What is Ancient Greek Philosophy

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2016-10-03 : the website is under construction.

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THE PROVERBS ARE O.K., but It will take me a few hours to re-insert the images of the greek philosophers, which for some reason were lost, after my last revision, which i have done a few days ago. so until i remove the sign 'website - under - construction' ... you can study the proverbs with safety !. Please stay on Alert !.

Notes: 1. Diogenes of Sinope ... and ... Sinope ... is the same Greek Philosopher

2. Heraclitus of Ephesus ,,, and ... Ephesus is the same Greek Philosopher

Attention: It is FREE! to COPY and to PASTE and to PRINT the Ancient Greek Philosophy in English. It is a BOOK of many PAGES.

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And yet ...

Philosophy

"The only difference between graffiti and philosophy is the word "fuck."

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WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY WITH HUMOUR - THE MOST FAMOUS QUOTATIONS

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Ancient Greek Philosophy in English

What is Ancient Greek Philosophy?

Ancient Greek Philosophy studies the philosophical activities and enquiries of the Greco-Roman thinkers. It covers a period of 1,000 years; from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD.

It starts from the theoretical novelty the early Presocratic thinkers such as Thales of Miletus and Anaximander of Miletus and ends to the late Neoplatonic and Aristotelian commentators such as Simplicius and Philoponus.

Ancient Greek philosophers can be found throughout the Greek-speaking Mediterranean regions such as South Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, Egypt and North Africa.

The questions posed from the Greek thinkers concern the philosophical areas of Cosmology, Ethics, Epistemology, Logic, Metaphysics and Aesthetics such as:

What is the origin of the Universe?

What is the nature of Cosmos?

Is there any transcendental reality beyond perceptual existence?

Is there any true knowledge?

Is there any ethical standard for good life?

The Philosophers

Ancient Greek Philosophers were mainly pagans and for this reason their philosophical activities were not totally welcomed by the rising Christianity. Hence the end of ancient philosophy is usually marked by the close of the Platonic Academy of Athens by the emperor Justinian in 529AD.

The last director of the Academy was Damascius.

The Writings

Unfortunately only a small part of the ancient philosophical writings survive nowadays.

It is noteworthy that the works of the Presocratic thinkers as well as of the Hellenistic philosophers survive only in fragments mainly from late doxographical sources. On the other hand, despite the fragmentary evidences of the Greek philosophical thought, its theoretical completeness and originality can be undoubtedly observed in the survived texts.

Time Periods

Ancient Greek Philosophy is usually divided into four time-periods:

Eminent thinkers and schools of these philosophical periods are the following:

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(1) Presocratic Philosophy (6th – 5th century BC)

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Los filósofos presocráticos - Cronología (640 a. C. — 370 a. C.)

( the above tabulation, has been copied from the Spanish version of the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia in the following web page

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( presocratic graph )

Graphical relationship among the various pre-socratic philosophers and thinkers; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy

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Philosophy of Nature

The origins of western philosophy and science can be found in the early Greek thinkers of the 6th and 7th century BC. The Presocratic philosophers lived and taught in Asia Minor, Thrace, Sicily and South Italy. Miletus was the native city of Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes; Colophon of Xenophanes; Ephesus of Heraclitus; Samos of Pythagoras and Melissus; Elea of Parmenides and Zeno; Sicily of Empedocles; Clazomenes of Anaxagoras; Abdera of Leucippus and Democritus. The Presocratic philosophy is a philosophy of nature. The Presocratics combined Greek mythology with rational thinking and sought all the forces which compose nature. Socrates grew up in the atmosphere of the Presocratic thought and explored their knowledge and wisdom. Socrates gave philosophy for the first time an anthropocentric character. The absence of this element in previous thought is the main reason why the adjective 'Pre-Socratic' is attributed to the philosophers before Socrates. The central question of the Presocratic philosophy was: what is the nature of cosmos? Based on this question, the Presocratics explored the primary substance (arche) of cosmos, as well as all those cosmic forces on which the universe is founded.

