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group and sex profiles, 2016 (or most recent) 54 countries (n=6,603 victims) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Fig. 22 Share of detected victims of trafficking for forced labour, by age group and sex profiles, 2016 (or most recent) 54 countries (n=3,408 victims) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 3% 68% 26% 3% Sexual exploitation Fig. 23 Share of detected victims of trafficking for ‘other’ forms of exploitation, by age group and sex profiles, 2016 (or most recent) 54 countries (n=721 victims) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 55% 20% 15% 10% Forced labour 20% 34% 23% 23% Other exploitations Fig. 24 Share of detected victims of trafficking, by profile and forms of exploitation, 2016 (or most recent) 54 countries (n=10,772 victims) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Other forms of exploitation 45% 4% 17% Girls for sexual exploitation Women for sexual exploitation Boys for forced labour 7% 3% 5% Girls for forced labour Women for forced labour 19% Men for forced labour GLOTiP_2018_BOOK.indb 33 17/12/2018 19:49:13 34 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2018 National studies to measure the magnitude of trafficking in persons Previous editions of the Global Report have highlighted UNODC’s eagerness to understand the ‘dark figure’ of trafficking in persons.a The 2016 edition presented Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE), a methodology that permits the generation of estimates of hidden populations such as trafficking victims on the basis of sound national-level data. UNODC is continuing to support countries in carrying out national studies of this type, which so far has resulted in victim estimates from four European countries. In 2017, the Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and UNODC published a Research Brief b describing the process and results of an MSE study carried out on multi-year data with stratifications in multiple dimensions (sex, age, form of exploitation and Dutch or non-Dutch citizenship). The study found that there are four to five times as many presumed victims of trafficking as those that are detected. For 2015 – the latest year for which data was available – this would mean 6,250-6,500 victims in the Netherlands. The victimization rate – which is the measure requested by SDG indicator 16.2.2 - is some 37 victims per 100,000 population. Three other countries – Ireland, Romania and Serbia – have also carried out national MSE studies in partnership with UNODC and Walk Free Foundation. These studies have found victimization rates for the year 2015 ranging from 12 per 100,000 population in Serbia to just over 3 in Ireland, with Romania in between at 6. In terms of estimated numbers of victims, also for 2015, these are 830 in Serbia, 1,300 in Romania and 153 in Ireland. The estimates for Serbia and Romania also include citizens exploited outside of the country. In order to undertake an MSE study, countries need to detect a critical mass of victims of trafficking in persons. While there is some flexibility, around 80 victims per year is sufficient to produce reasonably solid results. Moreover, the country needs to be able to present at least three national-level lists of detected or presumed victims; preferably disaggregated by sex, age and form of exploitation (the lists can be shared with UNODC in anonymized form). These lists can come from different sources, including but not limited to police, prosecutors, migration authorities, victim assistance providers, shelters, local authorities or international organizations. In terms of policy impact, perhaps even more salient than uncovering the magnitude of trafficking is the method’s ability to pinpoint the most hidden trafficking victims. The Dutch study drew on extensive and very detailed data, which meant that the findings were specific and robust. The most hidden victims in the Netherlands were found to be underage Dutch girls trafficked for sexual exploitation. This finding soon led to policy-level discussions as to whether enhanced trafficking awareness campaigns should be introduced in the country’s schools. For the other three countries, the underlying data were not solid enough to draw profiles of the most hidden victims in those national contexts. However, some broader patterns emerged, including the finding that child victims appear to be more ‘hidden’ than adults; implying that the detection of child trafficking is less likely than of adult trafficking. Moreover, the ratio between detected and estimated victims was lower in Ireland and Romania (1.5 in both countries; meaning an estimated number of victims 50 per cent larger than those detected) than in Serbia (6.3) and the Netherlands (between 4 and 5). This could suggest that the chances of detection of trafficking cases are higher in Ireland and Romania than in the other two countries. MSE is a way for countries to understand the magnitude of their trafficking problem a See text box on p. 47, UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.16.IV.6). b Available at: www.unodc.org/glotip. “Hidden figure”- trafficking that takes place but is not detected ? Number of detected victims GLOTiP_2018_BOOK.indb 34 17/12/2018 19:49:14 35 Global Overview I Fig. 25 Shares of persons investigated or arrested for trafficking in persons, by sex, 2016 (or most recent) 70 countries (n=9,813) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Fig. 26 Shares of persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons, by sex, 2016 (or most recent) 68 countries (n=6,370) Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 69% 31% First contact 65% 35% Prosecuted Profile of the offenders An analysis of the sex of those persons reported to have been investigated or arrested, prosecuted, and/or convicted of trafficking in persons shows that the majority of traffickers continue to be males. In line with previous years, in 2016 just over 35 per cent of those prosecuted for trafficking in persons were females. The share is similar for those coming into first contact with the police (usually by being investigated or arrested for trafficking) and larger for those who are convicted. The data on the profile of the victims also confirm regional differences that are in line with prior years. The subregion of Eastern Europe and Central Asia continues to convict more females of trafficking in persons than males, and similar patterns are recorded in Central America and the Caribbean. In East Asia and the Pacific, females accounted for about half of all convicted trafficking offenders. Countries in Western and Central Europe report small shares of women offenders, just above 20 per cent. Countries in the Americas as well as in Africa and the Middle East generally reported that women comprised a little more than one third of those convicted of trafficking in persons. The differences in the sex profile of people convicted may reflect different approaches of the criminal justice systems in different regions. As a matter of capacity, developing countries may be able to convict only the lower ranks of the trafficking network, resulting in the conviction of those who normally control or recruit the victims, the so-called ‘madams’ in some context of sexual exploitation. At the same time, these numbers may reflect different roles women have in the trafficking process and the geography connected to these roles. Qualitative studies show women traffickers are particularly active in the recruitment phase of human trafficking6 . 6 See page 30 of the UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.13.V.6). ; See pages 27-29 of the UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.14.V.10).; See page 36-39 of the UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.16.IV.6). This could explain the significant difference in the sex profiles of perpetrators in origin and destination countries7 reflected at all stages of criminal proceedings. The clear majority of traffickers convicted in 2016, were citizens of the country where they were convicted. Foreign traffickers accounted for about one third of those convicted. Most of the foreign offenders were citizens of 7 It is not possible to make a rigid distinction between origin and destination countries, moreover, domestic trafficking, which is detected in most countries across the world, makes countries origins and destinations simultaneously. Even if only cross-border trafficking is considered, countries may belong to both categories. Indeed, most countries do, as they detect both