian, foreigner"....
Early texts (c. 2200 BC) seem to indicate that Meluhha is to the east, suggesting either the Indus valley or India.[citation needed] However, much later texts documenting the exploits of King Assurbanipal of Assyria (668–627 BC), long after the Indus Valley civilization had ceased to exist, seem to imply that Meluhha is to be found in Africa, somewhere near Egypt....
"Meluhha" as Meroe, in the 7th-2nd centuries BCE
Media is referred to as "the land of the Gutians", a people who had been prominent around 2000 BC. Meluhha also appears in these texts, in contexts suggesting that "Meluhha" and "Magan" were kingdoms adjacent to Egypt. In the Rassam cylinder, Ashurbanipal writes about his first march against Egypt: "In my first campaign I marched against Egypt (Magan) and Ethiopia (Meluhha), and Taharqa, king of Egypt (Muṣur) and Nubia (Kûsu), whom Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, the father who begot me, had defeated, and whose land he brought under his sway." In this context, "Magan" has been interpreted as "Muṣur" (ancient name of Egypt) and "Meluhha" as "Meroe" (capital of Nubia).
Meluhha (𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠) as mentioned by Ashurbanipal in the Rassam cylinder in 643 BCE, as a territory associated with Egypt, probably Meroe (column 1 line 52)
In the Hellenistic period, the term was used archaically to refer to Ptolemaic Egypt, as in an account of a festival celebrating the conclusion of the Sixth Syrian War, or in reference to the campaigns of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Egypt ("Antiochus the King marched triumphantly through the cities of Meluhha").
These references do not necessarily mean that early references to Meluhha also referred to Egypt. Direct contacts between Sumer and the Indus Valley had ceased even during the Mature Harappan phase when Oman and Bahrain (Magan and Dilmun) became intermediaries. After the sack of Ur by the Elamites and subsequent invasions in Sumer, its trade and contacts shifted west and Meluhha passed almost into mythological memory. The resurfacing of the name could simply reflect cultural memory of a rich and distant land, its use in records of Achaemenid and Seleucid military expeditions serving to aggrandize those kings. This kind of re-attribution of archaic geographical terms was a regular occurrence during the 1st millennium BCE.
The Indus Valley people had trade relations with _______.
Hint - Harappan seals, artefacts and jewellery have been excavated in modern-day Iraq, Kuwait and Syria. The Indus Valley and the Harappan Civilisation existed from 3300BCE to 1300BCE. The Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan Civilisation was a Bronze age culture lasting from 3300BCE to 1300BCE. It had developed along the Indus and its tributaries in Pakistan, India and parts of Afghanistan. The distinctive features of the civilisation were the urban planning, drainage system, system of weights and measures, writing, use to burnt bricks, construction on raised platforms, unique artefacts and trade with contemporary civilisations. It is proved to a certain extent that people of the Indus Valley traded with the people of Mesopotamia. Harappan jewellery and artefacts have been discovered in the areas where the Mesopotamian civilisation once flourished i.e. present-day Iraq, Kuwait and parts of Syria. Motifs indigenous to Harappa have been found carved on seals with cylindrical shapes, like the ones used in Ancient Mesopotamia. Even Mesopotamian texts refer to trading with the region of "Meluha", the land of seafarers. It is deduced that Meluha refers to the Indus Valley Civilisation.
OPTION A - The Ancient Egyptian Civilisation was one of the first civilisations of the Ancient world. It is said to have started coalescing around 3100 BCE.
OPTION B - Ancient Greece in Greek history refers to the period starting with the Dark Ages and finishing off with the end of Antiquity.
OPTION C - Ceylon is the former name of the island nation of Sri Lanka located in the Indian ocean.
OPTION D - Mesopotamia in the name of the Ancient Civilisation of Iraq, Kuwait and Syria. It developed along the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. There is historical proof of the fact that Mesopotamia traded with their contemporary Indus Valley Civilisation.
So, the correction answer is Option D.
