6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

cartridge and loading a knew one) and semiautomatic rifles (each pull of the trigger automatically ejects, reloads and readies the weapon). Full automatic rifles (“machine guns” that fire as long as the trigger is pulled) are legal only for military purposes in Europe. Figure 4: A typical hunting rifle. The lower picture depicts the riffling inside the barrel that leaves individual marks on the bullets once they are fired (Source: Wikimedia Commons). 25 3.2.2.2.1.1.3 Shotguns Shotguns are firearms designed to fire dispersing shotgun pellets/buckshot or solid slugs at relatively short distances (in hunting typically < 50m) and at low velocities (50m). When entering the body, pellets from a shotgun rapidly loose their energy and only seldom deform or disintegrate (unless they hit a bone), and they produce no temporary wound cavity. 34 Figure 14: Scheme of a shotgun pattern after firing (Source and © FIWI). Surprisingly, the exact mechanism of killing is still not fully understood and is mostly referred to as a neuronal shock due to the body being hit by multiple pellets on various locations of the body. 3.2.2.2.2.3 Shotgun slugs As with shotgun pellets, slugs fired at close range from a shotgun have devastating effects due to their shear mass. At farther distances, however, they rapidly decelerate thus loosing energy.Since they are mostly made of lead, they very often deform and disintegrate in the body but produce no temporary wound cavity. When hitting a body with sufficient energy, the wounds will resemble a (massive) blunt trauma. 3.2.2.3 Poisoning 3.2.2.3.1 General Poisoning of wildlife is still a matter of concern in some parts of Europe and a threat for several species of endangered species, especially raptors. Several national and international projects address this topic, e.g. the EU-funded “PannonEagle LIFE” – project in Hungary, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Serbia. Not all poisoning events are intentional or malicious, however. Poisoning may occur, e.g., by the improper use of otherwise legal rodenticides, with raptors dying after feeding on the poisoned rodents (“secondary poisoning”). Another issue of non-intentional, secondary poisoning is the uptake of dead animals or their bowels that were shot with lead-containing 35 ammunition. Lead is a chronic toxic substance that may cause disease and death in predators that feed on these animals or their remains containing lead particles. Malicious poisoning mostly aims directly at “unwanted” raptors and carnivores by dispersing different types of baits (e.g. carcasses, meat, eggs) prepared with illegal, highly toxic substances like carbofuran. This kind of wildlife crime does not only threaten the targeted animals but also poses a risk for companion animals and humans that come into contact with the prepared baits. While chronic lead poisoning and other unintentional secondary poisoning events are typically not very conspicuous, the findings at a crime scene of a malicious poisoning incident are often suspicious. These may include (but are not confirmative of intentional poisoning): − Many victims found on one site or in its vicinity − Baits (pieces of meat, whole animals, eggs, etc.) near the carcass − Unusually coloured items/soil − Dead insects on or near carcass − Vomitus − Ante mortem spasms − Disturbed grass/soil (due to mortal distress of victim) Care must be taken when processing the crime site and all participants should don their PPE. Confirmation of poisoning in wildlife can only be achieved by necropsy of the carcass and subsequent toxicological investigation since findings at necropsy are seldom typical for a certain toxic substance. Lesions found at necropsy that may raise suspicion of intentional or unintentional poisoning: − Poor body condition − Generalized anaemia − Ulcerations of gastrointestinal tract − Abnormal content in gastrointestinal tract (e.g. discoloration) − Bloody content in gastrointestinal tract − Non-clotted blood in body cavities without obvious injuries − Pulmonary edema − Enlargement of organs − Rapid onset of rigor mortis − Birds: Broken feathers on wingtips due to dragging of wings, calluses on skin of legs due to immobility − Histopathology: Inclusion bodies in cell-nuclei of kidney (indicative of lead intoxication) 36 3.2.2.3.2 Potential poisons causing poisoning in wildlife 3.2.2.3.2.1 Insecticides 3.2.2.3.2.1.1 Anticholinesterases/Organophosphates/Carbamates e.g.Carbofuran Carbofuran is a very potent carbamate insecticide that was widely used in agriculture until its ban in the EU in 2008. It is still in use in several countries worldwide, posing severe threats to wildlife and also human health. Carbofuran is highly toxic especially in birds, and therefore often used for intentional poisoning of raptors and other wildlife. Carbofuran comes in a variety of forms like granules, powders and dust and is often stained with a distinctive purple colour. Figure 15: Stomach contents of a carbofuran poisoned animal with typical purple discolouration (Source and © FIWI). The substance is neurotoxic, interacting with enzymes in the nervous system. The toxicity is dependent on many factors, including species, age and sex. Many birds die directly after ingestion of carbofuran with food still in the beak or are rendered flightless exhibiting spasms. Mammals show salivation, lacrimation and muscle tremor. In domestic pets, atropine can be used as an antidote. 37 3.2.2.3.2.2 Rodenticides 3.2.2.3.2.2.1 Anticoagulants Oral anticoagulants are widely used rodenticides for pest control means. They come in different forms (grains, pellets, blocks, meat baits etc.) and encompass different compounds. While the first generation of anticoagulants like warfarin needed continuous baiting and many rodent species developed resistance to the substances, today’s second generation rodenticides (brodifacoum, bromadiolone, indandione) have a longer half-life and a single baiting is sufficient. Note that these substances are not colour coded and visual identification of a particular anticoagulant therefore not possible. The underlying mechanism of anticoagulants is their antagonistic property against Vitamin K. As the latter is an important factor in blood clotting, anticoagulant rodenticides lead to internal and external