History of Greece - Famous Greek quotes - Famous Greek people - in English

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1. History of Greece

Greece is a country with a very rich history and the homeland of many famous personalities throughout centuries. This section proposes information about the history of Greece: from Stone and Bronze age to the Twentieth century, but also information about other historical facts: famous quotes, famous personalities of ancient Greece, Olympic games, flags, archaeological sites, historical monuments and Unesco Sites in Greece. We also propose information about history of Greece for many locations and Greek islands.

History during Stone and bronze age

Bronze age history Excavations show that the first settlement in Ancient Greece dates from the Palaeolithic era (11,000-3,000 BC). During the second millennium BC, Greece gave birth to the great stone and bronze civilization: the Minoans (2600-1500 BC), the Mycenaeans (1500-1150 BC) and the Cycladic civilization. These were the first important civilizations in the Greek history.

The Stone Age

According to archaeologists, the earliest settlements in Greece date from the Palaeolithic era, between 11,000-3,000 BC, when a population coming from the east (and, as some believe, from Central Europe) started to develop stone tools and basic agricultural activities. In fact, the earliest organized town in Europe is the ancient town of Poliochni, Lemnos island, which dates from the 3rd millennium BC. Excavations have proved that the civilization in Greece became more advanced between 3,500 and 3,000 B.C, with larger villages and a social organization with the formation of an elite group. Extensive agricultural communities appeared that were fishing, producing clay pottery and making sea expeditions. The good weather conditions and advanced social formations attracted to the Greek territory immigrants and traders from all the Mediterranean Sea. At the same period, trace of religion appeared, with gods inspired from nature: clay figurines of female and animals were placed in sanctuaries and graves

The Bronze age

The art of metalworking arrived from the east around 3,000 BC. The use of bronze in tool making and weaponry was a rebirth for the civilization in Greece. The 2nd millennium BC gave birth to some great civilizations: the Minoan on Crete island, the Mycenaean on the mainland and the Cycladic (in Cyclades islands) in the islands of Centre Aegean. This period is characterized by a rapid growth of population and development of trading. The islands of Cyclades, located in the centre of the Aegea Sea, were an important trade centre between Europe and Asia. The Cycladic civilization developed rapidly in all domains: trade, politics and culture with impressive frescoes and marble figurines. Samples of the Cycladic architecture can be seen in the Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens and the regional museums on the Cyclades islands.

The Minoan Civilization

The Minoan civilization, named after the mythical King Minos, developed in Crete around 2,600 BC and onwards. The Minoans had a flourishing economic, political, social and cultural organization. The Minoan period was characterized by important trade activities and the construction of impressive palaces such as Knossos, Malia, Zakros and Phaestos. During this period, the first writing in the Greek World, called Linear A, appeared for the first time in Crete. The Minoans also developed a strong naval power and installed many colonies in the Aegean Sea. According to the remains found on the island of Crete and the lack of defensive walls, the Minoan civilization must have had peaceful relations with the other civilizations of the Aegean. This civilization disappeared suddenly around 1,500 BC, possibly due to the huge volcanic eruption of Santorini island. It is believed that the eruption has caused an enormous earthquake and huge tsunamis that crossed the southern Aegean and covered the Minoan towns in volcanic ashes. It is after that period, around 1,200 BC, that the rival Mycenaean civilization took control of the trade network of Crete.

The Mycenaean Civilization

The Mycenaean civilization took its name from the town of Mycenae, the most powerful kingdom that actually dominated all through this era. The Mycenaean society was formed by an elite group organized around the authority of a single figure, the king, with varying degrees of power. Their citadels were fortified with the "Cyclopean walls", called this way because the Greeks believed that only Cyclopes could have lift so large stones. The Mycenaean society with its great military strength conquered Crete and took the control of the Minoan trade network. The Mycenaeans also used a written language called Linear B, a development of the former Minoan Linear A, used only to register the goods and produce into the palaces. It was also the Mycenaeans that started the war against Troy as well as other expeditions around the Aegean. Between 1,250 and 1,150 BC, a combination of internal warfare and invasions from northern tribes destroyed most of the Mycenaean towns and the Mycenaean civilization disappeared.

The Dorian Invasion

The civilizations that flourished during the Bronze Age ended in an abrupt way during the 12th century BC when the tribe of the Dorians came from northern Europe. They scattered the Mycenaean population and decentralized their established control system. Agriculture, industry and trade activities were divided to the villages. Gradually the economy, politics and culture declined and all the trade networks with the Near East collapsed. The art of writing also disappeared.