Presocratic Theories

Through this exploration an incredible pluralism of Presocratic concepts and theories emerged. Thales stated that the primary substance was the water, Anaximander an indefinite apeiron, Anaximenes the air, Heraclitus an ever-living fire, Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans an immortal and incorporeal number, Parmenides and the Eleatics an unchangeable and timeless Being, Empedocles the four elements (fire, water, air and earth), Anaxagoras a creative Mind and finally, Leucippus and Democritus just atoms and void. Due to their materialistic views, the Presocratics are also known as hylozoists. Unfortunately, not even a single complete work survives from the Presocratic philosophers. Only fragments of their words and testimonies of their theories can be found in later ancient authors. Modern scholarship aims through these primary sources to reconstruct Presocratic thought and study the radical theories and concepts of these early Greek thinkers.

Hylozoism

Due to their materialistic views, the Presocratics are also known as hylozoists. Hylozoism means that matter (hyle) includes an self-developed living force (zoe) that can produce and re-produce the living organism without the intervention of an outside power or force.

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The Ionians (Thales of Miletus, Anaximander of Miletus, Anaximenes of Miletus, Xenophanes, Heraclitus)

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Milesian school

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Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, held that all things arise from water. It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the "first man of science," but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons. According to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids.

Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the apeiron). He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites (e.g., hot and cold), yet a thing can become its opposite (e.g., a hot thing cold). Therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity (substratum, arche) could not be any of the classical elements, since they were one extreme or another. For example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet. Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether. Despite their varied answers, the Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain unchanged despite appearing in different forms, and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic theory; "the Milesians," says Burnet, "asked for the "fysis" of all things."

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Thales of Miletus

Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος

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Anaximander of Miletus

Αναξίμανδρος ο Μιλήσιος

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Anaximenes of Miletus

Αναξιμένης ο Μιλήσιος

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Xenophanes

Xenophanes was born in Ionia, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful, and may have picked up some of the Milesians' cosmological theories as a result. What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired.

Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his "naturalistic" explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish. He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion.

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Xenophanes of Colophon

Ξενοφάνης ο Κολοφώνιος

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Heraclitus

Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with Homer as proving that much learning cannot teach a man to think; since Parmenides refers to him in the past tense, this would place him in the 5th century BCE. Contrary to the Milesian school, who would have one stable element at the root of all, Heraclitus taught that

"everything flows" or "everything is in flux," the closest element to this flux being fire; he also extended the teaching that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself.

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Heraclitus of Ephesus

Ηράκλειτος ο Εφέσιος

Bramante, Heraclitus of Ephesus and Democritus of Abdera

Bramante, Ηράκλειτος ο Εφέσιος και Δημόκριτος ο Αβδηρίτης

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- The Pythagorean School - Pythagoreanism - Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans

(Pythagoras of Samos, Philolaus of Croton, Archytas of Tarantum, Alcmaeon of Croton)

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Pythagoras lived at roughly the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a rationalist whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or

that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain.

Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the arche of everything. Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony.

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Pythagoras of Samos

Πυθαγόρας ο Σάμιος

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Philolaus of Croton

Φιλόλαος ο Κροτωνιάτης

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Archytas of Tarantum

Αρχύτας ο Ταραντίνος

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Alcmaeon of Croton

Αλκμαίων ο Κροτωνιάτης

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Fyodor Bronnikov, Pythagoreans' Hymn to the Rising Sun, 1869.

Oil on canvas.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism

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- The Eleatic School - Eleatics

(Parmenides of Elea, Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos)

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Eleatic philosophy

Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions,"—presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him. Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging. Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist. While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought.

In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being.

His arguments are known as Zeno's paradoxes.