Note - The Indus Valley Civilisation was an ancient Civilisation which existed from 3200 BCE to 1300 BCE. It was one of the first urban civilisations of the world and a contemporary of the Mesopotamian Civilisation. The Indus Valley Civilisation also traded with Mesopotamia.
SON OF ILA BEGAT UPON URVASI SIX SONS: AYUS, DHIMAT, AMAVASU, DHRIDHAYUS, VANAYUS, AND SATAYUS. AYU DEALT IN GEMS,TIN, BRONZE, AND GOLD OF SARASVATI-SINDHU CULTURE FROM MELUHHA ALONG TIN ROAD TO SUMER ALONG PERSIAN GULF INTO THE FERTILE CRESCENT.
AYU WENT EAST TO THE KURU-PANCALA, KASI-VIDEHA (YAMUNA-GANGA). AMAVASU WENT WEST GANDHARA, PARSU, AND ARATTA (ANCIENT NEAR EAST).
MLECCHA WAS A SPEECH SPOKEN BY SOME ASURA FOUND IN ANCIENT NEAR EAST. INDIA IS NOT ARYAN ORIGIN BASED ON PHILOLOGY BUT MUST BE MORE NORTH. GUJARAT CIVILIZATION CONTINUED TO 800 BC A PRIME OF HARAPPAN INFLUENCE ON ARYAN CULTURE. MELUHHA WAS SPOKEN BY THE VERNACULAR AND SAMS/PRAKRITAM WERE THE RECORDED LANGUAGE. MELUHHA ARE IDENTIFIED BY THE REBUS OF INDUS SCRIPT CORPORA.
AGNI IS THE MOST FREQUENT ASUR IN RIGVEDA. SAVITR IS CALLED ASURA TWICE IN RIGVEDA. MITRA VARUNA ARE ASURA. RUDRA IS ASURA.
ASURYA IS WORD USED FOR SARASVATI. RIGVEDA DESCRIBE ASURA AS POSITIVE ASSOCIATED WITH DIVINITY AND RULERSHIP. RESEARCHER SEGERESTEDT CALLS ASURA ABORIGINAL INDIANS WHO SPEAK MLECCHAS LINKING ASURAS WITH DASAS AND DASYUS.
OLD NORSE AESIR IMPLIES PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN ORIGIN FOR THE ASURA, AND THE AESIR AS ANSU-, AHU-, AHURA-, ASURA-, 'S'U-. INDO-EUROPEAN *HESU GAVE AVESTAN AHU-LORD AND HITTITE 'S'U'KING.
MESOPOTAMIAN LEGEND OF NINURTA ANZU IS WAR GOD AND FERTILITY HUNTS ON THE MOUNTAIN. ANZU IS LION HEADED EAGLE. THE EAGLE IS FALCON SYENA IN RIGVEDA AND AVESTA WHICH BROUGHT THE SOMA.
ASUR IN INDIA WERE METAL WORKERS REVOLUTIONIZED THE COPPER AGE TO BRONZE AGE FROM INDIA TO POSSIBLY AS FAR AS IR/BRIT ISLES AND POSSIBLY TO THE AMERICAS.
ASHUR WAS ASSYRIAN CITY FOR GOD ASSUR (A-SUR, AS-SUR). 2600BCE TO 14 CENTURY CE. ASUR ARE A PEOPLE IN JHARKHAND AND WEST BENGAL, INDIA.
NINEVAH WAS 3RD CAPITAL OF ASSYRIA AFTER ASSUR AND NIMRUD (KALAKH).
THE ASHUR TRADERS SPOKE MELUHHA RECORDED ON SEALS, AND ARTIFACTS. SEALS IN INDUS VALLEY DURING EARLY HARAPPAN PERIOD 3000 -2000 BCE. DURING 3RD MILLENIUM RELATIONS BETWEEN INDUS AND IRANIAN.
