Israel and Palestine … Ottoman 1517-1917; British Palestine; Israel and Jordan
1 Values
Positive value in society
Holocaust and Palestine
2 Harming, suffering, reacting
Harming, suffering, reacting, Saturday 7th October 2023 (8th)
Times front page: Monday 9th October to Saturday 14th October 2023
More harming, more suffering, more reacting, Saturday 14th October 2023 (15th)
Live: BBC, Times of Israel, Al-Manar TV
The cycle that leads to this
8 books to understand the Israel-Palestine conflict
3 Internal politics, Palestine and Israel
Palestine government
Israel: internal politics 2022-2023 … the M-shaped distribution
4 A history: Ottoman 1517-1917; British Palestine; Israel and Jordan
A history of Palestine
The Promised Land … The Holy Land
Ottoman Palestine, 1517-1917
Lawrence of Arabia … The Arab Revolt, 1916-1918
The Emirate of Transjordan, 1921-1946
1923: Palestine mandate brings British Empire to its peak
Alfred Wiener, 1927
The British Mandate in Palestine, 1923-1948
The Ottoman Empire … the Balfour Declaration, 1917
Iran … Britain and Russia 1907-1979
1 Values
Positive value in society
Last month at the council meeting of the Conflict Research Society I introduced the notion of ‘Positive Value in Society’. To be celebrated in good times … and perhaps to be reminded of in bad. It was the latter reasoning, amidst the war in Ukraine, which prompted me back in January to start writing a series of notes on … Positive Value.
“Positive Value in Society”
The rationale? Well, I have a number of thoughts in my mind:
… John Burton, just before he died, wanted a focus on harmonious relationships at all levels of society (indeed he told IPRA that he want them to change their name!);
… Lewis Fry Richardson thought his equations for the arms race could just as easily be applied to the reciprocation of positive actions … a reciprocation of love;
… The CRS constitution refers to positive value - using the words ‘constructive’ and ‘cooperation’;
… The Michael Nicholson centre at Essex refers to positive value – again using the word ‘cooperation’.
Holocaust and Palestine
Now, thinking about positive value in the current situation, I realise I can recall being with and sharing conferences and train journeys with many people.
Elizabeth died a few years ago but here she is sharing her memories. In it she recalls a friend’s parent instructing “Don’t play with that little girl. She’s a Jew.” The interview with Elizabeth concludes:
“…but I am also a citizen of the world and try to work for peace and
harmony of all mankind through education.”
The interview: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwWQJnRQ2As (four hours)
Also I recall on various occasions discussing the experiences of Palestinians in the last century.
2 Harming, suffering, reacting
Intense violence, intense suffering, intense anguish … intense opinion
Harming, suffering, reacting, Saturday 7th October 2023 (8th)
“Hundreds die and hostages held as Hamas assault shocks Israel …” Obs 1.
“ … `‘It is judgment day, a nightmare’ ” Obs 4-5.
“Civilians pay the price in biggest challenge to Israel since 1973.” Obs 5
“West unites in condemnation and offers support as diplomats rush to deter escalation … Middle East on a knife edge as militants hail incursion and fears for civilians grow.” Obs 6-7
“Surreal images and a sense of disbelief as the unthinkable happens.” Obs 6-7
“Voices from around the world.” Obs 7
“Militant group aims to impose itself on wider Middle East diplomacy.” Obs 7
“Hamas’s murderous attack on Israel will be remembered as an intelligence failure for the ages. The advance surveillance of Palestinians makes scenes of gunmen moving through the streets all the more astonishing.”41
[Neither the leader page nor the letters page referred to the attack – presumably they were prepared before the attack happened.]
The Observer, Sunday 8th October 2023:
https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2023/oct/08
Times front page: Monday 9th October to Saturday 14th October 2023
Monday 9th
Stunned Israel goes to war. Briton among more than 1,000 dead. Gaza hit by airstrikes as civilians taken hostage. Sunak offers military aid.