Parmenides of Elea

Παρμενίδης ο Ελεάτης

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Zeno of Elea

Ζήνων ο Ελεάτης

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Zeno Achilles Paradox Zeno Arrow Paradox

Zeno Dichotomy Paradox Zeno Moving Rows Paradox

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Melissus of Samos

Μέλισσος ο Σάμιος

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- The Pluralists and the Atomists (Empedocles of Acragas, Anaxagoras of Clazomenes ( or Clazomenae) (or Klazomenai) and Democritus of Abdera).

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Pluralism and atomism

The power of Parmenides' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the arche, and adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras. There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.

Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus.

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Empedocles of Acragante (Agrigentum)

Εμπεδοκλής ο Ακραγαντίνος απο τον Ακράγαντα (Αγκριτζέντο) της Σικελίας

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Anaxagoras of Clazomenes

Αναξαγόρας από τις Κλαζομενές

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Anaxagoras of Clazomenes and Pericles

Αναξαγόρας από τις Κλαζομενές και Περικλής

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Democritus of Abdera

Δημόκριτος ο Αβδηρίτης

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Democritus of Abdera and Heraclitus of Ephesus

Δημόκριτος ο Αβδηρίτης και Ηράκλειτος ο Εφέσιος

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Democritus of Abdera and Protagoras of Abdera

Δημόκριτος ο Αβδηρίτης και Πρωταγόρας ο Αβδηρίτης

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(2) Classical Philosophy (4th century BC)

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- The Sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Hippias and Prodicus).

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Sophistry

Sophistry arose from the juxtaposition of physis (nature) and nomos (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific

progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses

and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order; the world in which men lived, on the other hand, was

one of law and order, albeit of humankind's own making. At the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed.

The first man to call himself a sophist, according to Plato, was Protagoras, whom he presents as teaching that all virtue is conventional. It was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not," which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism, where some things seem to be one way for one person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are that way as well); the conclusion being that one cannot look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one's life.

Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach rhetoric as their primary vocation. Prodicus, Gorgias, Hippias, and Thrasymachus appear in various Dialogues, sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance, the guidance that the laws provide is worthless, or that nature favors those who act against the laws.

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Democritus (center) and Protagoras (right)

17th century painting by Salvator Rosa

in Hermitage Museum

Protagoras of Abdera

Πρωταγόρας ο Αβδηρίτης

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Gorgias of Leontini in Sicily

Γοργίας ο Λεοντίνος, απο τους Λεοντίνους, της Σικελίας

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- Socrates - Plato - Aristotle

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Socrates of Athens

Σωκράτης ο Αθηναίος

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Socrates of Athens and Alcibiades

Σωκράτης ο Αθηναίος και Αλκιβιάδης

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Socrates of Athens and Xanthippe

Σωκράτης ο Αθηναίος και Ξανθίππη

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Socrates of Athens and Plato of Athens or Aegina

Σωκράτης ο Αθηναίος και Πλάτων απο την Αθήνα ή την Αίγινα

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Plato of Athens or Aegina

Πλάτων απο την Αθήνα ή την Αίγινα

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Socrates of Athens and Plato of Athens or Aegina

Σωκράτης ο Αθηναίος και Πλάτων απο την Αθήνα ή την Αίγινα

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Plato of Athens or Aegina and Aristotle of Stagira

Πλάτων απο την Αθήνα ή την Αίγινα και Αριστοτέλης ο Σταγειρίτης

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Aristotle of Stagira, Chalcidice

Αριστοτέλης ο Σταγειρίτης απο τα Στάγειρα ,της Χαλκιδικής

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Plato of Athens or Aegina and Aristotle of Stagira

Πλάτων απο την Αθήνα ή την Αίγινα και Αριστοτέλης ο Σταγειρίτης

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Aristotle of Stagira, Chalcidice and Great Alexander

Αριστοτέλης ο Σταγειρίτης απο τα Στάγειρα ,της Χαλκιδικής και Μέγας Αλέξανδρος

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(3) Hellenistic Philosophy (late 4th century BC – 1st century AD)

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world and then the Greco-Roman world. There were Greeks,

Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs who contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an

influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were:

