Endnotes

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[1] Shonkoff, J. P., and Phillips, D. (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press. Emphasis added.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Coie, J. D., Watt, N. D., West, S.G., et. al. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, (48:10), 1013-1022.

[4] McCormick, M., McCarton, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Belt, P., and Gross, R. (1998). The infant health and development program: Interim summary. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 19(5), 359–370.; Bendersky, M., and Lewis, M. (1994). Environmental risk, biological risk, and developmental outcome. Developmental Psychology, 30(4) 484–494.; Task Force on Early Mental Health Intervention. (2003). Addressing Missed Opportunities for Early Childhood Mental Health Intervention: Current Knowledge and Policy Implications.

[5] National Center for Children in Poverty; Johnson, K. and Theberge, S. (2007) SHORT TAKE No. 4: Reducing Disparities Beginning in Early Childhood. Project THRIVE.

[6] Douglas-Hall, A.; Chau, M.; and Koball, H. (2006). Basic facts about low-income children: Birth to age 18. National Center for Children in Poverty. New York: Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health; Aratani, Y., Wight, V.R., and Cooper, J.L. (2011). Racial Gaps in Early Childhood: Socio-emotional Health, Developmental, and Educational Outcomes Among African-American Boys. National Center for Children in Poverty. New York: Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health.

[7] Children’s Defense Fund. (2007). America’s Cradle to Prison PiplelineSM: A Children’s Defend Fund® Report. Washington, DC: Children’s Defense Fund.

[8] National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005). Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain: Working Paper No. 3.

[9] National Scientific Council on the Developing Child at the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Toxic Stress Derails Healthy Development.

[10] National Scientific Council on the Developing Child at the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Impact of Early Adversity on Children’s Development.

[11] Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL). Social Emotional Development within the Context of Relationships. Vanderbilt University.

[12] Office on Child Abuse and Neglect (HHS); Goldman, J., Salus, M. K., Wolcott, D., Kennedy, K. Y. (2003). Chapter Five: What Factors Contribute to Child Abuse and Neglect? A Coordinated Response to Child Abuse and Neglect: The Foundation for Practice. Washington, DC.

[13] Finkelhor, D. (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children. 4:2. 31–53.

[14] Polansky, N.A., Chalmers, M.A., Buttenweiser, E., and Williams, D.P. (1982). Damaged parents – An anatomy of child neglect. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[15] Pynoos, R.S. and Nader, K. (1988). Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: Research implications. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1. 445-473.

[16] See Module 1 for review of temperament and temperament traits.

[17] Milunsky, A. (2010). Understanding How Genes Impact Disease. Babyzone.

[18] Milunsky, A. Ethnicity and Genes. Babyzone.

[19] National Coalition for Health Professional Education in Genetics. Race & Genetics FAQ.

[20] Kokkonen, J. (1995) The social effects in adult life of chronic physical illness since childhood. European Journal of Pediatrics. 154. 676–681; Pless, I.B., Cripps, H.A., Davies, J.M.C., Wadsworth, M.E.J., (1989) Chronic physical illness in childhood: psychological and social effects in adolescence and adult life. Dev Med Child Neurol 31. 746–755. Geldhill, J., Rangel, L., Garralda, E. (2000). Surviving chronic physical illness: psychosocial outcome in adult life. Arch Dis Child. 83. 104-110.

[21] Kogan, M.D., Newacheck, P.W., Honberg, L., Strickland, B. (2005). Association Between Underinsurance and Access to Care Among Children With Special Health Care Needs in the United States. Pediatrics. 116:5. 1168-1169. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/5/1162.short

[22] Shaw, D.S., Owens, E.B., Vondra, J.I., Keenan, K., and Winslow, E.B. (1996). Early risk factors and pathways in the development of early disruptive behavior problems. Development and Psychology. 8. 679-699.

[23] Flanagan. P. (2005) Caring for the Children of Teen Parents. Zero to Three. March. 31-34.

[24] Fitzgerald, H. E. and McKelvey, L. (2005). Low-Income Adolescent Fathers: Risk for Parenthood and Risky Parenting. Zero to Three. 25:4.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Fustenberg, F.F., Brooks-Gunn, J., and Morgan, S.P. (1987). Adolescent mothers in later life. New York: Cambridge University Press.

[27] Meader, C.S., Kershaw, T.S., Ickovics, J.R. (2008). The intergenerational cycle of teenage motherhood: an ecological perspective. Health Psychology. 27:4. 419-429.

[28] Hoffman, S. D. (2006). By the Numbers: The Public Costs of Teen Childbearing. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

[29] Ibid.

[30] National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. (2010). Fast Facts: Teen Childbearing in the United States, Final 2008 Birth Data.

