3.5. Terms of Trade (HL only)
Syllabus Content
The meaning of the terms of trade - measurement; causes of changes in the TOT & consequences of changes in the TOT
Terms of Trade
Task 1: Calculate the missing values in the table (Base year = 2007).
Country data
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TT.PRI.MRCH.XD.WD
Task 2: Complete the following table using the statistics from the website above
Task 3: Identify the major export and import product categories of the following countries using the following website
Calculation of Terms of Trade
Improving vs worsening Terms of Trade
Improvement in the Terms of Trade
An improvement in the terms of trade must mean that one of the following changes has taken place:
• Export prices have risen, import prices have stayed the same
• Export prices have risen, import prices have fallen
• Export prices have risen faster than import prices
• Export prices have fallen by less than import prices
• Export prices have stayed the same but import prices have fallen
An increase in the terms of trade ratio is generally described as an improvement, or favourable movement, in the terms of trade. This is because the same volume of exports will now buy more imports.
Worsening/deterioration in the Terms of Trade
A decrease in the terms of trade ratio is generally described as deterioration or a worsening or unfavourable movement, in the terms of trade. This is because the country can afford fewer imports with the same volume of exports.
Deterioration in the terms of trade must mean that one of the following changes has taken place:
• Export prices have fallen, import prices have stayed the same
• Export prices have fallen, import prices have risen
• Export prices have fallen faster than import prices
• Export prices have stayed the same but import prices have risen
- Export prices have risen but import prices have risen at a faster rate.
Task 4:
- Identify the general trend in the TOT of the following five countries.
- Group work - each group will take one of the five countries and try and ascertain what caused the TOT to improve/worsen i.e. effect on export and import prices.
Terms of Trade of China (base year = 2000)
Terms of Trade of Mexico (base year = 2000)
Terms of Trade of Colombia (base year = 2000)
Terms of Trade of India (base year = 2000)
Terms of Trade of Madagascar (base year = 2000)
China’s Terms of Trade
The index in shows how the terms of trade for China have deteriorated by 20% over a 10-year period.
However…do not confuse ‘improved’ with better or ‘deteriorated’ with worse! An improvement in the terms of trade means that the Home economy gets more imports for exports – but it also means that trade partners get less for their exports. In the same way, a deterioration in the terms of trade mean that Home country exports are actually cheaper – this might lead to an improvement in current account in the balance of payments.
Causes of changes in the Terms of Trade
Short-run
The terms of trade is the price relationship between a country's exports and imports and will, therefore, be influenced by all the factors, which determine the prices of imports and exports.
In the short-run, changes in relative prices of imports and exports will be caused by fluctuations in exchange rates, particularly where countries operate a floating exchange rate system. Exchange rate volatility may be caused by changes in trade, capital flows, interest rates, speculation, inflation and use of foreign currency reserves by the government.
You will recall that a depreciation of the exchange rate causes import prices to increase and export prices to decrease, while an appreciation causes the opposite effects.
Also in the short-run, there may be considerable fluctuation in the prices of commodities, which will affect the terms of trade. This is particularly true for agricultural commodities, the supply of which is often affected by drought, floods, diseases, etc. Given that the demand for and supply of these commodities is highly inelastic the change in supply will cause a proportionately greater change in price.
Figure 1 Impact on price of primary commodities
In Figure 1, the relative inelasticities of demand and supply have caused a large rise in price in response to the decrease in supply from S to S1. Try drawing the same diagram with more elastic demand and supply curves and note the less pronounced effect on price.
Task 5
How are the fluctuations in China's demand for commodities relevant to Australia's TOT and Balance of Trade?
Fluctuations in China's demand for commodities
Australia's Terms of Trade (base year = 2000)
Balance of Trade (BOP, current US$) - Australia
Long-run
In the longer term, changes in the terms of trade are likely to be determined by those factors, which exert a long-term influence on the demand for, and supply of, a country's exports and imports.
For the developing countries, who export mainly primary goods and import manufactured goods, their export prices have tended to fall over time due to a combination of increased supply of and reduced demand for their exports:
• Supply has increased, mainly due to improvements in technology and, in the case of coffee, new producers entering the market.