Residents told to lock doors as gunmen stalk streets. Times 9, 1
Tuesday 10th
Hamas: one hostage will die for every Gaza strike. Terrorists threaten to broadcast civilian ‘executions’. Israel bombards strip and cuts off water. 10, 1
Wednesday 11th
Hamas ‘cut the throats of babies’ in massacre. 11, 1
Thursday 12th
Israeli coalition ready to invade. Netanyahu forms war government. Troops expected to cross into Gaza next week. BA suspends flights over rocket fear. 12, 1
Friday 13th
Israel shows mutilated babies. Images alleged to be proof of atrocities. Britain sends tow Royal Navy ships. Sunak hits out at protesters and BBC.
Saturday 14th
Disabled teen taken by Hamas. Vulnerable girl among hostages seized at festival. Million Gaza residents told to flee. Israel stages first raids inside strip
More harming, more suffering, more reacting, Saturday 14th October 2023 (15th)
“Israel warns fleeing Gazans: ‘the next stage is coming’ … US secretary of state urges restraint …’70 dead’ in airstrike on evacuation convoy.” Obs 1-2
“ ‘My mother sacrificed her life to save me from Hamas killer’ …
… Amid the heartbreak, teenager vows to honour his parents’ final sacrifice … “This is the largest pogrom since the Holocaust. We said never again. And we just can’t allow this to happen again.” Obs 1, 6
“My daily battle to dodge the bombs as death rains down … A Manchester scientist was visiting his family in the enclave. Now he is determined to stay with them.” Obs 2-3
“Sunak pledges backing for Israel – but makes no mention of Gaza’s flight.” Obs 3
“A ground assault will be physically dangerous and politically perilous … Israel’s military has superior numbers and equipment, but Hamas is well prepared and the humanitarian fallout could be costly.” Obs 4-5
“Fury grows with PM even as he seeks unity. … Netanyahu shares power with critics but gets public blame for security failures.” Obs 4-5
“Angry old men set the Middle East ablaze. The young will pay the price.” Obs 5
“ ‘I want to get rid of this ugly war’: fear grows I enclave … Palestinians fear armed settlers and Israeli military – and doubt their own leaders.” Obs 7
“British families from two faiths fear for relatives – and for their safety at home.” Obs 8
“Thousands marching to ‘free Palestine’ defy Braverman’s warnings.” Obs 9
“Lost generations trapped in Gaza’a cycle of trauma. … I have watched repeated Israeli military assaults. They only succeed in radicalising the young.” Obs 10
“The week terror changed the Middle East.” Focus Obs 39-43.
“This is a raw moment. Can we talk of injustice in the face of atrocity?” Obs 43.
“Victim-blaming is a crime to so many progressives. Except when it comes to Jews. There was no pause for pity as false narratives justifying murder took hold before the blood had dried.” Obs 47.
“Amid its grief, Israel must act with care.” Editorial Obs 48
“Saving lives must be paramount.” Obs 54
“Hamas’s barbarism does not justify the collective punishment of Palestinians.” Obs 56.
The Observer, Sunday 15th October 2023:
https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2023/oct/15
Live: BBC, Times of Israel, Al-Manar TV
BBC
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world/middle_east
Times of Israel
https://www.timesofisrael.com/
Al-Manar TV
https://english.almanar.com.lb/
The cycle that leads to this
“The massacre sites of the Middle East come in many varieties. There are the historic battlefields, and the villages destroyed by sects and races – including Arabs, Turks, and yes, Jews – as the Ottoman Empire was torn apart by the British and French, who first took it over forcibly then equally capriciously abandoned it to its fate.
There are more recent venues for horror: city streets and refugee camps, open desert and farmyards, and all the sorts of places where the butchers of Isis slaughtered Shia Muslims and Alawites, or where Assad’s militia slit the throats of men, women and children whose towns dared to rise against him. And then there are the many massacres of Palestinians most infamously by the Lebanese Christian militias at Sabra and Chatila in south Beirut in 1982.