History during Classical period

The Classical Period (6th-4th century BC) is very famous worldwide. The peak of the classical period is the 5th century BC, when the foundations of the western civilization were created in Athens. This city-state became the greatest naval power of ancient Greece that time and developed all domains of culture, including philosophy, music, drama, rhetoric and even a new regime called democracy. It is not exaggerating to say that this period changed the history of the world. Athens and Sparta were the most powerful city-states in ancient Greece and the other city-states were actually allied to one or the other of these two towns. In the 5th century, the allied Greek city-states managed to repel the invasion of the Persians. However, the Peloponnesian War that followed, between Athens and Sparta, led to the decline of the glorious classical era. That was when the kingdom of Macedon, a tribe residing in northern Greece, came to power defeating and conquering the other Greek city-states. After the death of king Phillip II, his son Alexander started a large expedition in Asia. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Persian Empire and his army conquered all the way till India. However, in 323 BC, he dies in Babylon at the age of 33 and his Macedonian empire is torn apart and governed by his heirs.

Information about the history of Greece during ancient times: the formation of the city-state, the classical period, the expedition of Alexander the Great and other important events in Ancient Greece.

The formation of the city-state

In the 8th century BC, the Dorian's rule declined and the towns started to re-emerge. Two towns, Argos and Corinth began trades with the Near East and a wealthy elite group emerged from trading. These two ports were specialized in the manufacture of luxury goods and products like olive oil, wine and wheat that were stored and transported in pot vases. This is why pottery was also developed that time. In trade contacts with the Phoenicians, they adopted their phonetic alphabet and other innovations. Many Greek colonies based on trade and agriculture were founded all around the Mediterranean Basin and the Black Sea. This way, the Greek culture started slowly to grow and gradually more than 150 colonies were established. These colonies had strong connections with the mother town and provided economic and military support to each other. Another interesting fact is that poetry started to develop that time. The first poets were sung by professional singers with the accompaniment of music. In the 8th century, two poems that were sung as part of tradition since the 12th century BC were sung by Homer and written down by his students. These poems were the Iliad and the Odyssey. From political aspect, this period is characterized by the growth of the city-state called polis. The two most important city-states that began to develop were Sparta and Athens. Sparta was the first city that organized itself with a strict social structure and a government that included an assembly representing all citizens. In the meanwhile, a largest polis appeared which also included several other regions of Attica and was named Athens, a name taken by goddess Athena according to the myth. The first social system of Athens was based on wealth rather than aristocratic birth. Although in different ways, Sparta and Athens both included all citizens in their political system. During this period, inter-state relations started to grow between the towns of ancient Greece. In religious or athletic festivals, such as the Olympic Games, the Greek people showed an early sense of common identity and referred to themselves as Hellenes. All the foreigners were called barbarians. In the 6th century BC, the Greek towns faced the threat of the Persian Empire, under the rule of King Xerxes who had views on invading Greece and consequently the entire Europe. The Hellenic league, under the leadership of Athens and Sparta, decisively defeated the Persians at the battles of Marathon, Salamis and Plateae. They only defeated in the Battle of Thermopylae, where king Leonidas of Sparta and his 300 soldiers stayed to laten the Persians while the other Greek towns were preparing their counter attacks. Leonidas and his soldiers died in this battle but gave the precious advantage of time to the other Greeks to get ready and eventually win the Persian army. After the Persian Wars, two large leagues were formed in the Greece territory: the Peloponnesian League, headed by Sparta and the Delian League, headed by Athens.

