Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Framework, Learning Design and Motivational Design

Concepts of Instructional Design

What is Instructional design or Instructional Systems Design?

1. Practice of creating " Instructional Experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective and appealing"
2. A Process involving
   1. Determining the state and needs of the learner
   2. Defining the end goal of instruction
   3. Creating interventions to assist in the transition
3. Deeply rooted and Informed by
   1. Tested theories of learning: Pedagogy (Process of teaching) and Andragogy (Adult Learning)
   2. Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology
   3. Learning Theories ( Constructivism, Behaviorism, Social Learning, Cognitivism)
4. May take place in following learning environments
   1. Student-only
   2. Teacher-led
   3. Community-based
5. Outcome of instruction may be
   1. directly observable and scientifically measurable or
   2. Completely hidden and assumed

What are some models of Instructional Design or Instructional Systems Design

1. ADDIE Process
   1. Analyze
   2. Design
   3. Develop
   4. Implement
   5. Evaluate
2. Rapid Prototyping
3. Systems Approach Model (Dick and Carey)
   1. Identify Instructional Goal(s): A goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude (SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire
   2. Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task
   3. Analyze Learners and Contexts: Identify general characteristics of the target audience, including prior skills, prior experience, and basic demographics; identify characteristics directly related to the skill to be taught; and perform analysis of the performance and learning settings.
   4. Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria will be used to judge the learner's performance.
   5. Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of post-testing, purpose of practive items/practive problems
   6. Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment
   7. Develop and Select Instructional Materials
   8. Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designers try to identify areas of the instructional materials that need improvement.
   9. Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction
   10. Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
4. Guaranteed Learning or Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)
   1. Design a Task Analysis
   2. Develop Criterion Tests and Performance measures
   3. Develop interactive Instructional Materals
   4. validate the interactive Instructional Materals
   5. Create Simulations or performance Activities (Case Studies, Role Plays, Demonstrations)
5. Smith/Ragan Model
6. Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model
7. OAR MOdel of Instructional Design in Higher Education
8. Wiggin's Theory of Backward Design

Concepts of Learning Design

What is Learning Design?

• Description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning
• Concept of learning in late 1990s and early 2000s
• That "Designers and Instructors need to choose for themelves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for thei online courses"

Concepts of Motivational Design

What is Motivational Design?

1. Internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction
2. Describes process of why and how human behavior is activated and Directed.

Models of motivational Design

1. Motivation Concepts on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
   1. Instrinsic: defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external rewards.[49] Intrinsic motivation reflects the desire to do something because it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically motivated, we would not be worried about external rewards such as praise.
   2. Extrinsic: reflects the desire to do something because of external rewards such as awards, money and praise. People who are extrinsically motivated may not enjoy certain activities. They may only wish to engage in certain activities because they wish to receive some external reward.[50]
2. ARCS Model of motivational Design (John Keller)
   1. Based on
      1. motivation in instructional systems to supplement learning process with motivation.
      2. Tolman's and Lewin's Expectancy-value theory: that presumes people are motivated to learn if there is value in the knowledge presented (fulfil personal needs) and if there is an optimistic expectation for success
   2. Attention: The attention mentioned in this theory refers to the interest displayed by learners in taking in the concepts/ideas being taught. This component is split into three categories: perceptual arousal, using surprise or uncertain situations; inquiry arousal, offering challenging questions and/or problems to answer/solve; and variability, using a variety of resources and methods of teaching. Within each of these categories, John Keller has provided further sub-divisions of types of stimuli to grab attention. Grabbing attention is the most important part of the model because it initiates the motivation for the learners. Once learners are interested in a topic, they are willing to invest their time, pay attention, and find out more.
   3. Relevance: Relevance, according to Keller, must be established by using language and examples that the learners are familiar with. The three major strategies John Keller presents are goal oriented, motive matching, and familiarity. Like the Attention category, John Keller divided the three major strategies into subcategories, which provide examples of how to make a lesson plan relevant to the learner. Learners will throw concepts to the wayside if their attention cannot be grabbed and sustained and if relevance is not conveyed.
   4. Confidence: The confidence aspect of the ARCS model focuses on establishing positive expectations for achieving success among learners. The confidence level of learners is often correlated with motivation and the amount of effort put forth in reaching a performance objective. For this reason, it’s important that learning design provides students with a method for estimating their probability of success. This can be achieved in the form of a syllabus and grading policy, rubrics, or a time estimate to complete tasks. Additionally, confidence is built when positive reinforcement for personal achievements is given through timely, relevant feedback.
   5. Satisfaction: Finally, learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from a learning experience. This satisfaction can be from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Feedback and reinforcement are important elements and when learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. To keep learners satisfied, instruction should be designed to allow them to use their newly learned skills as soon as possible in as authentic a setting as possible.