[31] Task Force on Early Mental Health Intervention. (2003). Addressing Missed Opportunities for Early Childhood Mental Health Intervention: Current Knowledge and Policy Implications.

[32] McCreight, B. (1997). Recognizing and managing children with fetal alcohol syndrome/fetal alcohol effects: A guidebook (pp. 9–15). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America. Via Children's Bureau, Office on Child Abuse and Neglect., ICF International. (2006). Protecting Children in Families Affected by Substance Use Disorders.

[33] Zero to Three. (1994). Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Violent Environments: Hurt, Healing, and Hope. Virginia: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Drell, M., Siegel, C. and Gaensbauer, T. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Zeanah, C.H. (Ed.) Handbook of Infant Mental Health. New York: Guildford Press. 291-304. via Zero to Three. (1994). Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Violent Environments: Hurt, Healing, and Hope. Virginia: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

[37]Cummings, E.M., Hennessy, K., Rabideau, G. and Cicchetti, D. (1993). Responsees of physically abused children to different forms of interadult anger. Child Development. Via Zero to Three. (1994). Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Violent Environments: Hurt, Healing, and Hope. Virginia: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

[38] Groves, B.M. (1996). Children without Refuge: Young Witnesses to Domestic Violence. Islands of Safety: Assessing and Treating Young Victims of Violence. Osofsky, J.D. and Fenichel, E. (Eds.) Washington, DC: Zero to Three.

[39] Ibid.

[40] U.S. Department of Commerce: Economics and Statistics Administration. (1993). We the American Children.

[41] Ibid.

[42] Lichter, D. T., Quian, Z., and Crowley, M. L. (2006). Race and poverty: Divergent fortunes of America’s children? Focus, 24(3). 8-16.

[43] Evans, G.W. (2004). The Environment of Childhood Poverty. American Psychologist. 59:2, 77-92.

[44] Noble KG, Norman MF, Farah MJ (2005) Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Dev Sci. 8:1.74-87.

[45] Bradley, R. H., and Corwyn, R. F. (2002) Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology. Annual. 371-400.

[46] Duncan, G. J.; Brooks-Gunn, J.; Klebanov, P. K. 1994. Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development. Child Development 65: 296-318. Via Cooper, J.L., Masi, R. and Vick, J. (2009). Social-emotional Development in Early Childhood: What Every Policymaker Should Know. National Center for Children in Poverty. New York: Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University.

[47] Lwein, L.C. and Maloni, J.A. (2008). Maternal Depression and Its Impact on Families at Risk. Schubert Center for Child Studies: Policy Brief 8. Case Western Reserve University.

[48] Vericker, T., Macomber, J.E., and Golden, O. (2010). Infants of Depressed Mothers Living in Poverty: Opportunities to Identify and Serve. Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=412199

[49] Cohn, J.F. and Tronick, E.Z. (1983). Three-month-old infants’ reaction to simulated maternal depression. Child Dev. 54. 185–193.

[50] Field T. Infants of depressed mothers. Infant Behav Dev. 1995;18:1–13

[51] Embry, L. and Dawson, G. (2002). Disruptions in parenting behavior related to maternal depression: Influences on children’s behavioral and psychobiological development. In J. Borkowski, S., Ramey, C. and Bristol-Powers, M. (Eds). Parenting and the young child’s world (pp. 203-214). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

[52] Federal Register, (August 3, 2010). Vol. 75: 148. pp. 45628–45629

[53] Bernstein, J., Brocht, C. and Spade-Aguilar, M. (2000). How much is enough? Basic family budgets for working families. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

[54] Plotnik, R. (2000). Economic security for families with children. In P. J. Pecora, J. K. Whittaker, A. N. Maluccio, and R. P. Barth (Eds.), The child welfare challenge: Policy, practice, and research (2nd Ed.) 95-127. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

[55] Slack, K.S., Holl, J.L., McDaniel, M., Yoo, J. and Bolger, K. (2004). Understanding the Risks of Child Neglect: An Exploration of Poverty and Parenting Characteristics. Child Maltreatment. 9:4. 395-408.

[56] Executive Summary of the Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect, September 1996 and Reid, T. (1996). News NIS-3 Data. APSAC Advisor, 9:3. U.S. Department of Commerce: Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census.

[57] Harden, B. J. (2004). Safety and stability for foster children: A developmental perspective. Children, families, and foster care. The Future of Children, 14(1), 31–47.

[58] Rosenfeld, A., Pilowsky, D., Fine, P., Thorpe, M., Fein, L. E., Simms, M., Halfon, N., Irwin, M., Alfaro, J., Saletsky, R., and Nickman, S. (1997). Foster care: An update. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(4), 448–457.