The Classical Period

From the 6th to the 4th century, Athens was the dominating power in the Aegean Sea and had developed strong connections with ports around the Mediterranean Sea. The Athenian Empire was composed of 172 tribute-paying towns and had got very rich out of trade with other city-states of ancient Greece and other countries of the Mediterranean basin. This enormous wealth permitted Athens to flourish in terms of art, architecture, literature, philosophy and politics. Until the beginning of the 6th century, Athens was ruled by aristocrats and generals. The position of the citizen in the hierarchy depended upon his wealth. Poor citizens had no rights until Solon, law giver and poet, put the basis for democracy when he declared all free (non-slaves) Athenians equal by law and abolished inherited privileges. Pericles, a general who was elected governor in 461 BC, established a developed kind of democracy upon which all decisions were taken by the general assembly of the Athenian citizens. These meetings would take place in the Agora (modern Thissio), where political matters were discussed and governors were elected. All Athenians had the right to vote, speak and become candidate for governor. Also all Athenians by turn were holding official positions, sharing thus wisdom and responsibility in this co-operative democracy. Pericles also showed special interest in education and legislated that even the poorest children must be educated in public schools. He also constructed many public works, monuments and temples, including the Acropolis that symbolized the majesty of Athens. This period is known as the Golden Age of Athens. With the enormous growth of Athens, many city states felt threatened. One of the states was Sparta. This town had developed a close military culture. The Spartans were not allowed to exit the town, they received a military education all through their lives and had many slaves to cultivate their land while they were fighting for the defense and expansion of their hometown. The rivalry between Athens and Sparta led to Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), a war that gradually included almost all towns of Greece as allies of either Athens or Sparta. After many years of war and mostly after the death of Pericles, the Athenians were eventually defeated. However, the end of this war found most Greek towns down to their knees after the long battles.

The expedition of Alexander the Great

After the Peloponnesian War, a new political force emerged, Macedon. The Macedonians were a tribe of northern Greece with different customs and social organization. It was organized with a headman, the king, concentrating all the state powers. Macedon quickly became a large kingdom and under King Philip II they even conquered Athens and Thebes in 338 BC. He united all the Greek towns and wanted to start an expedition against the Persians but death caught up on him. After his assassination, his son Alexander became king at the age of 22 and continued the vision of his father. Alexander the Great invaded Asia in 334 BC with 30,000 soldiers from all Greece, except for the Spartans who denied following the expedition due to religious beliefs. Before dying at the age of 33 of malarial fever, Alexander the Great had conquered the entire Persian Empire, Egypt, Mesopotamia, modern Afghanistan and some parts of India. After the death of Alexander the Great, the large Macedonian Empire that expanded from Greece to India were torn into pieces. New monarchies made their appearance in this period that is called the Hellenistic period but they did not last for long. The concept of polis had disappeared and states of larger size appeared. However, in these states that were spread in all eastern world, the Greek language remained the official language in trade, administration and literature. The history of Ancient Greece is now entering a new stage: the Hellenistic and Roman period.

History during Roman period

From 168 BC and onwards, the Romans conquer Greece and a new period starts for the Greek history. This is actually the period where ancient Greece turns into Roman Greece. That time, the country becomes the field of many important battles and new cities are constructed, such as Nikopolis in western Greece. Athens and generally the Greek culture declines, but the Greek becomes a second official language for the Roman Empire. The Romans read the classical philosophers and base their religion on the Olympian gods. In the 3rd century AD, the powerful Roman Empire starts to decline and it is divided in two pieces, the Eastern and the Western Roman Empire.

The Macedonian Empire, due to the constant warfare among the several autonomous kingdoms, was made vulnerable. At the same time, Ancient Greece was threatened from the East by Persians, Parthians, and Bactrians and from the West by the Romans, who had started expanding their power in southern Italy. The most important adversary of Rome in the Mediterranean Sea was the Empire of Carthage (modern Tunisia). Wars lasting for 45 years started between these two empires. Ancient Greece was involved in this campaign against Rome. Hannibal, the Carthaginian leader, allied with Philip V of Macedonia, the most important power of the Balkans. The Romans defeated the Macedonians in the first and second Macedonian Wars that ended in 197 BC. The victorious commander Flamininus established a protectorate over the independent city-states of Greece. The Achaean confederacy started a rebellion in 146 BC that resulted in the destruction of Corinth. Severe and oppressive restrictions were set. Rome had no consistent policy about the Greek states. They demanded only security and revenue. Greece under the Roman Empire, from 31 BC to 180 AD is described as the era of the Pax Romana, a Roman Peace between Rome and the central areas of the Empire, like Greece and the Greek East. This period is described as a period of peace and security which permitted an economical and cultural progress, especially in the cities such as Athens, Corinth, Alexandria, Miletus, Thessaloniki, and Smyrna. Due to a decentralized Roman provincial administration, the urban Greek elite re-appeared, which also had the right to participate to the Roman Senate. The Romans welcomed the Greek culture and Latin and Greek became the official languages of the Empire. A Greco-Roman Empire was created.