ASHUR TIN ROAD WERE ASSUR TRADERS FROM MESOPOTAMIA TO ANATOLIA IN EARLY 2ND MILLENIUM BC. ASURA HAD AN INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN EARLY 2ND MILLENIUM FROM EGYPT TO CAUCASUS TO CENTRAL ASIA AND INDUS VALLEY.
ASSYRIA WAS CONQUERED BY HAMMURABI OF BABYLON 1759 BCE THEN BY MITANNI 50 YEARS LATER.
A RESEARCHER CLAIMS ASURS WERE FROM ILLYRIA WHO SPRED EGYPTIAN AND BABYLONIAN CULTURE TO IRAN AND INDIA. HE CLAIMS ASURS CONQUERED THE MED AREAS, AND WERE A FEARED SEA PEOPLE IN 16TH CENTURY BC.
BHARATA IS A FACTITIOUS METAL COMPOUND OF COPPER, PEWTER, TIN &C. THE CAST METAL IS PEWTER CALLED BARADO IN MELUHHA. THE TERM FOR COPPER BEFORE CUPRUM WAS CALLED AES. COULD IT BE THE AESIR WERE THE COPPER AGE PEOPLE, AND BHARAT WERE A BRONZE AGE PEOPLE?
THE KHAFAJEH BOWL: PROTO-ELAMITE BULL MAN. CRESENT BESIDE HEAD, GRASPING SERPENT. DATES FROM 2700 TO 2500 BC. RESEMBLES ONE OF THE SIN TEMPLE AT TELL ASMAR. THE ZEBU IS SIMILAR OF INDUS SCRIPT CORPORA. ZEBU A BULL MARKED WITH TRIDENT AND DISCUS.
BULL MAN SOUNDS SIMILAR TO CERNNUNOS, OR PASHUPATI LORD OF THE ANIMALS, OR SUQUMUNA, OR BUDHA, OR SHIVA, OR RUDRA....
Asura, Assur and evidences of Meluhha speech in Ancient Near East & in Tocharian
Ayu went east, his is the Kuru-Pancala, Kasi-Videha (Yamuna-Ganga region). Amavasu went west, his is Gandhara, Parsu and Aratta (Ancient Near East).
Asura spoke mleccha and the speech is attested through hieroglyphs on artifacts discovered in Ancient Near East.
"It is now generally agreed by most authorities on the subject that the Aryan linguistic vestiges in the Near East are to be connected specifically with Indo-Aryan, and not with Iranian, and also that they do not represent a third, independent Aryan group, and are not to be ascribed to the hypothetically reconstructed Proto-Aryan. This conclusion is incorporated in the title of M.Mayrhofer's bibliography on the subject, Die Indo-Arier im alten Vorderasien, Wiesbaden, 1966, and it can now be taken as the commonly accepted view...
The past is thought of as a linear development extending from the civilizations of Egypt and Southwest Asia through the civilizations of Greece and Rome to those of the western medieval world (Bernheim 1908: 70-74)... The Latin, Greek, Hittite, Iranian and Indic peoples are placed within the framework of successive civilizations whose validity is established upon a priori historical grounds...early second millennium BC...
Mitanni kingdom...Indo-Iranians appear in northern Syria a full half millennium before their appearance in western Iran.... Some have held that these linguistic fragments are specifically Indo-Aryan. Others including Burrow (1955) held they represent undifferentiated Indo-Iranian,before the split between Iranian and Indo-Aryan... An Indo-Aryan identification would demand an earlier dating of the Iranian/Indo-Aryan split; with it have also been associated speculations regarding the route taken by the Aryans to India (e.g., the Asia Minor route...), or, possibly a back migration of Aryans from India.