• Demand has fallen / not risen rapidly, for a variety of reasons.
The reasons for demand falling include:
- Development of synthetic substitutes e.g. plastics have lessened the demand for several raw materials.
- Low-income elasticity of demand for primary commodities - as real world incomes have grown, the demand for primary commodities has increased less than proportionately.
- Agricultural protection - the developing countries, despite producing at lower cost, have found it difficult to break into the markets of the richer countries, as farmers there are often heavily subsidized and, in the case of the European Union, protected by a common external tariff.
- Miniaturization - modern microchip technologies have enabled products to become smaller, e.g. the personal computer, and this has necessitated less use of raw materials and caused demand to fall.
- Price inelastic demand for exports of primary commodities - compounding the problem of falling export prices, demand for primary commodities tends to be price inelastic, such that decreases in prices bring about less than proportionate increases in the quantity demanded.
The above is in sharp contrast to the situation faced by the more developed countries - the export prices of their manufactured goods has risen over time (high income elasticity of demand, multinational / monopoly control over supply and price) and they have benefited from cheaper import prices of primary commodities due to the factors described above.
Elasticity of demand for imports and exports
This is because the terms of trade records relative price movements of exports and imports, while the current account of the balance of payments is concerned with export and import values (price x quantity bought / sold).
The impact of a change in the terms of trade on the trade balance will largely depend on the relative price elasticity of demand for exports and imports.
An improvement (favourable movement) in the terms of trade may worsen the trade balance - this will occur when the demand for exports and imports is price elastic.
An improvement in the terms of trade means that the price of exports increases relative to the price of imports.
Impact of an increase in terms of trade on balance of payments
Deterioration (unfavourable movement) in the terms of trade may improve the trade balance. This will occur when the demand for exports and imports is price elastic.
A worsening of the terms of trade means that the price of imports increases relative to the price of exports.
Impact of a decrease in terms of trade on balance of payments
The overall impact on the balance of payments current account of a change in the terms of trade depends on the combined price elasticities of demand for imports and exports. So:
• An improvement in the terms of trade will worsen the balance of payments current account if the demand for exports and imports is price elastic, and improve it if demand for exports and imports is price inelastic.
• Deterioration in the terms of trade will worsen the balance of payments current account if the demand for exports and imports is price inelastic and improve it if demand is price elastic.
Given that the developing countries' demand for exports and imports is relatively price inelastic, they have faced ever worsening balance of payments situations in response to their deteriorating terms of trade.
Source: http://textbook.stpauls.br/International/page_114.htm, accessed Saturday, October 17, 2015
Task 6 - According to economic theory, how should changes in total factor productivity in India and China have affected their respective TOT?
- Total Factor Productivity at Constant National Prices for China (2011 Index = 1.0)
- Total Factor Productivity at Constant National Prices for India (2011 Index = 1.0)
Causes of Changes in TOT
Task 7 - Taking Mongolia and Brazil as examples, do the changes in their TOT correlate with the resultant changes in BOT?
Commodity Dependence - https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/08/commodity-dependency
- Mongolia - major metals exporter
- Terms of Trade of Mongolia (Base year = 2000)
Balance of Trade (BOP, current US$) - Mongolia
- Brazil - major foods exporter
- Terms of Trade of Brazil (Base year = 2000)
- Balance of Trade (BOP, current US$) - Brazil
Task 8: According to economic theory, how should TOT change for Madagascar, Colombia and Mexico considering the income per capita change?
- Net national income per capita (constant 2010 US$) - China, Colombia, India, Mexico & Madagascar
Situation for LEDCs
Ped, terms of trade and balance of payments
As the relative price of primary goods fallen more than that of secondary goods, primary good exporters have had a worsening in their terms of trade.
Low YED and falling primary goods prices
Here is how low YED for primary goods causes falling prices for commodities in the long run:
· Low income elasticity of demand for primary goods in more developed nations (MDCs) means that even though MDC incomes increase, demand for primary goods increases proportionately less.
· Demand has also increased at a slower rate than supply since importers – primarily MDCs – have increasingly found ways to substitute many primary goods. Also, increased efficiency in use of raw materials together with recycling has helped lower the rate at which demand increases over time.