No one seems to learn from this endless cycle, a cycle that leads to this most extraordinary danse macabre: a rave in a grove of sliver birches that now sag over rows of empty sleeping mats and tents, abandoned flip-flops, bags of uneaten party snacks.”
“Kibbutz Re’im.” Richard Spencer, The Times, Friday October 13 2023, 6.
8 books to understand the Israel-Palestine conflict
Chosen by Catherine Philp and Daniel Finkelstein
The Times, Saturday Review, October 14 2023, 13
My Promised Land. The Triumph and Tragedy of Israel.
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/may/14/idea-israel-ilan-pappe-promised-land-ari-shavit-review
Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu.
https://www.hurstpublishers.com/book/bibi/
A Day in the Life of Abed Salama
The Iron cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood
https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/aln/aln_spring07/aln_spring07h.pdf
Hamas: The Islamic Resistance Movement
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Hamas%3A+The+Islamic+Resistance+Movement-p-9780745642963
The Siege: The Saga of Israel and Zionism
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/capsule-review/1986-03-01/siege-saga-israel-and-zionism
The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. What Everyone Needs to Know
https://reformjudaism.org/reviews/israeli-palestinian-conflict-what-everyone-needs-know
The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited
3 Internal politics, Palestine and Israel
Palestine government
“The Palestinian government is the government of the Palestinian Authority or State of Palestine. The Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization (EC) is the highest executive body of the Palestine Liberation Organization and acts as the government. Since June 2007, there have been two separate administrations in Palestine, one in the West Bank and the other in the Gaza Strip. The government on the West Bank was generally recognised as the Palestinian Authority Government. On the other hand, the government in the Gaza Strip claimed to be the legitimate government of the Palestinian Authority. Until June 2014, when the Palestinian Unity Government was formed, the government in the West Bank was the Fatah-dominated Palestinian government of 2013. In the Gaza Strip the government was the Hamas government of 2012. Following two Fatah–Hamas Agreements in 2014, on 25 September 2014 Hamas agreed to let the PA Government resume control over the Gaza Strip and its border crossings with Egypt and Israel, but that agreement had broken down by June 2015, after President Abbas said the PA government was unable to operate in the Gaza Strip.”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_government
Elections in Palestine
In 2006: Hamas 44%; Fatah 41%.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Palestinian_legislative_election
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Palestine
Local elections in 2021-2022
West Bank: Fatah 38%; Hamas 30%
Gaza: Fatah 29%; Hamas 47%
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Palestinian_local_elections
PSR 82, 8-11 December 2021
Israel: internal politics 2022-2023 … the M-shaped distribution
Note: up till last week my interest in Israel related to its intenral politics as an example of the M-shaped distribution of opinion and the impications of that for middle democracy.
Latest polling in Israel. October 2023
“Fury grows with PM even as he seeks unity. … Netanyahu shares power with critics but gets public blame for security failures.” Obs 4-5
Jerusalem Post: https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-767880
[Dialog Center Israel
Israel protests, June 10, 2023
“ ‘Clear and present danger’: protests enter 23rd week ahead of key judicial panel vote.” June 10, 2023
https://www.timesofisrael.com/
Variation within a nation: Israel (January 2023)
Last week a coalition government was finally formed amid concerns that it included the hard right. The current situation in Israel echoes a number of the features that are present elsewhere. A democracy produces a one-sided government and there are appeals for it to work for all the people. Also there are certain features which can also be found in Putin’s Russia, specifically the presence of a tension between religious tradition and religious and social liberalism.
“Palestinian fury at Temple Mount visit.” 4, 26.
Netanyahu and his coalition partners, November 17 2022
[extract from: Ukraine 39: 8 billion … Xi and Biden … USA, Israel, Qatar]
“Netanyahu rattles his defence chiefs.” 16, 34
Netanyahu’s bloc of right-wing and religious parties won 64 of the120 seats in the recent elections.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Israeli_legislative_election
The leader of the Likud party may be about to give control over the army and the police to his allies from hard-right parties: Bezald Smotrich of the Religious Zionism party; and Itamar Ben-Gvir of the Jewish Power party; and Aryeh Deri of the ultra-orthodox Shas party.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezalel_Smotrich;
“Prospective coalition may try to pass court override bill, then change law to allow Shas chief, barred from ministerial role due to tax offenses, to take office”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryeh_Deri;
Some of the parties want changes to Israel’s citizenship laws so that only those recognised as Jews by Orthodox religious strictures to emigrate to the country. (16, 34).