(If the latter, the date of the Aryan settlement of India would have to be moved back far enough to allow not only for them to reach Syria by 1500 BC, but also for their language to have died out by then, leaving only the terminological residue noted... )... The philological evidence alone does not allow an Indian origin of the Aryans...there is the matter of the nature of the common vocabulary shared by Sanskrit with the rest of Indo-European, which points to a more northerly ultimate home... The native Dravidian vocabulary has not been reconstructed. Burrow and Emeneau's Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (1960) only assembles materials for it... The civilization seems to have continued peacefully in Gujarat until a comparatively late period, i.e. 800 BC (Fairservis 1975: 307), after which it dissolved into the subsequent culture, which makes that area one of prime importance in detecting any Harappan influence on Aryan language and culture."
It has been noted that meluhha (mleccha) was the parole, vernacular while Samskritam/Prakritam were literary forms of the type recorded in Mitanni treaties. Many glosses of meluhha (mleccha) in all the cultural contact and interaction areas, are identified by the rebus-metonymy layered cipher of Indus script corpora. Some examples are presented from Indus Script corpora....
Agni is the most frequently divinity called asur in Rgveda. 'Father of the sacrifices, asura of the wise ones, Agni is the standard and reference of the sacrificers. He entered the multi-form world-hlves. The very dear poet is praised for his displays' (Hymn to Agni Vaisvanara R 3.3.4). Thus, asura has the semantics of 'wisdom' and as a genitive of 'rulership'.
Savitr is twice called an asura in the Family books of Rgveda. 'Aware of the going forth of the asura, favor the god Savitr with songs. The knowing one should enourage (him) with prostration and (also encourage) the one distributing the great treasure of Ayu'. (Hymn to Visvedevah RV 5.49.2). Alternative trans. "Knowing full well the Asuras' time of coming, worship God Savitar with hymns and praises."...
Ayu went east, his is the Yamuna-Ganga region (Kuru-Pancala, Kasi-Videha).
Amavasu went west, his is Gandhara, Parsu and Aratta.
And the son of Ila begat upon Urvasi six sons who were called Ayus, Dhimat, Amavasu and Dhridhayus, and Vanayus, and Satayus.
Ayu's treasure is a clear reference to the artisans of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization who had transactions in precious stones, tin, bronze and gold from Meluhha along the Tin Road to Sumer along the Pesian Gulf and into the Fertile Crescent. This matches with Enmerkar's reference to an envoy to Aratta to get precious stones and gold.
MitraVaruna are also called asuras: 'I make anew this song ike nourishment for you two, O MitraVaruna, O asuras One powerful one of you is an undeceivable path-finder, and the one caled Mitra unites the people'.'(Hymn to Visvedevah RV 7.36.2). Similarly Rudra is an asura: 'Praise him who has good arrows and a good bow, who rules over al medicine. Sacrifice for great well-being to Rudra; favor the divinity, the asura with prostrations'...
Asurya, a derivative, is the word used for Sarasvati: 'I wish to sing a high word: (she is) the asuric one among rivers. Magnify indeed Sarasvati with songs, with praises, O Vasistha, and the world-halves.' ...
In summary, the word asura occurs 70 times, derivatives and compounds of asura such as asuratva, asurya, asura occur 39 times in all the books of Rgveda, almost all with positive connodations and associations of divinity and rulership. Aitareya Brahmama (AB) mentions asuras as a group of beings in conflict with divinities. The compound devasura appears a few times in positive contextx, e.g. 'the divinities and asuras strove for these worlds' (AB 1.14)....
Segerestedt...offers a different perspective that asura referred to the aboriginal Indians, than an unaccepable yajna practice would be called asuric,that their language is that of mlecchas, that Indra is said to vanquish asurasya varna while significantly linking asuras with dasas and dasyus. Hale notes that the plural usage of asura- for enemies was virtually synonymous with dasyu-and dasa- and replaced these words in later texts.
“The word Asura including its variants asurya and aasura occurs 88 times in the Rg Veda, 71 times in the singular number, 4 times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and 3 times as the first member of a compound. In this the feminine form asuryaa is included twice. The word asurya has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in each of the 22 times of one hymn and twice in the other tow hymns.”...