History during Byzantine Period

While the Western Roman Empire was gradually conquered by barbaric North-European tribes, the Eastern Roman Empire with Constantinople (Byzantium) as capital developed and was turned into the Byzantine Empire that lasted for about 1,000 years. At this point of history, Christianity becomes the official religion of the new empire, new territories are occupied and new state laws are formed. These laws will later constitute the first laws of the modern Greek state, as it will be formed in the 19th century.

During the 3rd century AD, Greece was invaded by various tribes from the Balkans and Eastern Europe that were fighting the Roman army. The Pax Romana was endangered. Deep social and economical problems rose all over the Empire and taxes were increased to expand or reorganize the army. In the meantime, Christianity had been recognized as a religion in the Empire. In 305 AD, Constantine became the Emperor of Rome. In 324 AD, the Emperor Constantine I transferred the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium which took the name of Constantinople, meaning the town of Constantine. In 364 AD, the Empire was officially split and the Roman Empire was divided in two parts: the Roman Empire at the west and the Byzantine Empire at the east. The Roman Empire started to decline after the invasion of barbarian troops from the North. The strategic location of Constantinople, between the Black Sea and the Aegean, allowed controlling trade and developing the economy. Even if Constantine gave legitimacy to Christianity, paganism continued to exist until it gradually disappeared. During the 6th century, the Emperor Justinian expanded the empire's territory by conquering the southern Levant, northern Africa and Italy. He organized a centralized bureaucracy and a new fiscal system. However, the Empire was engaged in several wars that left it very vulnerable. Serious threats would frequently come both from the East and West. During the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire was ruled by a Macedonian dynasty which conquered new territories in the Middle East and opened new trade lines. These military successes improved the economical status of the Empire. These periods of prosperity were followed by decline after the 11th century. In 1208 AD, the Knights of Saint John seized Constantinople and caused damages to a large part of the town. After that, the Venetians conquered the largest part of the Greek mainland and the islands. These territories were lost by the Venetians to the Ottomans in the 14th century. Constantinople finally felt to the Ottomans in 1453 BC, marking the end of the Byzantine period.

History during Ottomans period and Independence war

In 1453 BC, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and gradually the rest of Greece, which had already partly been dominated by the Venetians and the Knights of Saint John. The country suffered a lot under the Ottoman occupation and frequent rebellions would rise. As these revolutions were unorganized, they were all suspended by the Ottoman army, until March 1821 when the Greek War of Independence broke out. This year is a cornerstone for the history of the country. After many fights, massacres and seizes, the country finally got its freedom in 1829, when the first independent Greek state was formed and Ioannis Kapodistrias, a Greek diplomat in the Russian courtyard, was set as governor. The first Greek state included Peloponnese, Sterea and the Cyclades islands.

Information about the history of Greece during Ottoman occupation and war of independance.

The Ottomans Occupation

After it fell to the Ottomans, Constantinople was renamed Istanbul. The Ottoman state was a theocracy and its political system was based on hierarchy with the Sultan at the top, having absolute divine rights. The Ottomans divided the non-Muslim community into millets: Armenian, Catholic, Jewish, and Orthodox, giving to each millet a large part of autonomy. The ruler of the millet was the religious leader who was responsible for the obedience of the subjects to the Sultan. The head of the Orthodox millet was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The patriarch had much power and played an important role to the development of the Greek Orthodox society the times of the Ottoman occupation. The Ottoman state had a much decentralized administration. They designed local military leaders and later the Empire was divided into regions that were governed by Pashas. Official contact was limited to tax collection and military conscription. The Orthodox priests and Christian primates collected taxes and maintained order but on the other hand they kept the Greek language and traditions alive and allowed keeping the national identity. The Ottoman system discriminated the non-Muslim population by imposing special taxes like the head tax and tax for freedom. Those centuries, many Greek families moved to other countries, mostly Romania, Russia, Italy and Austria, where they were dealing with trade. These Greek communities abroad played an important role in the development of the Greek identity and helped economically their occupied homeland. They were influenced by all the modern currents, including the ideology of revolution. Many diaspora Greeks became rich and helped by founding schools and other public institutions back home. Movements for independence started to multiply in the beginning of the 19th century. This was when the Filiki Eteria was founded, a secret movement that aimed to start the revolutionary war of Greece.