Thus the coalition has a distinctive “conception of the national self”.
The geographical distribution of the results shows Netanyahu strong in the south /middle (including Jerusalem and the West Bank) and the north-east and the current governing coalition strong in the north (including Tel Aviv and Haifa). Looking at the map the Netanyahu coalition controls perhaps 80% of Israel’s land border.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Israeli_legislative_election
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel
The distribution of the seats between parties on the left-right dimension is 5, 5, 4, 24*, 12, 6, 32*, 11, 7, and 14 seats. It forms what I have called an M-shaped distribution. Israel is one of the countries discussed in:
Middle parties and the M-shaped distribution in political space
December 30 2022
“Netanyahu back to lead a coalition of hardliners.” 30, 30.
“Binyamin Netanyahu returned to office last night at the head of the most hardline government in the country’s history, threatening new confrontations with Palestinians, judges and LGBT groups.” 30, 30.
“As hard right takes power, president urges worried Israelis: Don’t say nation is doomed. At public event, Herzog appears to criticize fiercest opponents of new Netanyahu government, while again beseeching the coalition to work on behalf of all citizens.”
Times of Israel: https://www.timesofisrael.com/
All-the-people democracy
It is worth noting that President Herzog beseeches “the coalition to work on behalf of all citizens.” It is not uncommon for a newly elected leader to declare that they will leave the rancour and partisanship of the election behind them and that they will now work for all the people – for example Margaret Thatcher in 1979 quoting Francis of Assisi. However this may not happen in practice.
Thinking loosely, isn’t democracy supposed to be for all the people? If a notional democracy is not for all the people, is it really a democracy?
One-sided democracy … the M-shaped distribution for parties
The democratic process in Israel has produced a one-sided government. A process which allows this to happen might be referred to as one-sided democracy.
No link Middle parties and the M-shaped distribution in political space
No link 11 Satisfaction with democracy
Middle Democracy … optimal social choice
Middle democracy produces a middle government – which is the optimal social choice.
No link 13 Optimal social choice, preference functions: Peter Emerson and Dublin City Council
No link 14 Optimal social choice, value functions: social design, ethics and the amount of value
4 A history: Ottoman 1517-1917; British Palestine; Israel and Jordan
A history of Palestine
The Promised Land … The Holy Land
Ottoman Palestine, 1517-1917
Lawrence of Arabia … The Arab Revolt, 1916-1918
The Emirate of Transjordan, 1921-1946
1923: Palestine mandate brings British Empire to its peak
Alfred Wiener, 1927
The British Mandate in Palestine, 1923-1948
The Ottoman Empire … the Balfour Declaration, 1917
Iran … Britain and Russia 1907-1979
A history of Palestine
Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Palestine
Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Palestine
The Promised Land … The Holy Land
I was born in Scotland in 1945. Certainly by the time I was eight year’s old I knew about the Promised Land and the Holy Land. I knew them from my parents and sister, from Sunday School, from church and from primary school. At Christmas I sang about Bethlehem.
In this I was no different from everybody else in the Christian world. In a later section I shall introduce , also from Scotland.