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Neoplatonism: Plotinus (Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Zethos (Arab), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus

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Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman)

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Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Pyrrho of Elea, Sextus Empiricus

Pyrrho of Elea

Πύρρων ο Ηλείος

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Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism)

Antisthenes

Αντισθένης

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Antisthenes and Diogenes of Sinope

Αντισθένης και Διογένης απο τη Σινώπη ( ο Σινωπεύς ) ο Κυνικός

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Diogenes of Sinope

Διογένης απο τη Σινώπη ( ο Σινωπεύς ) ο Κυνικός

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Antisthenes and Diogenes of Sinope

Αντισθένης και Διογένης απο τη Σινώπη ( ο Σινωπεύς ) ο Κυνικός

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Alexander The Great and Diogenes

Μέγας Αλέξανδρος και Διογένης

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Crates of Thebes

Κράτης ο Θηβαίος ο κυνικός

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Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus, (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman)

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Zeno of Citium

Ζήνων ο Κιτιεύς

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Epictetus

Επίκτητος

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Rear Admiral James B. Stockdale

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Epicureanism: Epicurus (Greek) and Lucretius (Roman)

Epicurus

Επίκουρος

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Eclecticism: Cicero (Roman)

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The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy.

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(4) Imperial Philosophy (1st century AD – 6th century AD)

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- Middle-Platonism (Plutarch, Albinus, Apuleius, Atticus, Maximus Ammonius, Philo)

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Plutarch

Πλούταρχος απο τη Χαιρώνια απο τη Βιωτία

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- Neo-Pythagoreanism (Nicomachus, Moderatus of Gades, Numenius)

- Early Neoplatonism (Plotinus, Porphyry, Amelius)

- Later Neoplatonists (Iamblichus, Proclus, Damascius)

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(5) Transmission of Greek philosophy under Islam

During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe (where, between the fall of Rome and the East-

West Schism, literacy in Greek had declined sharply). Not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin. The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas.

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Appendix 1 :

( presocratic graph )

Graphical relationship among the various pre-socratic philosophers and thinkers; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.

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Appendix 2 :

Raphael, School of Athens, fresco, 1509-1511 (Stanza della Segnatura, Papal Palace, Vatican)

The School of Athens

The School of Athens, or Scuola di Atene in Italian, is one of the most famous frescoes by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted between 1509 and 1511 as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The Stanza della Segnatura was the first of the rooms to be decorated, and The School of Athens, representing Philosophy, was probably the second painting to be finished there, after La Disputa (Theology) on the opposite wall, and the Parnassus (Literature). The picture has long been seen as "Raphael's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the Renaissance.

Program, subject, figure identifications and interpretations

The School of Athens is one of a group of four main frescoes on the walls of the Stanza (those on either side centrally interrupted by windows) that depict distinct branches of knowledge. Each theme is identified above by a separate tondo containing a majestic female figure seated in the clouds, with putti bearing the phrases: "Seek Knowledge of Causes," "Divine Inspiration," "Knowledge of Things Divine" (Disputa), "To Each What Is Due." Accordingly, the figures on the walls below exemplify Philosophy, Poetry (including Music), Theology, and Law. The traditional title is not Raphael’s. The subject of the "School" is actually "Philosophy," or at least ancient Greek philosophy, and its overhead tondo-label, "Causarum Cognitio," tells us what kind, as it appears to echo Aristotle’s emphasis on wisdom as knowing why, hence knowing the causes, in Metaphysics Book I and Physics Book II. Indeed, Plato and Aristotle appear to be the central figures in the scene. However, all the philosophers depicted sought knowledge of first causes. Many lived before Plato and Aristotle, and hardly a third were Athenians. The architecture contains Roman elements, but the general semi-circular setting having Plato and Aristotle at its centre might be alluding to Pythagoras’ circumpunct.

