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for, among other initiatives, the “implement[ation] of a standard, comprehensive method for capturing and storing human trafficking data,” the development of “data sharing agreements,” and the encouragement of and funding support for more research across academic disciplines (Michigan Commission on Human Trafficking, 2013, p. 20).75 Table 5. State Human-Trafficking Laws—Data Collection Requirements*. State Stipulated by Reporting or Education Law Collection and Use of Data Colorado Education Law The Human Trafficking Council must collect data relating to the prevalence of and the efforts of law enforcement to combat human trafficking. The Human Trafficking Council must annually report the data to the judiciary committees of the state legislature. Florida Reporting Law The law requires collection of child abuse reporting records only for law enforcement, state attorney investigating and prosecuting purposes, or for administrative penalties. No data collection is required for human-trafficking victims and the effect of the law. Illinois Reporting Law The law establishes for the maintenance of a central register of all reported cases of suspected child abuse or neglect. The central register must allow for immediate identification and location of prior reports of child abuse or neglect, continuous monitoring of the current status of all reports of child abuse or neglect and to allow for regular evaluations of the effectiveness of the laws. Kansas Education Law The State Secretary for Children and Families and Secretary of Labor report to the standing committees on judiciary in the senate and the house of representatives on the progress achieved in developing and implementing the notice requirement for trafficking victims and education plan for trafficking. This requirement is not specific for data collection of the number of trafficking victims or the prevalence of trafficking in the state. Louisiana Education Law The law orders any private entity that provides services to trafficking victims to submit to the State Department of Children and Family Services an annual report on their operations, including information on the services offered, geographic areas served, the number of persons served, and individual status updates on each person served. The Department of Children and Family Services must compile data from all the reports and provide this information to the legislature annually. Michigan Education Law The Human Trafficking Commission must file an annual report with the governor, the secretary of the Senate, and the clerk of the House of Representatives regarding human trafficking in the state, covering the services provided, extent and nature of trafficking in the state, and training provided. Minnesota Education Law The State Director of Child Sex Trafficking Prevention must collect and maintain information on trafficking and develop a system for sharing data among regional and community advocates. Tennessee Education Law The State Department of Human Services must provide a report to the chair of judiciary committee of the Senate and the chair of criminal justice committee of the House of Representatives on victim identification, assistance and services, training, and costs of implementation. Texas Education Law The Human Trafficking Prevention Task Force must collect statistical data on the nature and extent of human trafficking, including (a) number of convictions, arrests, and prosecutions for traffickers and forgery offenses as part of trafficking, (b) demographics of convicted traffickers, (c) geographic routes of trafficking, (d) means of transportation and methods for trafficking, and (e) social and economic factors creating a demand for trafficking. Vermont Education Law The State Department of Labor shall report to the House and Senate Committees on Judiciary, the House Committee on Human Services, and the Senate Committee on Health and Welfare on the progress achieved in developing and implementing the notice requirement for trafficking victims and the education plan for trafficking. *This article discusses data-collection efforts arising from trafficking education and reporting laws only, not from criminal trafficking laws or child abuse and neglect laws. JOURNAL OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING 127 Discussion We have systematically reviewed current U.S. state laws that address human-trafficking education and mandatory reporting by health care providers and other professionals. To date, 17 states in total have enacted laws that establish education initiatives about human trafficking and/or stipulate trafficking per se as a reportable event. Thirteen of the 17 states have educational laws, seven of the 17 have mandatory reporting laws, and three have both education and mandatory reporting laws. Because these laws were enacted only within the past few years, and because data collection and analysis, to the extent undertaken, has not been widely shared, it is difficult to assess the laws’ effectiveness and, hence, to determine best practices. However, several salient issues and questions emerge. Education With the rise in awareness about the scope of human trafficking in the United States, a number of authoritative medical bodies have recently issued calls for education about human trafficking. The Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, in its 2013 report titled Confronting Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, recommends widespread evidence-informed training of numerous professionals, including physicians and other health care providers. Taking it one step further, the report goes on to say, “A legal mandate to ensure that personnel who come into regular contact with minors have been trained in these issues. . .would appear to have potential value” (IOM [Institute of Medicine] and NRC [National Research Council], 2013, p. 187). Within the last three years, at least nine professional medical societies76 have issued new policy statements on human trafficking and made similar recommendations regarding the need for education and training. The American Public Health Association, in its 2015 statement, acknowledges the severe physical and mental health effects of human trafficking and “calls for professional schools, societies, and certifying bodies to improve training of licensed health professionals and to integrate human trafficking into existing curricula on intimate partner violence, domestic violence, and child and elder abuse (American Public Health Association, 2015, p. 1). HEAL Trafficking, a nonprofit organization comprised of health care professionals, has stated that training should be grounded in “a patient-centered, culturally relevant, evidence-based, gender responsive, trauma-informed perspective for identifying and treating victims” and that “trauma informed care should be integrated into health professional training across specialties, clinical practice and professional titles” (HEAL Trafficking, 2015, p. 1, para. 5). Medical organizations are calling for education about human trafficking because, although standard medical training covers issues of child abuse and neglect, intimate partner violence, and elder abuse, it does not yet cover human trafficking (Stoklosa, Grace, & Littenberg, 2015). Physicians and other health care providers report that they are poorly prepared and lack the knowledge and skills to effectively engage with suspected trafficking victims and, furthermore, do not know where to turn for resources (Beck et al., 2015; Titchen et al., 2015). Health care providers need to know about the scope of the problem, the risk factors and “red flags” for victimization, and how to identify victims, as well as to be armed with the clinical skills to diagnose, treat and refer victims of trafficking for various services (IOM and NRC, 2013). While health care providers should keep in mind that this review is limited to state laws and does not consider policies or practice rules enacted by other governing bodies such as medical boards, it is worth noting that several hospitals and other health care facilities across the nation have recently developed protocols for health care providers to follow when presented with a suspected or known case of trafficking. This positive development reflects growing awareness of human trafficking but also the growing need for training on protocol compliance and evaluation of their impact. 128 H. G. ATKINSON ET AL. Furthermore, mandatory reporters need more detailed training on their reporting obligations within the context of trafficking, and on how to ethically navigate ambiguous, complex situations. They also need to learn more about reporting procedures in their states, how child protective services