Ottoman Palestine, 1517-1917
“Under Ottoman rule, the Palestinian territory was organized into three states, Jerusalem, Gaza and Nablus, all linked to the Damascus Province. Palestine, in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, was first linked to the state of Sidon, later to Syria and then to Beirut, which was founded in the last period.”
https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2018/05/18/400-years-of-peace-palestine-under-ottoman-rule
[Turkey: Daily Sabah: https://www.dailysabah.com/ ]
Pre-State Israel: Under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1917
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ottoman-rule-1517-1917
Lawrence of Arabia … The Arab Revolt, 1916-1918
I also learned at school about Lawrence of Arabia. Here is what the Imperial War Museum has to say:
https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/who-was-lawrence-of-arabia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Revolt
The film, 1962:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lawrence-of-Arabia-film-by-Lean
The Emirate of Transjordan, 1921-1946
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan
1923: Palestine mandate brings British Empire to its peak
On 29 September 1923, the British empire reached its peak, geographically speaking. As the Palestine mandate, administered by Britain, came into force, the empire was at its largest square mileage.
One Fine Day: Britain’s Empire on the Brink. Matthew Parker.
https://www.hachette.co.uk/titles/matthew-parker-5/one-fine-day/9781408708583/
Alfred Wiener, 1927
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wiener
Like most but not all German Jews in the 1920s and 1930s Alfred Wiener supported those Jews who wanted to settle in Palestine but he didn’t want to create a Jewish state there. By 1947 he had changed his mind.
“Israel has to defend itself or where will we go? If the world wants peace in the Middle East it must ensure that Hamas is not compromised with or rewarded.”
Daniel Finkelstein, The Times, October 11, 2023. 25.
[Wiener was Finkelstein’s maternal grandfather.]
A poignant paragraph from a couple of months ago:
“Before [the Second World War] my grandfather had supported the idea of a homeland for the Jews in Palestine, but not a nation. He was vehement about it. The Holocaust, inevitably changed his mind. Without a state, there was nowhere on which Jews could rely and, after the war, few places for many displaced Jews to go. A state was needed. And Palestine, by the way, feel the same. They want a state too, and with good reason.”
Daniel Finkelstein, The Times, June 7, 2023: 21.
…
Kritische Reisen durch Paldstina. Critical journeys through Palestine. 1927.
https://www.ebay.com/itm/304742430448
Anlage (attachment) 6 includes the following table (if my translation is good enough)
Giving:
Table The religious affiliation of the population in Palestine in 1926:
Mohammedaner 641 000 72,3
Juden 158 000 17,8
Christen 78 000 8,8
Sonstige 10 000 1,1
. Gesamtzahl 887 000 100,0
In a later section we note the trajectory for Muslims, Jews and Christians in Palestine in the period 1800-1947. Between 1922 and 1947 the number of Muslims doubles and at the same time the number of Jews increase sixfold. The number of Jews doubles between 1922 and 1931 and triples between 1931 and 1947.
The British Mandate in Palestine, 1923-1948
Britannica:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/World-War-I-and-after
Wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine
1914-1918 online:
https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/british_mandate_for_palestine
UN:
https://www.un.org/unispal/history/
The Jewish Virtual Library:
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-the-british-palestine-mandate
“ … Israel too is a consequence of the break-up of the Ottoman empire at the end of the First World War. There followed the establishment of the British Mandate for Palestine, 1920-1948, and the subsequent creation of the state of Israel.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palestine-mandate
https://www.britannica.com/place/Israel”
The Ottoman Empire … the Balfour Declaration, 1917
“… a people without a country … a country without a people ...”[1] [Church of Scotland clergyman, Alexander Keith, 1843]
“The establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people … [nothing should] prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities.” [Balfour Declaration, 1917]
“An empire promising a land that it had not yet conquered to a people not living there, without asking the inhabitants.”[2]
“Hushed remembrance of Balfour deal centenary … Britain has sought to play down the event.”[3]
“… in a region dominated by the rule of autocrats, jealous of their powers … Israel stands out as an exception: … a vibrant liberal democracy, an innovative economy and an ally of the West.”[4]
A few years after the Balfour Declaration, in the aftermath of the end of the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the San Remo conference in 1920 gave mandates over Syria to France and over Iraq and Palestine to Britain – as foreshadowed by the British-French Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916. Britain’s Palestine Mandate proposed a Jewish national home in Palestine.