The War of Independence

On March 25th, 1821, after four centuries of Ottoman occupation, the Greek Revolution broke out. Sporadic revolts against the Turkish broke out in the Peloponnese and the Aegean islands by some determined guerrilla fighters. A year later, the rebels had set the Peloponnese free and the independence of Greece was declared in January 1822 by the National Assembly of the Greeks. The Greek cause created a feeling of philhellenism from foreigners all over Europe. Many of them came in Greece to fight and die for the country. The determination of the Greeks and the Philhellenes finally won the support of the Great Powers: Russia, United Kindgom and France. The Great power asked the Turkish Sultan to draw back. The Turks refused and the Great Powers sent their naval fleets to Navarino, destroying the Egyptian fleets that were helping the Turkish forces. A Greco-Turkish arrangement was finally signed in London in 1829 which declared Greece an independent state with Ioannis Kapodistrias as his first governor. Once the War of Independence came to an end, Greece felt into a period of disillusion. The first state included Peloponnese, Sterea, the Cyclades and the Saronic islands. The country was very poor, the landowners were asking for their ancient privileges while the peasants wanted a redistribution of the land. After the assassination of Kapodistrias in Nafplion, the Bavarian Prince Otto was named the King of Greece. He governed for many years till 1862, when he was exiled for ignoring the Greek Constitution. The next king was Danish, King George I. As a gift to Greece, the United Kingdom to the new king the Ionian islands, that were under British occupation till then. King George I ruled the country for 50 years and brought stability and a new Constitution which specified the monarchic powers.

History of the Twentieth century

After Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831, prince Otto from Bavaria became the first king of Greece, followed by George I from Denmark in 1863. That time, the Ionian islands were donated to Greece by Britain as a gift to the new king and then Thessaly was attached to the Greek state by the Turks. In the early 20th century, Macedonia, Crete and the Eastern Aegean islands were also attached to the Greek state after the First World War. This was the time when the figure of an important Greek politician raised, Eleftherios Venizelos, the most famous prime-minister of modern history.

The year 1922 was troublesome for Greece as many Greek refugees from Asia Minor came to the mainland, part of population exchange with Turkey. Although at first, it was very difficult for the refugees to adapt in their new lives, they gradually contributed a lot in the development of the country. During World War II, Greece resisted a lot the Axis forces, but eventually most of the Greek territory was conquered by the Germans and some parts by the Italians.

After the Second World War, the Dodecanese islands, that were still under Italian occupation since the early 20th century, also became part of the Greek state. Three decades of political turmoil followed, including a military junta from 1967 till 1974. Since 1975, the regime of Greece is Parliamentary Republic.

The early 20th century

The early 20th century finds Greece weak after many bankruptcies and the lost Greco-Turkish war of 1897. In 1881, Thessaly had already been attached to the Greek state. Many volunteers from all over the country go to Macedonia to fight against the Turks and the Bulgarians that occupy the region. This period from 1904 to 1908 is called the Macedonian Struggle. In 1912, after the first Balkan Wars, Macedonia and Epirus are attached to the Greek State and in 1913, it was the turn of Crete to be united to the rest of Greece. These were the results of the political efforts of Eleftherios Venizelos, an inspired Cretan leader that became prime minister of Greece. Venizelos worked hard for the reunification of all Greece, he established constitutional amendments and social laws and re-equipped the army. He managed to stabilize the country to a great extend. When World War I erupted, King Constantine believed in maintaining a neutral position but Prime Minister Venizelos was passionately pro-Entente. The Entente reinforced his position by promising to award Asia Minor to Greece. Venizelos wanted to make "Magna Grecia", that is to unite the country as per its ancient territories. He set up an allied revolutionary government in Thessaloniki and the Greek army invaded the city of Smyrna, a town with large Greek population, in 1919. The Greek army was marching, regaining the territory of Asia Minor where Greek populations were residing since the 8th century BC. However, when Venizelos lost the elections in Greece, the Greek army started to lose the fights and was finally severely defeated. The treaty that followed provoked a population exchange. 400,000 Turkish Muslims were traded against one million Orthodox Greeks. The Asia Minor destruction of 1922 was a large wound for the country: immigrants who had lost their homes were coming in the mainland, that could do very little to comfort them. A new wave of economical difficulties followed and the next decade was filled with internal political turmoils.

