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In the two other communities, Orbili and Tangasie, most farmers said they only used clinical services when they observed illness in their flocks, and this information from focus group discussions was confirmed by the respective TOs. This is consistent with an earlier study (Amankwah et al. 2012) that found that most farmers keep livestock for purposes of security in bad times, for sale during food shortage, but not as a business for profit. Source: Field interviews (Preventive vaccinations were the main focus of veterinary interventions in the pre-reform period. The reforms changed two important aspects of preventive vaccination. The first change relates to procurement of vaccines (for diseases such as Peste Des Petits Ruminants [PPR], anthrax, and Newcastle disease in poultry). Respondents from VSD headquarters reported that, prior to the reforms, VSD imported vaccines without having to go through lengthy procurement procedures. However, for the greater part of the post-reform period it has become impossible to access government funds in time to procure vaccines. Consequently, VSD has made alternative arrangements with private traders to import them. However, because of frequent changes in VSD directors (retirement almost every two to four years) and because of the unofficial nature of the arrangements, vaccine procurement at national level has fallen short. For instance, according to officials at the Central Laboratory at Pong Tamale (the unit responsible for distribution and sale of vaccines in Northern Ghana) and the TOs in the study area, from June 2011 to August 2012, in the whole of Ghana no routine PPR vaccinations took place.

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