In 1920, an advisory council was set up comprising the high commissioner, 10 British officials, 4 Muslim Palestinians, 3 Christian Palestinians and 3 Jews. In 1922 a Legislative Council was proposed which would consist of the high commissioner, 10 British officials, 10 Palestinians and 2 Jews. In 1923 an election was held for a Palestinian Legislative Council. The electorate voted for ‘electors’ who in turn would vote for Council members. A total of 823 secondary electors were to be elected; 670 Muslims, 79 Jews, 59 Christians and 15 Druze. However there was an Arab boycott and an Advisory Council was proposed comprising the high commissioner, 10 British officials, 8 Muslim Palestinians, 2 Christian Palestinians and 2 Jews – this gave Arabs 43% representation even though they were 88% of the population. This too was partly boycotted and Palestine was run by officials up until 1948.[5]
Figure 5.6 shows the preponderance of Muslims in Palestine prior to the First World War and the sharp rise in the Jewish population in the period 1922-1947.[6]
Between 1922 and 1947 the number of Muslims doubles and at the same time the number of Jews increase sixfold. The number of Jews doubles between 1922 and 1931 and triples between 1931 and 1947.
Figure 5.6 Population of Palestine, 1800-1947
The Sykes-Picot agreement, the Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate in Palestine were a continuation of the history of Britain’s involvement in the Middle East. Some of the key events are listed below. Naval control of the Mediterranean and of the Suez Canal route to Asia and the presence of oil in the Middle East are all in play.
1713 Britain gains control of Gibraltar
1800 Britain takes possession of Malta which becomes the home
of the British Mediterranean Fleet.
1854 France and Egypt & Sudan set up Suez Canal Company
1869 Suez Canal opened
1875 Britain buys Egypt & Sudan’s shares
1877-1960- British administration of Cyprus. Military bases
continue.
1882-1956 Egypt becomes a British protectorate and then
continues to be a base for British forces.
1908 Britain discovers oil in Iran[7]
1920-1948 British Mandate of Palestine
1948 founding of Israel
1956 Britain uses Cyprus as a base in a war, in collusion with
France and Israel, against Nasser’s seizure of the Suez
Canal.
In 1949 Israel had declared that Jerusalem was its capital but this had never been recognised by the international community in view of the UN plan to give the city special status. In December 2017 Donald Trump announced that the US would recognise Jerusalem as Israel’s capital and that the US would move its embassy there from Tel Aviv. The Palestinian response was protests and rocket attacks; and in return shelling from Israeli tanks. Protests also took place at the US embassy in Jordan. Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Turkey and Russia criticised Trump’s decision.
The move had been an election promise to his evangelical and Zionist supporters and the move was celebrated at a Hanukkah party at the White House. The American Jewish Committee (AJC) - established in 1906 – applauded the Trump move. Its Survey of American Jewish Opinion in the summer of 2017 found 16% wanting an immediate move of the US embassy to Jerusalem; 36% wanted a move at a later date in conjunction with progress at peace talks; and 44% wanting no move.[8]
The Organization of Islamic Cooperation recognized East Jerusalem as the occupied capital of a Palestinian state. Egypt tabled a motion at the UN Security Council regretting the US decision. This was supported by permanent members UK, France, Russia and China and the ten non-permanent members - but was vetoed by the USA.[9] The UN general assembly called on the USA to rescind its decision to move its embassy, the vote being 126 against 9 (US, Israel, Guatemala, Honduras, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau and Togo) with 35 countries abstaining (Canada, Australia and others). The US threatened there would be UN funding cuts and also consequences for countries who voted in favour.[10]
[1] Spencer, Richard, and Anshel Pfeffer. “Trump’s Jerusalem declaration angers US allies.” The Times, December 7, 2017: 36-7.
Philp, Catherine. “New chapter in centuries of religious unrest.” The Times, December 7, 2017: 36.
Spencer, Richard, and Anshel Pfeffer. “Palestinians rage against US shift on Jerusalem.” The Times, December 8, 2017: 34.