1. Motivating Opportunities Model MOM (Hardre and Miller) 2006
   1. New Design model that includes current research in human motivation, comprehensive treatment of motivation, integration of various fields of psychology and provision of flexibility in a myriad of situations to designers.
   2. Incorporates cognitive , needs, affective theories and social elements of learning to address learner motivation
   3. 7 Key Components SUCCESS
      1. Situational
      2. Utilization
      3. Competence
      4. Content
      5. Emotional
      6. Social
      7. Systemic

HIstories

History and developmental pathways of Instructional Design or Instructional Systems Design

1. WW2 Training Materials for military based on principles of instruction, learning and human behavior. Tests for assessing learner's abilities used as screen for candidates for training programmes.
2. Post WW2: Psychologists View of training as a system, and developed various analysis, design and evaluation procedures
3. Edgar Dale (1946) Outlined hierarchy of instructional methods, organised intuitively by concreteness
4. B.F Skinner (1954): "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching" - Programmed Instructional materials (Effective instructional materials) should include small steps, frequent questions, immediate feedback and allow self-pacing
5. Benjamin Bloom and Committee (1956) - Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning based on 3 domains: Cognitive, psychomotor, affective.
6. Robert F. Mager (1962): "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction" : How to write objectives including desired behavior, learning condition, and assessment.
7. Robert Glaser (1962): Criterion-referenced Measures to test an individual's performance with group performance with an objective standard. To assess entry level behavior and what extent leaners have developed mastery through instructional programme
8. Robert Gagne (1965): "The Conditions of Learning" Learning hierarchies and to ensure learners acquire prerequisite skills before attempting superordinate ones
   1. 3 Domain of learning Outcomes (Cognitive, affective, psychomotor)
   2. 5 Learning Outcomes (verbal information, intellectual skills, Cognitive strategy, attitude, motor Skills)
   3. 9 events of Instruction
9. Michael Scriven (1967): Formative Assessment e.g. to try out instructional materials with learners and revise accordingly before declaring them finalised,
10. Instructional Design Theorists (1970s) - Prosper of instructional design models in different sectors in military, academia and industry.
11. David Merril: Component Display Theory (CDT) - An information-processing based approach and the presenting of instructional materials (Presentation Techniques)
12. PC Revolution (1980s) - Incorporating the use of PCs in an Educational Environment e.g. (PLATO) with main focus on "drill and skill" exercises
13. Cognitive Psychology (1980s) - Application of cognitive psychology to instructional Design
14. Constructivist Theories (1990s) - As a counterpoint to traditional cognitive learning theory, Constructivisits believe that learning experiences should be authentic and produce real-worl learning environments that allow learners to construct thei own knowledge
15. Performance Improvement (1990s) -
16. Technology Applications in the classroom (1990s) - move from mostly drill and skill exercises to interactive activities that require complex thinking on learner
17. Rapid Prototyping (1990s) - Instructional design project prototyped quickly and vetted through series of try and revise cycles.
18. Online Learning (2000)

Instructional Media History

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#Instructional_media_history

Reference

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design

ReSEARCH

Papers

• Skinner, B.F. (1954). "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching"
• Merrill, M. D.; Drake, L.; Lacy, M. J.; Pratt, J. (1996). "Reclaiming instructional design" (PDF). Educational Technology 36 (5): 5–7.

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