1. Beef (Steaks, Roasts) - medium is the lowest that could reach temperature to kill all potentially harmful bacteria

• • • Rare:

      • • • Look: The meat is deep red in the center with a very small amount of juices.

          • Touch: Soft and squishy when pressed (like pressing the fleshy part of your palm).

    • Medium-Rare:

      • • • Look: The center is pink and warm, with juices running slightly red.

          • Touch: Firm but still yielding, like pressing your cheek.

    • Medium:

      • • • Look: The center is pink with slightly more juices, but no red.

          • Touch: Firm with slight give, like pressing the tip of your nose.

    • Medium-Well:

      • • • Look: The meat has a slight pink center with mostly brown color.

          • Touch: Firm with little give, like pressing the base of your thumb.

    • Well-Done:

      • • • Look: Fully brown or gray throughout with little to no pink.

          • Touch: Very firm, like pressing the heel of your hand.

Pork (Chops, Tenderloin, Roasts)

• • • Look: Pork should be cooked until the meat is no longer pink, especially near the bone. It should be white or light brown.

    • Touch: Pork has a firmer texture as it cooks. When it's done, it should feel slightly firm but not hard.

    • Visual Cues: Juices running from pork should be clear, not pink or red.

    • Other Signs: If the meat starts to easily pull apart with a fork (particularly with cuts like pulled pork or pork shoulder), it's a good indicator it's fully cooked.

Chicken (Whole, Breasts, Thighs, Drumsticks)

• • • Look: Chicken should be golden brown on the outside. The juices running from the meat (especially near the bone) should be clear, not pink.

    • Touch: Chicken feels firm when pressed, and the skin should be crisp.

    • Visual Cues: The meat should not be pink inside, especially near the bone. The meat should look opaque, not translucent.

    • Bone Check: In whole chickens or bone-in cuts, the bone should be visible (or protruding slightly) from the surrounding meat.

Turkey

• • • Look: Turkey should be golden brown on the outside, with juices running clear when you pierce the thickest part of the meat (usually the thigh).

    • Touch: The turkey feels firm but with some give, especially around the breast area.

    • Visual Cues: The legs should move freely when you twist them, and the meat should no longer be pink, especially at the joint.

    • Other Signs: When the leg is wiggled, the meat should pull away easily from the bone, indicating the turkey is cooked.

Lamb (Chops, Roasts)

• • • Rare:

      • • • Look: The center is deep red and cool to the touch.

          • Touch: Very soft, like pressing the soft part of your palm.

    • Medium-Rare:

      • • • Look: The center is a bright red-pink.

          • Touch: Slightly firm but yielding.

    • Medium:

      • • • Look: The center is light pink.

          • Touch: Firm with a little resistance, like the fleshy part of your thumb.

    • Medium-Well:

      • • • Look: The meat is mostly brown with just a little pink.

          • Touch: Firm and more resistant.

    • Well-Done:

      • • • Look: Fully brown, with no trace of pink.

          • Touch: Very firm, like pressing the heel of your hand.

Ground Meats (Beef, Pork, Turkey, Chicken)

• • • Look: Ground meats should no longer be pink and should be browned throughout. There should be no visible raw, red spots.

    • Touch: Ground meats should feel firm and not squishy. When pressed, they should not ooze or retain the indentation.

    • Juices: For ground poultry, juices should run clear, not pink.

    • Other Signs: If the meat has an even texture and no visible raw areas, it's a good indication that it's cooked through.

Fish (Fillets, Steaks, Whole Fish)

• • • Look: Fish should be opaque and flake easily when gently pressed with a fork. The flesh should no longer be translucent or shiny.

    • Touch: The fish should feel firm, but not rubbery. Gently press with a fork or finger — the fish should “flake” and separate along the muscle fibers.

    • Other Signs: The eyes of a whole fish should be clear and the gills should be bright red or pink, not dull or brown.

    • Visual Cues: Fish flesh should separate into flakes and no longer appear raw or gelatinous.

Shellfish (Shrimp, Lobster, Scallops)

• • • Look: Shellfish should be opaque and have a firm texture. Shrimp should be pink and curled tightly.

    • Touch: Shrimp, lobster, and scallops should feel firm, not squishy, and should be easy to peel.

    • Other Signs: Shrimp should curl into a "C" shape when fully cooked, and lobster tails should be bright red with the meat inside being opaque.

The Science:

• • Spices are paired off of their chemical makeup which can be separated into a few categories

    • • Terpenes

        • • aromatic compounds found in many spices that contribute to their fragrance and flavor. Common terpenes include limonene (citrusy), pinene (pine-like), and linalool (floral and lavender-like).

      • Phenolic Compounds

        • • Found in many spices (like eugenol in cloves), phenolic compounds are responsible for both the flavor and the antioxidant properties of spices.

      • Capsaicin: 

        • • The compound responsible for the heat in chili peppers. It interacts with pain receptors, giving the sensation of heat but also releasing endorphins (the body’s natural painkillers).

      • Aldehydes

        • • These compounds contribute to the warm, sometimes sweet flavors in spices like cumin and cinnamon

      • Saponins

        • • Found in spices like ginger, saponins are compounds that have a bitter taste and contribute to the flavor profile, particularly in root plant based spices.

