Mitigation strategies
How effective are mitigation strategies in building community’s resilience to climate change?
1. Mitigation strategies
a) involves changing how societies produce and use energy and land
b) its effectiveness limited by technological, economic, social and institutional challenges
2. Mitigation strategies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions
a) international agreements and cooperation; use of low-carbon technologies
b) use of clean energy sources; and changes in consumption patterns
3. Mitigation strategies that enhance carbon sinks
a) protection of oceans and forests through land-use change
b) protection of forests through forest regeneration
● Mitigation strategies to climate change refer to efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sinks to slow down climate change.
● They involve changing how societies produce and use energy and land.
● When climate change slows down, communities can better resist, absorb, adapt to and recover from the impacts of climate change, thus building community resilience.
● Mitigation strategies are place- and context-specific, and there is no one-size-fits-all approach.
● Therefore, their effectiveness varies across places, and may be limited by a country's technological, economic, social and institutional challenges.
International Agreements and Cooperation
● The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty addressing climate change.
● It is now signed by 197 parties.
● The key objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at a level that would:
○ Prevent irreversible anthropogenic impacts.
○ Provide sufficient time for ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change.
● Puts greater responsibilities on developed, industrialised countries to lead the way.
○ Developed, industrialised countries are considered the main source of most past and current greenhouse gas emissions, and are therefore expected to cut the most emissions.
● Funds and technologies are directed to climate action in developing countries.
○ Developed, industrialised countries agree to:
■ Provide financial support to developing countries for climate action.
■ Share technology to mitigate and adapt to climate change with developing countries.
● Monitoring the progress of climate change policies.
○ Countries are required to regularly report on their climate change policies and greenhouse gas emissions.
● Members of the Convention known as the Conference of Parties (COP) meet every year to review and make decisions on climate action to promote the effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
● Example:
○ In 2015, the COP made significant progress on international climate negotiations known as the Paris Agreement:
○ A legally binding international treaty on climate change was adopted by 191 Parties in Paris, France.
○ Parties are required to develop their own set of targets and measures.
● Limitations of international agreements and cooperation:
○ Institutional: The implementation of the convention is dependent on the parties' commitment to act. As countries have different priorities, the commitment to act will also vary.
■ In 2017, President Donald Trump announced that the USA will be withdrawing from the Paris Agreement as he believes that it will undermine the country's economy.
○ Institutional: The contributions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are not legally binding. If any party refuses to take action or increase their commitment, no legal action can be taken to enforce the contributions.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Conference of Parties.
Look at how Singapore innovate to mitigate climate change in COP.
Converting ocean plastics into hydrogen and seaweed into biofilters
2015 Paris Agreement
Low-carbon technologies
● Low-carbon technologies emit low levels of greenhouse gas emissions.
● Examples of low carbon technologies are Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS).
○ Carbon Capture
■ Refers to the process of separating and capturing carbon dioxide (CO) from power plants and other industrial sources of emissions.
○ Utilisation and Storage
■ After CO2 is captured, CO2 is stored for a long period of time to prevent it from reaching the atmosphere through:
■ Carbon Storage:
● For instance: storing carbon in the oceans.
■ Carbon Utilisation:
● Refers to the use of CO2 as a raw material to produce useful materials.
● The products created can be sold for profits.
● For instance: cement can be made from stored CO2
● Limitations of CCUS:
○ Economic: It is expensive and requires public funding and subsidies for private research and development.
○ Example:
■ In 2020, the Singapore government announced that $49 million will be set aside to fund low-carbon energy research and to test the effectiveness of CCUS.
○ Technological: There are concerns that stored carbon may leak out over time.
https://www.channelnewsasia.com/sustainability/world-largest-ocean-based-carbon-dioxide-removal-plant-built-singapore-4152536https://www.channelnewsasia.com/sustainability/world-largest-ocean-based-carbon-dioxide-removal-plant-built-singapore-41525
Use of clean energy sources
Use of clean energy sources
● Clean energy comes from renewable sources which do not emit greenhouse gases and pollute the atmosphere when used.
● Solar energy
○ Energy from the Sun is converted into thermal or electrical energy.
○ The cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available.
○ Example:
■ By 2030. Singapore wants to increase its solar capacity to meet about 4% of Singapore's total electricity demand today (that is about the needs of around 350,000 households).
● Hydro- electric power
○ Hydropower plants capture the energy of moving water such as in rivers to generate electricity
● Geothermal
■ Derived from heat in the Earth's crust.
■ Beneath the Earth's surface, hot rocks heat up groundwater, forming steam.
■ Steam is then harnessed to generate electricity.
● Nuclear
○ Derived from the splitting up of radioactive atoms. This process generates heat.
○ The heat then produces steam which is then harnessed to generate electricity.
○ Compared to other sources of energy, nuclear energy is more stable in terms of its supply.
● Limitations of using clean energy sources:
○ Economic: Development and construction of renewable energy technologies are expensive. It depends heavily on government policies and financial support to make renewable energy cost-competitive.
○ Example:
■ In Indonesia, installing a solar system may cost around USD 900 to 1300 per kW (depending on the location, size and quality of the inverter). Hence, solar energy only accounts for 1.7% of the country's total electricity in 2019.
More than 320,000 solar panels will be installed across 1,075 HDB blocks and 101 government-owned buildings, with a total solar capacity of 130 megawatt-peak (MWp). The project will be able to power more than 50,000 four-room flats and help reduce carbon emissions by at least 96,360 metric tonnes each year
How will this project help to mitigate climate change?
What are the limitations to this mitigation strategy?
For a city-state like Singapore that has very limited access to in-situ renewable energy, hydrogen is also an attractive decarbonisation pathway because it presents a scalable way to transport clean energy from countries around the world.