Spencer, Richard and Anshel Pfiffer. “Muslim world erupts in riots over Jerusalem row.” The Times, December 9, 2017: 46.
Deng, Boer. “Zionists and evangelists praise White House.” The Times, December 9, 2017: 46.
[1] UN News Centre. “Middle East: Security Council fails to adopt resolution on Jerusalem.” UN News Centre. December 18, 2017. Accessed: December 18, 2017.
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58307#.WjpNu99l-Uk.
[1] Blakely, Rhys. “United Nations votes against US recognition of Jerusalem.” The Times, December 22, 2017: 40.
Iran … Britain and Russia 1907-1979
[Iran] faced major challenges to its sovereignty, predominantly from the Russian and British empires. Foreign advisers became powerbrokers in the court and military. They eventually partitioned Qajar Iran in the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention, carving out Russian and British influence zones and a neutral zone.[20][21][22]
….. Qajar Iran's territorial integrity was further weakened during the Persian campaign of World War I and the invasion by the Ottoman Empire. Four years after the 1921 Persian coup d'état, Reza Shah took power in 1925 and formed the Imperial State of Persia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_Iran
It was formed in 1925 and lasted until 1979, when the Pahlavis were overthrown as a result of the Islamic Revolution, which abolished Iran's continuous monarchy and established the present-day Islamic Republic of Iran. The Pahlavi dynasty was founded in 1925 by Reza Shah, a former brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade. His reign lasted until 1941, when he was forced to abdicate by the Allies of World War II following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. He was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was the last Shah of Iran.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran
[1] Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel According to the Covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob. Edinburgh, William Whyte: 1843. p. 43.
Muir, Diana. “A land without a people for a people without a land.” Middle East Quarterly, 15, 2, 2008: 55-62.
[2] White, Ben. “This week a world leader much worse than Donald Trump is visiting the UK – but I don’t see any protest from MPs.” The Independent. November 2, 2017. Accessed: December 1, 2017.
http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/benjamin-netanyahu-uk-visit-israel-prime-minister-theresa-may-worse-donald-trump-protests-none-a8029301.html.
[3] Pfeffer, Anshel. “Hushed remembrance of Balfour deal centenary.” The Times, November 2, 2017: 31.
[4] Editorial. “Sixty-seven words. Britain’s firm commitment to a Jewish homeland … It should not be muddied by Labour’s distrust of Israel.” The Times, November 2, 2017: 31.
[5] Matter, Philip. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. London, Macmillan: 2004.
[6] Della Pergola, Sergio. “Demography in Israel/Palestine: trends, prospects, policy implications.” IUSSP XXIV General Population Conference. 2001. Accessed: 22 January 2018.
http://archive.iussp.org/Brazil2001/s60/S64_02_dellapergola.pdf.
[7] Owen, E. Roger. “One hundred years of Middle Eastern Oil.” Middle East Brief. Brandeis University. 2008. Accessed: January 22, 2018.
https://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB24.pdf.
[8] Spencer, Richard, and Anshel Pfeffer. “Trump’s Jerusalem declaration angers US allies.” The Times, December 7, 2017: 36-7.
Philp, Catherine. “New chapter in centuries of religious unrest.” The Times, December 7, 2017: 36.
Spencer, Richard, and Anshel Pfeffer. “Palestinians rage against US shift on Jerusalem.” The Times, December 8, 2017: 34.
Spencer, Richard and Anshel Pfiffer. “Muslim world erupts in riots over Jerusalem row.” The Times, December 9, 2017: 46.
Deng, Boer. “Zionists and evangelists praise White House.” The Times, December 9, 2017: 46.
[9] UN News Centre. “Middle East: Security Council fails to adopt resolution on Jerusalem.” UN News Centre. December 18, 2017. Accessed: December 18, 2017.
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58307#.WjpNu99l-Uk.
[10] Blakely, Rhys. “United Nations votes against US recognition of Jerusalem.” The Times, December 22, 2017: 40.
THE END Gordon Burt, 15 October 2023