Etymology: Old Norse "Æsir", implies a common Proto-Indo-European origin for the Asura and the Æsir. In entry 48 of his Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Julius Pokorny reconstructs this common origin as *ansu-.ahu-, ahura-, asura-, and has's'u- from the same root, and Germanic *ansuz- is probably also from this root. There seems to have been an Indo-European word *Hesu- from which came Avestn ahu-'lord' and Hittite has's'u'king' and an Indo-Iranian derivative of this word,*asura- from which Avestan ahura- and Vedic asura- derive.... The Germanic *ansuz- is instructive.
From Proto-Indo-European *h2énsus, from Proto-Indo-European *h2ens- (“to engender, beget”). Cognate with Avestan (a.hu, “lord, lifetime”), (ahura, “godhood”), Sanskrit [script?](ásu-, “life force, spirit”), (ásura, “spirit”), Hittite [script?] (hass-, “to procreate, give birth”),Tocharian B as- (“to produce”) and possibly Old Armenian wju (ays, “evil spirit”).... The Tocharian ancu 'iron' (See Georges-Jean Pinault) may also be related to the Germanic *ansuz-and Vedic amsu (a synonym of Soma 'electrum')....
Pinault parallels amsu of Rigveda with añcu of Tocharian. In Tocharian it means 'iron'. Tocharin language as an Indo-European language has revealed a word anzu in Tocharian which meant 'iron'. It is likely that this is the word used for soma in Rigveda....
It is notable that in Mesopotamian legend of Ninurta, god of war and agricultural fertility hunts on the mountains, Anzu which is the lion-headed Eagle with the power of the stolen Tablet of Destinies. The 'eagle' is identified as syena in Rigveda and Avesta (saena meregh) as the falcon which brought the nectar, Soma...
Asur of India were smelters and workers in metals (as evidenced by dhokra kamar specialising in lost-wax metal casting and Meluhha supplying -- along the Tin road from Meluhha to Nahal Mishmar across the Fertile Crescent -- of tin to make tin-bronzes which revolutionized the bronze age with startling evidence of over 20,000 cuneiform letters between merchants mostly of Ashur and Kanesh. The treasures of both Ayu and Amavasu may have been the cause for tensions between asura and deva. The Samudra manthanam narrative recounts how Bali led Asura and there were tensions about division of the treasure which came out the joint churning of the resources of the earth and ocean. All kinds of herbs were cast into the ocean and fourteen Ratnas (gems or treasures) were produced from the ocean and were divided between asuras and devas.
Ahura in the Avesta: Hale notes: "The things said of ahuras in the Avesta are very much like those of asuras in the RV. Both seem to be powerful, respected lords with some kind of military force in their command...Ahuras also appeard in connection with the dinhupaiti, 'master of the land'. But there is one way in which ahuras seem to differ from asuras. Asuras seem to have been selected by the people and installed in their position. Ahuras are often mentioned together with sons of ahuras who also rule. Thus the ahura lordship may have been passed down from father to son in Iran. We have seen no evidence of such a succession in India.
Janapadas of asura (meluhha) and kingdoms of ahura: This is a significant observation which refers to janapadas in India (aratta or a-rattra, that is, republics without a king or ruler) while the history reconstructed in the Fertile Crescent and the larger ancient Near East seem to have a series of successions of rulers and feudal lords ruling select regions... This clear distinction in the cultural practices adopted by asuras in India and Ahura in Iran point to the reason why there are no palaces or large mansions located in India while the Ancient Near East sites point to many locations with palaces of 'rulers'....
The ancient city of Ashur... Ashur of Assyrian Empire anciently called "The Land of Subarum"; lies on a stony hill overlooking the Tigris on the east near Himrin mountains believed by the Assyrians to be the abode of their major divinity Assur. The city was the center for worship of the also of divinities Ishtar/Inanna. "Assur which was fortified by inner and outer walls, with several gateways, contained a large number of important religious buildings, about 34 temples, and 3 palaces as 7th century BC documents revealed." One palace was attributed to Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1813–c. 1781 BCE) . ...