The German Occupation

Greece endured a succession of monarchies, a military rule and brief democracies. In 1936, General Metaxas was appointed Prime Minister by the King George II and inaugurated an oppressive fascist dictatorship. In October 28th, 1940, Metaxas was opposed to German and Italian domination and refused Mussolini’s demand to occupy the country during World War II. This day is celebrated as the Ohi Day in Greece. Greece fell to the Nazi troops in April 1941, which resulted to the mass destruction of ancient sites, large scale executions and the extermination of the largest part of the Jewish community who were residing in many Greek towns, such as Athens, Thessaloniki and Rhodes. Resistance movements sprang up but they were divided between a royalist and communist movement. In October 1944, Greece was set free by the Germans but a couple of months later a civil war started between the royalist and communists. The royalist had a great finance help from America in order to prevent a communist Greece. The American implemented the "Certificate of Political Reliability". This document declared that the holder didn’t have left-wing sympathies. It was somehow obligatory to have this certificate otherwise Greek people could not find any type of work. The war lasted until 1949 when the royalists claimed victory.

The Military Junta

The years that followed were instable from political and financial aspect. A large immigration wave spread towards Athens and also abroad, mostly in the USA, Germany, Australia and South Africa. In April 21st, 1967, a group of army colonels staged a military junta which was characterized by repression, brutality upon, censorship and political incompetence. The Junta enjoyed US support and investment. Many social rebellions would take place during the seven years of the junta, from 1967 till 1974. The most important rebellion was the Polytechnic Uprise in November 17th, 1973, when university students had locked themselves in the Polytechnic School and were asking for the fall of junta. The Junta eventually fell in July 1974, after the government attempted to assassinate the leader of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios, in order to unite Cyprus with Greece, which led to the Turkish invasion and occupation of Northern Cyprus. After the fall of the Greek Junta, Konstantinos Karamanlis, former prime minister, came back to power organizing parliamentary elections and a referendum for the fate of monarchy in Greece. The monarchy was defeated by a two-third vote and a new constitution was established in 1975. A parliamentary republic was organized, with a president at the head of the state, appointed by the legislature. In 1981, Greece became a member of the European Community.

2. Famous Greek quotes

This section provides some famous Greek Quotes by famous people throughout Greek history. From the ancient till the modern times, Greece has been the homeland for many important historical events and people who have marked the history of the country and have influenced the course of the world. People with talent, inspiration and vision have set the grounds of modern civilization. You will find bellow a list of famous Greek quotes by famous people in Greece..

Socrates Philosopher of the 5th century BC One thing I know, that I know nothing. This is the source of my wisdom.

Plato Philosopher of the 5th century BC Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find a way around the laws.

Aristotle Philosopher of the 4th century BC Anybody can become angry - that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way - that is not within everybody's power and is not easy.

Epicurus Philosopher of the 4th century BC You don't develop courage by being happy in your relationships everyday. You develop it by surviving difficult times and challenging adversity.

Heraclitus Philosopher of the 4th century BC There is nothing permanent except change. Socrates Philosopher of the 5th century BC By all means, get married: if you find a good wife, you'll be happy; if not, you'll become a philosopher.

Alexander the Great Conqueror of the 4th century BC I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well.

Plutarch Historian of the 1st century BC The real destroyer of the liberties of the people is he who spreads among them bounties, donations and benefits.

Democritus Philosopher of the 5th century BC Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is just opinion.

Aristotle Philosopher of the 4th century BC Love is composed of a single soul inhabiting two bodies.

Socrates Philosopher of the 5th century BC All men's souls are immortal, but the souls of the righteous are immortal and divine.

Plato Philosopher of the 5th century BC He who steals a little steals with the same wish as he who steals much, but with less power.

Epicurus Philosopher of the 4th century BC Death does not concern us, because as long as we exist, death is not here. And when it does come, we no longer exist.

Solon Lawmaker of the 6th century BC Let no man be called happy before his death. Till then, he is not happy, only lucky.

Xenophon Historian of the 4th century BC Excess of grief for the dead is madness; for it is an injury to the living, and the dead know it not.

Thucydides Historian of the 4th century BC It is frequently a misfortune to have very brilliant men in charge of affairs. They expect too much of ordinary men.

Socrates Philosopher of the 5th century BC By all means, get married: if you find a good wife, you'll be happy; if not, you'll become a philosopher.

Demosthenes Orator of the 4th century BC Small opportunities are often the beginning of great enterprises.

Pericles Statesman of the 5th century BC Wait for the wisest of all counselors, time.

Aristotle Philosopher of the 5th century BC At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice he is the worst.

Plato Philosopher of the 5th century BC Man: a being in search of meaning.

Plutarch Historian of the 1st century BC I don't need a friend who changes when I change and who nods when I nod; my shadow does that much better.

Herodotus Historian of the 5th century BC Whatever comes from God is impossible for a man to turn back.