Examples

• • Cumin + Coriander

    • • come from the same plant (Coriandrum sativum) and share some flavor compounds, such as terpenes

  • Cinnamon + Cloves

    • • both contain eugenol, a compound that gives them a warm, spicy, and slightly sweet flavor.

  • Basil + Oregano

    • • belong to the mint family, and contain terpenes like carvacrol and linalool.

  • Garlic + Thyme

    • • Garlic contains allicin which balances the thymol in thyme

  • Ginger + Turmeric

    • • Both ginger and turmeric belong to the Zingiberaceae family and contain zingiberene (in ginger) and curcumin (in turmeric)

  • Cardamom + Cloves

    • • both contain eugenol

  • Paprika + Cayenne Pepper

    • • The capsaicin in both spices adds heat, but the sweet, smoky flavor of paprika complements the more intense heat of cayenne

  • Saffron + Cumin

    • • bitter picrocrocin (which provides its distinctive bitter flavor) and floral smelling safranal in Saffron is comblemented by Cumin's nutty tasting aldehydes and terpenes 

  • Chili Powder + Oregano

    • • Chili powder is a blend of dried chili peppers, cumin, and oregano, while oregano contains compounds like carvacrol and thymol that add earthy, minty, and slightly bitter notes.

  • Mint + Coriander

    • • Both mint and coriander (cilantro) contain linalool and share terpenes that give them similar qualities and refreshing flavours

For example, a common ratio for bread ingredients is 5 parts flour to 3 parts water. The amounts of yeast and salt are less precise, but a general rule is to use at least 1 teaspoon of each per 20 ounces of flour.

Gluten is why we knead dough. Working the flour by mixing it or folding it or just generally moving it at all causes the proteins of flour to link together and form strands called gluten. This gluten makes the chewy texture of breads. Being sure to only mix baked goods to the point that all the ingredients are together and no further means that your cake won't be chewy or bread textured

For example, butter should be heated in the microwave at 10% power for 2 minutes instead of 100% for 30 seconds

Used for thickening by absorbing liquid and swelling when heated, creating a gel-like consistency that thickens sauces, soups, and gravies. They also help improve the texture of baked goods by providing structure. Cornstarch, in particular, creates a smooth, glossy finish when used in sauces, while arrowroot is a great option for thickening at lower temperatures or in acidic mixtures.

Both are leavening agents which means they cause expansion by producing gas during the cooking process

Baking soda needs an acidic ingredient (like vinegar, lemon juice, yogurt, or buttermilk) to activate it and create the gas (carbon dioxide) that makes your batter or dough rise.

 Baking powder is a combination of baking soda, an acid (usually cream of tartar), and a starch. It contains its own acid, so it can be used in recipes that don’t already contain acidic ingredients.

To remember, think "Soda’s for Sour, Powder’s for Plain!"

Understand the flavor profiles of a dish

• • Salt: Enhancer of Flavor

    • • Function: lowers the perception of bitterness and highlights subtle flavors.

      • Too little salt can make food taste flat, bland, or under-seasoned.

      • Too much salt can overwhelm the dish, making it unpleasant and masking other flavors.

      • salt should be added gradually and adjusted to the dish’s needs.

  • Acid: Brightness and Freshness

    • • Function: Acidic ingredients like lemon juice, vinegar, citrus, or tomatoes add brightness and sharpness to dishes. Acidity balances out rich or fatty foods; typically described as refreshing

      • Too little acid can make a dish feel dull or flat. Without acid, even a rich or savory dish may feel one-dimensional.

      • Too much acid can make the dish feel overly sharp or tangy, creating an unbalanced taste.

  • Fat: Richness and Mouthfeel

    • • Function: Fats, such as oils, butter, cream, or animal fats, contribute to richness, smoothness, and moisture in a dish. Fat helps carry flavors

      • Too little fat can leave the dish feeling dry, bland, or lacking in texture.

      • Too much fat can make the dish greasy or overly heavy, causing it to lose balance and become difficult to digest.

  • Heat: Cooking Process and Flavor Development

    • • Function: activates chemical reactions that create flavors, colors, and textures. Heat caramelizes sugars, browns proteins, and breaks down fibers, which deepens and intensifies flavors. The type of heat (direct vs. indirect, high vs. low) affects how the flavors and textures of food develop.

  • How Salt, Acid, Fat, and Heat Balance Each Other

    • • Fat and Salt: Salt penetrates food better when there’s fat, and fat makes the salt more evenly distributed across a dish

      • Fat and Acid: Fat can balance the sharpness of acid

      • Salt and Acid: Salt can enhance the brightness of acidic ingredients

      • Heat and Salt: Heat can help salt distribute evenly and melt into food

      • Heat and Acid: Acid can balance the effects of high heat, especially in grilled or roasted foods

      • Fat and Heat: Heat and fat work together to create complex flavors and textures. High heat can melt fat, helping to create crispy, caramelized surfaces (e.g., when sautéing or frying). Low heat can melt fat slowly, making foods tender and moist (e.g., braising or roasting).

Use flavor profile knowledge and spice chemistry to alter simple recipes and add your own flare

For more articles about the science of cooking that might better suit specific interests (marinades, cookies, seasonings, etc) click here or check out the book On food and cooking : the science and lore of the kitchen by Harold McGee at the S&T library.