Nineveh was the 3rd capital of Assyria Empire after Assur and Nimrud (Kalakh). Nineveh is situated just outside Mosul on the east bank of the River Tigris with as a cultural settlement in the 6th millennium BCE ...It was set with 15 gates, each gate was named after an Assyrian god. Some are guarded with pairs of winged bulls still standing in their original places nowadays.... Ashur (also, Assur, Aššur; written A-šur, also Aš-šùr) ... A Neo-Assyrian "feather robed archer" figure, symbolizing Ashur. The right hand is extended similar to the Faravahar figure, while the left hand holds a bow instead of a ring (9th or 8th century BCE relief). ...
Distribution of geometrical seals in Greater Indus Valley during the early and *Mature Harappan periods (c. 3000 - 2000 BCE). After Uesugi 2011, Development of the Inter-regional interaction system in the Indus valley and beyond: a hypothetical view towards the formation of the urban society' in: Cultural relagions betwen the Indus and the Iranian plateau during the 3rd millennium BCE,...
Asura in the Rgveda: Assur is an ancient city on the western bank of river Tigris, occupied from ca. 2600 BCE through 14th century CE. Assur is also the name of chief deity of the city. Asur are the name of a people who live in Jharkhand and West Bengal, India who are traditionally engaged in metalworks of iron. Asura are deities in India from the days of Vedic traditions; in Rigveda, asura means ‘powerful, mighty’. Sarasvati is described with attribute asuri and Varuna is an asura. The gloss is also linked to Ahura Mazda and Deva Asura, "Asura [who] rules over the Divinities." (AV 1.10.1, cf. RV II.27.10) The language the ancestors of Ashur traders spoke was Meluhha, enshrined in hieroglyphs of Meluhha recorded on unique designs of sculptural artifacts and on cylinder seals related to Tukulti-Ninurta (an Ashur) and earlier rulers. [i]Tukulti-Ninurta prays before an altar with a staff -- clump of wood, and decorated with safflower hieroglyphs. These hieroglyphs are read rebus in Meluhha of Indian sprachbund. The Tukulti-Ninurta altar is is a temple model for fire-god. This is evidenced by a gloss from Remo (Austro-asiatic) language, spoken by Bonda people in Malkangiri district of southern Odisha, India. Fire-god is called karandi. This is rebus for the safflower adorning volutes on either side of the altar hieroglyph. Safflower as a hieroglyph: [ kara.i ] Safflower: Rebus: karandi 'fire-god'.
Ashur Tin Road for bronze-armed armies: The traders from Mesopotamia had established merchant settlements in Anatolia.... The merchants who mediated the tin trade were Assur or Ashur.... When the merchants from Ashur in Assyria came to Anatolia early in the second millennium B.C., they brought with them the writing techniques invented in Mesopotamia: the script known as cuneiform ("wedge-shaped")...
The Assyrian merchants wrote in the Assyrian language, but tablets and cuneiform were later adopted in Anatolia by the Hittites, who wrote their own language with the imported techniques. The records of the Assyrian trading colonies, of which Kültepe (ancient Karum Kanesh) was one, provide detailed information about one part of a lively international trade in the early second millennium B.C. that extended from Egypt to the Caucasus to Central Asia and the Indus Valley. The Assyrian tablets describe the exchange of tin and textiles from Ashur for silver from Anatolia as well as detail the specifics of contracts and lawsuits, and about bandits and other misfortunes....
Thousands of cuneiform texts discovered in these settlements known askarums, especially in Kultepe (Kanesh), not far from Kayseri, provide a glimpse into the business practices of merchants from Ashur and their relations with Anatolian princes as well as with their home city....