Thucydides Historian of the 4th century BC History is Philosophy teaching by examples.

Alexander the Great Conqueror of the 4th century BC I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.

Xenophon Historian of the 4th century BC Fast is fine, but accuracy is everything.

Nikos Kazantzakis Writer of the 20th century Since we cannot change reality, let us change the eyes which see reality.

Giannis Ritsos Poet of the 20th century I know that each one of us travels to love alone, alone to faith and to death. I know it. I've tried it. It doesn't help. Let me come with you.

Aristotle Onassis Shipping magnate of the 20th century If women didn't exist, all the money in the world would have no meaning.

Nikos Kazantzakis Writer of the 20th century There is only one woman in the world. One woman, with many faces.

Odysseus Elytis Poet of the 20th century You'll come to learn a great deal if you study the Insignificant in depth.

Maria Callas Opera singer of the 20th century It's a terrible thing to go through life thinking that you have a rock on your side when you haven't.

Aristotle Onassis Shipping magnate of the 20th century We must free ourselves of the hope that the sea will ever rest. We must learn to sail in high winds.

After reading the most famous Greek quotes, you can also get informed about the famous Greek people ...

3. Famous Greek people

This section provides information about Famous Greek people. There couldn't be a website referring to the history of Greece and the Greek islands without a reference to the most famous Greek people and personalities that made this small country famous all over the world with their achievements and thinking. This section is dedicated to providing the biographies of the most famous Greeks ever. From the ancient till the modern times, there are many Greek people that have left their mark in various domains: philosophy, arts, music, war strategy, literature, science and politics. You can also read about famous quotes.

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great is the most famous Greek personality ever. His short life was full of adventures. Born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 BC, he became king at the age of 20. After he united the Greek city-states, he launched an expedition to the East and managed to conquer the Persian Empire and extend the borders of his kingdom till India. He died a month before he turned 33, beloved as a god while he was alive and celebrated as a legend after his death.

Alexander was the third King of Macedon and can be regarded as one of the best military personnel the world has ever seen. His military genius brought him tremendous success and managed to stretch the Empire of Macedon from Greece to India. Alexander the Great, as he is known today, is credited with conquering and annexing to his glorious empire nearly half of the world's population during his time. Tremendously successful in all military coups, Alexander the Great spread the Greek civilization all over the East, till the borders of India, and changed the course of history until he died at the age of 33. In his short life, he managed so many things as to become a legend. alert

The First Years

Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella, the capital of the Macedon Kingdom. His father was King Phillip II of Macedon and his mother was Olympias, the daughter of the king of Epirus. The two of them had met in Samothraki island during some religious festivals and, although Phillip also had other wives, Olympias was thought as his primary wife and queen. The myth says that the night Alexander was born, the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was burnt down as the goddess was not there to protect it, being busy to attend the birth of that boy who would later become a legend. Since he was a little boy, Alexander was taught by the best tutors and had shown special courage in fights. At the age of 10, to everyone's surprise, he managed to tame a very wild horse. Since then, this horse which was named Bucephalus became his companion in all battles and wars. When Alexander was 13, he came under the tutelage of Aristotle, the famous philosopher. Aristotle taught some very important and interesting subjects to him and his courses covered topics on biology, philosophy, religion, logic and art. During this learning process, Alexander developed favoritism for Homer's literature, especially the epic of Iliad, and became a great fun of Achilles, whom he had as his exemplar. Ancient sources state Alexander to be short, much shorter than a normal Macedonian, but very tough. His beard was scanty and it is reported that he had a short of spinal problem: his neck was twisted and some believe that he had a congenital spinal disorder. At 16, when he finished his education, he was constantly involved in fights against the tribe of the Illyrians, who threatened the Macedonian Empire. Along with his father, he participated in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC and defeated both Athenians and Thebans who had formed an alliance against Macedonia. Together they occupied Central Greece and then marched to Peloponnese. There at Corinth, that Philip got the recognition of Supreme Commander of all Greeks in the war they wanted to launch against Persia. When King Phillip II returned to his kingdom, he was charmed by a Macedonian noblewoman Cleopatra Eurydice, whom he married soon. Their marriage bore doubts in the minds of many as because their offspring would be a true Macedonian blood and a possible heir to the throne. Such thoughts were even spoken aloud in the banquet ceremony before the wedding, which led to a heated exchange of words and actions between Alexander and his father. Next day, the day of his wedding to Cleopatra, King Phillip was assassinated by Pausanias, his chief bodyguard, for unknown reasons. Some said that it was Olympias who had ordered the assassination of her husband from jealousy. Others believed that the Persians had arranged everything to prevent a war against them, while Alexander himself was also suspect as he faced the danger not to become king, after the birth of Cleopatra's son. The result was that at the early age of 20, Alexander the great had to take his father's position on the throne. Soon regions of Thebes, Athens, Thessaly and the Thracian tribes revolted against Macedon to acquire their independence now that Phillip was dead. Alexander got the news very quickly and he acted spontaneously. He first crushed the Thessalian forces making them surrender and went southern to face other battles. In Corinth, he met the Athenians who opted for peace and persuaded all the Greeks to make his father's dream true: to start the war against the Persians in order first to take revenge for the Persian Wars, about a century earlier, and then to minimize the risk of a new Persian attack.