· Improvements in farming methods, new technology in extracting minerals, new methods of locating mineral sources…etc, have all contributed to a remarkable increase in the supply of primary goods over the past 50 years.
Terms of trade, commodities and LDCs
Developing countries are frequently highly dependent on a few commodities (primary goods) for export earnings. In fact, 62 out of 141 developing countries depended on non-oil commodities for over 50% of all export earnings in 2000 – and if oil is included, the number rises to 95.[1]
[1]UNDP, “Commodity Dependence and International Commodity Prices” 2010, pages 76 – 79
(Source: UNDP, “Commodity Dependence and International Commodity Prices” 2010, pages 76 – 79)
Summary of terms of trade and LEDCs
In economic shorthand: supply for commodities has been outstripping demand for over 60 years → ∆↓price of commodities è ∆↓terms of trade (low PED for exports) è ∆↓export revenue è ∆↓current account and ↓∆Y.
The results of falling terms of trade for developing countries are almost always negative:
· Higher costs of debt servicing as a greater quantity of exports are necessary to earn a given amount of foreign currency with which to repay foreign debt.
· Current account deficits often lead to increased borrowing – which in turn increases the debt burden.
· Falling commodity prices often encourage producers in developing countries to increase production of commodities – which further depresses the world price of the commodity.
· Deteriorating terms of trade reduce much-needed imports such as capital, intermediate products in production, and fuel. All are needed to industrialise and increase value-added output.
However…Australia, one of the largest exporters of commodities in the world, has seen GDP growth of an average 5.3% annually in the latter half of the 2000s – more than half of this growth came from commodity exports. Most of this is due to China’s incredible appetite for raw materials. For example, between 2000 and 2010, Chinese imports (in USD terms) of iron increased by a factor of 42.5 and coal by a factor of 248! [1] Exports of minerals and agricultural goods made up 57% of Australia’s exports in 2012 and exports made up 20% of Australian GDP – which means that 11.45 of export revenue came from primary goods.
· The terms of trade: The terms of trade for Australia improved monumentally from 2000 onward – by over 70% just before the economic crises hit in 2008. This was caused by high demand for Australian commodity exports and…
· …the exchange rate, which was export-led primarily. As the mining sector expanded to feed China’s voracious appetite for raw materials, FDI poured in as foreign mining syndicates established in Australia. By 2010, 32% of all FDI inflows to Australia were in the mining sector.[2] This helps explain the current account deficit – billions were coming in on the financial account!
· Current account: So, high growth, massive FDI and a strong exchange rate. This indicates a hefty current account deficit according to economic theory. I checked; Australia has something of a current account record in the OECD; the country has been running a current account deficit since 1972. So, while this makes the deficits during the 2000s somewhat less intimidating, one can still see that rising terms of trade and a strengthened Australian dollar almost consistently worsened the current account during the 2002 to 2008.
[1] http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/30/us-australia-china-idUSTRE7AT2HY20111130 and http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/mining-energy/china-forecast-suggests-commodities-boom-has-peaked/story-e6frg9df-1226291178832
[2] http://www.business.nsw.gov.au/invest-in-nsw/about-nsw/trade-and-investment/foreign-direct-investment-in-australia-by-industry
Task 9 - what factors could explain the movements in Malawi's TOT from 2008 onwards and the corresponding position of its Balance of Trade?
- Terms of Trade of Malawi (base year = 2000)
- Balance of Trade (BOP, current US$) - Malawi
Task 10: Complete the following questions
1: Calculate the Terms of Trade for Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3
2: Choose the most likely explanation
3: Choose the most likely explanation
4: Choose the most likely explanation
5: Question on relationship between TOT and trade balance
a) Describe the changes in the four nations’ terms of trade since 2003.
b) How might China’s trade balance have been affected by the changes in its terms of trade since 2000?
c) How might Venezuela’s trade balance have been affected by the changes in its terms of trade since 2000?
d) What are some possible causes for the improvements in Venezuela’s (http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Venezuela/Terms_of_trade/) and Saudi Arabia’s terms of trade? (http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Saudi-Arabia/Terms_of_trade/)
e) What was the likely cause of the dip in both Venezuela’s and Saudi Arabia’s terms of trade in 2008-2009?
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