Assyria and the Hittites now confronted one another on the Euphrates, and Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE) even claimed to have fought successfully against Babylonia, which suffered a heavy defeat…
Assyria emerges into recorded history in the twentieth century BCE at a time when the state had become a redistribution center for tin and had subsequently established markets in Anatolia. For two centuries the state prospered, as may readily be judged from the contents of thousands of texts preserved and under Shamshi-Adad I (1815-1782 BCE), a major geographical expansion of the state ensued. Soon after the latter king’s reign, however, Assyria was conquered, first by Hammurabi of Babylon (ca. 1759 BCE), then a half-century later by the Mitanni, in both cases suffering vassalage…”
Geologist and researcher Nitish Priyadarshi shared a brief monograph series from 1993 by the Tribal Research Institute located at Ranchi with the Epoch Times, which mentions that the Asurs were originally from Illyria (ancient Greece), had adopted the culture of Babylon and Egyptian civilization, and gave this knowledge to Iran and India...Yet another research work, “Iron Smelting by Asur Tribe: A Thing of the Past,” by Priyadarshi mentions that by the 16th century B.C., Asurs had conquered the Mediterranean coastal areas, were feared as sea-people, and had advanced up to the Indus river... “A research report also speculates that it was the Asurs who built the famous Ashoka Iron pillar currently at Delhi,” said Priyadarshi said. The iron pillar is famous for its purity, which exceeds even that of modern smelting methods. It also shows few signs of corrosion, despite being almost completely pure iron. Sinha explained that many other famous ancient iron monuments, like the iron pillar at Dhar and Iron beam at Konark, as well as Damascus steel, are attributed to Asur metallurgical skills. Sinha has written many articles on the Asurs under the Jharkhand Media Fellowship 2012...The Asurs in India in recent centuries have been residing at Netarhat Plateau in Jharkahand state; this plateau is rich in laterite rocks....
A Meluhha gloss for hard stone ore or iron stone is merhet, med ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) which is denoted by the hieroglyph, 'markhor'. Meluhha glosses are annexed which indicate association with cire perdue (or lost wax) method of casting metals using beeswax, particularly in the glosses for miedz, med' 'copper' in Northern Slavic and Altaic languages and in Meluhha denoting both 'copper' and 'honey', beeswax'. Meluhha trade transactions along the Tin Road may explain the presence of Meluhha glosses in northern Europe.
Chanhudaro 23a mindal ‘markhor’ (Torwali) me.ho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: m..h.t, me. ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)...
Zebu... [ pola ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large....
baroti ‘twelve’ bharata ‘a factitious alloy of copper, pewter, tin’ (Marathi) dula ‘pair’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. The cast metal is pewter called in Meluhha barado = spine; backbone (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat ‘mixed alloys’ (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi)...
The classical term for copper before cuprum was introduced, was aes, genitive aeris...
[ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(p. 603) [ bharatace mbha..e. ] n A vessel made of the metal . 2 See.(p. 603) [ bharati ] a Composed of the metal (Molesworth Marathi Dictionary).
Khafajeh bowl; a man sitting, with his legs bent underneath, upon two zebu bulls. This evokes the proto-Elamite bull-man; the man holds in his hands streams of water and is surrounded by ears of corn. He has a crescent beside his head. On the other side of the bowl, a man is standing upon two lionesses and grasping two serpents. The bowl dates from c. 2700-2500 B.C. and the motif shown on it resembles that on a fragment of a green stone vase from one of the Sin Temples at Tell Asmar of almost the same date. The stone used, steatite, is familiar in Baluchistan and a number of vessels at the Royal Cemetery at Ur were made out of this material. The zebu is reminiscent of many hieroglyphs of Indus Script corpora. The hieroglyphs on the Khafajeh bowl signify magnetite (zebu, pola), lead (snake, naaga), brass (ara, lion)....
Hieroglyphs: zebu, dewlap: (p. 534) [ pola ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. (Marathi) po.i, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’ hieroglyphs. Rebus: pola, ‘magnetite’.... naga -- m. snake...
PIE and Vedic studies: Multi-layered cipher of Meluhha speech and attested presence of Meluhha speakers in Ancient Near East.