ST interactive on climate change
Green Energy
https://graphics.straitstimes.com/STI/STIMEDIA/Interactives/2018/11/green-power/index.html
Changes in consumption patterns
● Household consumption of goods contributes to our carbon footprint because greenhouse gases are released during production and transportation of these goods.
● Food choices
○ How it contributes to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions
■ Food production is responsible for more than a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions.
■ The types of food you eat emit different amounts of greenhouse gases and have varied environmental impacts.
○ How we can reduce greenhouse gas emissions
■ Eating less meat, and more vegetables. Shifting to plant-based diets can reduce agricultural emissions.
■ Buy local produce, which uses less transportation and therefore less carbon emissions.
● Food waste
○ How it contributes to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions
■ When food enters the landfill and rots, it produces methane, contributing to climate change.
○ How we can reduce greenhouse gas emissions
■ Buy only what we need:
● Always make a list of what we want to purchase to avoid overbuying.
■ Repurpose food waste:
● Ground coffee can be used as fertilisers for plants.
● Use of Plastics
○ How it contributes to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions
■ Greenhouse gases are produced when:
● Chemicals sourced from fossil fuels are used to make plastics.
● Plastics are recycled or incinerated.
● Plastics biodegrade, which occurs over hundreds of years.
○ How we can reduce greenhouse gas emissions
■ Refusing single-use plastics and opting for reusable daily plastic products.
■ Be informed about the right way to recycle different plastic products, which reduces the amount of plastic waste going into the incinerator, landfills or ocean.
● Fashion
○ How it contributes to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions
■ The production of apparel contributes to greenhouse gas emissions as high levels of energy and water are required.
■ When consumers demand more frequent changes in designs, production of apparels and footwear will also increase, which increases greenhouse gas emissions.
○ How we can reduce greenhouse gas emissions
■ Before buying, ask if the manufacturers use sustainable criteria to make the clothing.
■ Repair or upcycle old clothing.
■ Donate what we no longer use.
■ Buy only what we need.
■ Opt for second-hand clothing when possible.
● Limitations of changing consumption patterns:
● Social: It takes a long time to change people's mindset and consumption patterns.
● Example:
○ Despite the availability of drinkable tap water in Singapore, Singaporeans consumed more than 467 million bottled water in 2018. As many people may still associate tap water with being unclean, bottled water has become a convenient and cheap option for them.
● Economic: Changing consumption patterns depends not only on consumer behaviour, but also on the commitment of companies to change the resources used in the production of goods. However, companies may be reluctant to change as it may reduce their profits.
Enhancing carbon sinks to build community’s resilience to climate risks.
protection of oceans and forests
managing land-use change and forest regeneration
Carbon sinks are important because more than 50% of emitted carbon dioxide is reabsorbed by our forests and oceans, which reduces the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
○ Forests absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.
○ Oceans absorb carbon dioxide through planktons, coral, fish and algae.
Mitigation strategies that enhance carbon sinks include the:
○ Protection of oceans and forests by managing land-use change.
○ Protection of forests through forest regeneration.
Protection of oceans and forests by managing land-use change.
● Land use change accounts for about 10% of global emissions. This includes:
○ Carbon dioxide emitted during deforestation.
○ Methane emitted by rearing livestock and cultivating rice.
● Reducing Deforestation
○ Deforestation leads to:
■ Increased concentration of greenhouse gases as there are lesser trees to absorb CO2
■ Soil erosion as soil particles are no longer anchored by the roots of trees. When the soil particles enter rivers and oceans, it may cover and suffocate corals and aquatic plants.
○ Hence, reducing deforestation ensures the natural system's capacity in absorbing carbon dioxide is not reduced.
○ Deforestation can be reduced by:
■ Encouraging consumers to only buy wood that is certified as sustainable.
■ Banning illegal deforestation through stricter laws.
● Restoring mangroves
○ Mangroves are very important coastal ecosystems due to their ability to:
■ Absorb and store greenhouse gases in their soils up to four times as much as other tropical forests.
■ Filter pollutants in rivers and prevent them from reaching the oceans and harming corals and aquatic species.
○ Restoring mangroves involve:
■ Planting mangrove seedlings along coastal areas.
■ Creating the optimal conditions for mangroves to grow (e.g. reducing water pollution).
■ Correcting the problems (e.g. limiting the clearing of mangrove trees by local communities) that caused the mangrove loss in the first place.
● Limitations of changing land-use:
○ Economic: It is difficult to reduce deforestation in growing economies due to competing land use for industries, agriculture and urban spaces.
○ Example:
■ Indonesia has lost more than 100,000 hectares of forest cover in 2020.
■ Despite tightening government regulations, Indonesia's forests are still being cleared for palm oil, logging and mining.
■ Indonesia is the world's largest exporter of palm oil, valued at more than $18 billion, providing more than 3 million jobs.
Protection of forests through forest regeneration.
● As trees grow, they absorb and store carbon dioxide.
● Forest regeneration can be achieved through:
○ Afforestation: Planting trees in a new area that previously did not have trees.
○ Reforestation: Re-planting trees in an area that hod trees in the past.
● Agroforestry should be encouraged as it allows for different species of trees to be grown effectively on the piece of land.
● Limitations of forest regeneration:
○ Social: Large-scale afforestation can create competition for land. A limited land supply for agriculture may lead to increase in food prices, threatening food security.
○ Example:
■ It is estimated that afforestation may contribute to an increase in food prices by 80% in 2050.
○ Technological: It is estimated that a large-scale tree planting programme could take 50 to 100 years to have its full effect of removing 200 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.