Commentators have suggested that nearly every great ancient Greek philosopher can be found in the painting, but determining which are depicted is difficult, since Raphael made no designations outside possible likenesses, and no contemporary documents explain the painting. Compounding the problem, Raphael had to invent a system of iconography to allude to various figures for whom there were no traditional visual types. For example, while the Socrates figure is immediately recognizable from Classical busts, the alleged Epicurus is far removed from his standard type. Aside from the identities of the figures depicted, many aspects of the fresco have been variously interpreted, but few such interpretations are unanimously accepted among scholars. The popular idea that the rhetorical gestures of Plato and Aristotle are kinds of pointing (to the heavens, and down to earth) is very likely. But Plato’s Timaeus – which is the book Raphael places in his hand – was a sophisticated treatment of space, time, and change, including the Earth, which guided mathematical sciences for over a millennium. Aristotle, with his four-elements theory, held that all change on Earth was owing to motions of the heavens. In the painting Aristotle carries his Ethics, which he denied could be reduced to a mathematical science. It is not certain how much the young Raphael knew of ancient philosophy, what guidance he might have had from people such as Bramante, or whether a detailed program was dictated by his sponsor, Pope Julius II. Nevertheless, the fresco has even recently been interpreted as an exhortation to philosophy and, in a deeper way, as a visual representation of the role of Love in elevating people toward upper knowledge, largely in consonance with contemporary theories of Marsilio Ficino and other neo-Platonic thinkers linked to Raphael. Finally, according to Vasari, the scene includes Raphael himself, the Duke of Mantua, Zoroaster and some Evangelists.

However, as Heinrich Wölfflin observed, "it is quite wrong to attempt interpretations of the ‘School of Athens’ as an esoteric treatise ... The all-important thing was the artistic motive which expressed a physical or spiritual state, and the name of the person was a matter of indifference" in Raphael’s time. What is evident is Raphael’s artistry in orchestrating a beautiful space, continuous with that of viewers in the Stanza, in which a great variety of human figures, each one expressing "mental states by physical actions," interact, in a "polyphony" unlike anything in earlier art, in the ongoing dialogue of Philosophy.

An interpretation of the fresco relating to hidden symmetries of the figures and the star constructed by Bramante was given by Guerino Mazzola and collaborators

Figures

The identities of some of the philosophers in the picture, such as Plato or Aristotle, are certain. Beyond that, identifications of Raphael’s figures have always been hypothetical. To complicate matters, beginning from Vasari’s efforts, some have received multiple identifications, not only as ancients but also as figures contemporary with Raphael.

Luitpold Dussler counts among those who can be identified with some certainty: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Pythagoras, Euclid, Ptolemy, Zoroaster, Raphael, Sodoma and Diogenes. Other identifications he holds to be "more or less speculative".

A more comprehensive list of proposed identifications is given below:

The parenthetical names are the contemporary characters from whom Raphael is thought to have drawn his likenesses.

1: Zeno of Citium 2: Epicurus Possibly, the image of two philosophers, who were typically shown in pairs during the Renaissance: Heraclitus, the "weeping" philosopher, and Democritus, the "laughing" philosopher. 3: unknown (believed to be Raphael)^[14] 4: Boethius or Anaximander or Empedocles? 5: Averroes 6: Pythagoras 7: Alcibiades or Alexander the Great? 8: Antisthenes or Xenophon or Timon? 9: Raphael,^[14][15][16] Fornarina as a personification of Love^[17] or Francesco Maria della Rovere? 10: Aeschines or Xenophon? 11: Parmenides? (Leonardo da Vinci) 12: Socrates 13: Heraclitus (Michelangelo) 14: Plato (Leonardo da Vinci) 15: Aristotle (Giuliano da Sangallo) 16: Diogenes of Sinope 17: Plotinus (Donatello?) 18: Euclid or Archimedes with students (Bramante?) 19: Strabo or Zoroaster? (Baldassare Castiglione) 20: Ptolemy? R: Apelles (Raphael) 21: Protogenes (Il Sodoma, Perugino, or Timoteo Viti)^[18]

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