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included in studies to adequately power all measures. Many of the papers in this issue suggest the addition of biomarkers, such as, oxytocin or cortisol, in addition to observational and survey data. Robust Study Designs. Greater attention must be paid to research design, intervention length, and specifically to the inclusion of appropriate control conditions or comparison groups that Future Directions for Research on Human–Animal Interaction in an Aging Population 286 Anthrozoös are time equivalent. If the study involves a repeated measures design, then a balanced Latin Square is suggested to address the concern about carry-over effects. Confounding Variables. In epidemiological research, it is important to examine potential confounding variables in the data analysis, such as current and previous pet ownership status, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. In experimental designs, the use of random assignment to experimental conditions (especially when n > 30 in each condition) helps to eliminate the influence of confounding variables (Nolan & Heinzen, 2016). Greater Use of Theoretical Frameworks in Guiding Research. Future research should evaluate potential explanatory mechanisms for the relationships between pet ownership and human health across the lifespan. Defining Pet Ownership. Consistent definitions used across studies allow different study outcomes to be directly compared. Currently, pet ownership is a bit murky as a measure because people tend to respond in the affirmative that they are pet owners if a companion animal resides on their property, but that omits a lot of information. For example, the number or type of pets (e.g., cats, dogs, fish), who cares for the pet, whether the animal lives inside the house or outside, or how recently they acquired the pet. Accounting for Variations in Human Characteristics. Minority groups, immigrants, members of different cultures, and non-English speakers are underrepresented in HAI research and little is known about the impact of these human variations. Future research should seek a greater understanding of these and other important human characteristics. Novelty Effects. Intervention or experimental research in HAI is often subject to a novelty effect explanation. Researchers should consider the inclusion of a familiarization period, to adequately acquaint participants with the animal(s) to eliminate a novelty explanation. Defining the Interaction Procedurally. It is important for the purposes of replication and for understanding the nature of the effects related to specific kinds of interactions for researchers to clearly define the length and type of interaction that occurred between the human and the animal(s) in the study. Details should be provided on duration and frequency of interaction, and a clear description of the interactions in terms of specific human and animal behaviors. For example, did the human touch the dog? If so, how often and how long? Was the touch required by the experimenter or volunteered by the participant? Who initiated the contact— person or the dog? Additionally, researchers should present dose-response and cost-benefit analyses and provide information on the duration of effects seen. Variations in Animal Characteristics. Researchers need to state specific details related to the animal(s) involved in the study (e.g., description of temperament, breed, age, neuter status of the animal, training, certifications/registrations). To fully understand HAI, we must also attend to the animal side of the equation. What behaviors did the animal offer? Was there any evidence of stress (e.g., in dogs these may consist of behaviors like, yawning, lip licking, averting the eyes or turning the head away among others)? Measurement and Analysis. We recommend the use of standardized, well validated and reliable instruments in HAI research. In addition to the obvious benefits of using wellconstructed instruments in research (e.g., reduction in error/noise), the use of such measures allows for direct comparisons across research settings and participant types. As well, Gee and Galik 287 Anthrozoös Friedmann and Gee (2018) suggest the use of several emerging methods such as eye and movement tracking devices, frequent monitoring of various biomarkers, the use of devices that monitor multiple variables in real time on both the human and the animal. Simultaneously monitoring the human and the animal during the interaction provides a more complete picture of what is going on and an opportunity to better understand the specific aspects of the interaction that may be linked to psychological or physiological health changes in specific situations. These types of measurements require the use of sophisticated statistical approaches applied appropriately to the data collected, which results from well planned and executed methods and procedures. Ensuring the Health and Welfare of the Animals Involved Several authors in this thematic issue note the importance of ensuring the wellbeing of animals involved in HAI research with older adults, as well as animals who reside with older adults living independently or participate in activities in residential facilities. Unfortunately, all too often the needs of this side of the HAI equation are over-looked. In their discussion of HAI in care facilities, Enders-Slegers and Hediger (2019) note the
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