Conquering the East

It was in springtime of 334 BC that Alexander the Great set out to conquer Persia with an army of soldiers from all Greek towns, except Sparta that denied taking part in this war. The generals of his army were all Macedonians. They were Antigonus, Ptolemy and Seleucus. In the ancient city of Troy, close to the River Granicus, the Macedonian army defeated the Persian forces and occupied all the coastline of Asia Minor. While in Troy, myth says that Alexander paid tributes to the grave of Achilles, his eternal model. At the Battle of Issus, in 333 BC, the Macedonian army for the first time came face to face with the real Persian army led by King Darius III. Darius was defeated and he succumbed to Alexander, who proclaimed himself to be the King of Asia. Alexander moved then to Egypt, where he was viewed upon as a liberator to free Egypt from the Persians. There he was named Pharaoh and established the city of Alexandria, that exists and flourishes till today. Alexander went on to the west to occupy Babylon, the capital of the Persian Empire. In Babylon, he resided in the Palace of Darius and married his daughter, princess Statira. The ambitions of Alexander brought his army to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, where he married the daughter of a local leader, Roxana. This was rather a strange decision and raised many reactions from his general, but Alexander considered it a symbolic action: a Greek king married a local princess and populations of the West and the East could finally unite into one empire, as was his dream. In the meantime, the relationship of Alexander with his generals was getting bad. After some conspiracies against his life, Alexander didn't trust them any more expect for one general, Hephaestion, the son of a Macedon nobleman and long friend of his. The Macedon generals would also protest against some Persian traditions and practices that Alexander demanded from them, such as the custom of kneeling before him. This was a natural practice for the Persians to show their respect to the king but the Greeks kneeled only before the statues of the gods, not to their kings, so the generals considered it as a action of indignity to kneel in front of a man. After long years of marching and fighting, Alexander the Great had yet reached the borders of India but fighting with the local tribes was very difficult. In fact, in a battle, Alexander lost his beloved horse, Bucephalus. Plus his army was much tired from so many years of wars and they wanted to rest. That is when Alexander decided to return to Babylon for a few months and then come back to conquer India.

The Death

However, death prevented him to launch a new expedition. Alexander the Great died in June 323 BC in his palace in Babylon from unknown causes. It could be poisoning, or malaria or even a physical problem that may have caused the death of Alexander. Others say that he died from grief because his companion, Hephaestion, had been killed in a battle a few months ago. When he died, his wife Roxana was pregnant to their son but Alexander didn't see his heir being born. After his death, the vast Empire he has created, the Empire that was stretching from Greece and Egypt to India, was split in four parts and was divided to his generals, while his son was killed before adulthood. Despite his just 33 years of life, Alexander had seen them all in life: love and hate, loyalty and conspiracy, war and peace, virtues and faults. He was happy to fulfill his ambitions and he changed history and the fate of many tribes, as the Greek civilization was spread far and wide. The cities he had conquered and established flourished for many centuries and even today there are tribes in Asia that say they descend from Alexander the Great.

Homer the Epic Poet

Homer, the famous poet of the Greek antiquity, is known all over the world for his two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Historians believe that Homer was blind, as shown by his name, which in Greek means "he who can't see". Many cities claim to be the birthplace of Homer, while it is believed that he died in Ios, the homeland of his mother. He lived in the 8th century BC and didn't actually write his poems, but narrated them and scholars wrote them down.

Homer was one of the greatest early Greek poets. Legend has it that he was blind and recited his poems as he traveled from one place to another. For this reason, people say that he called himself a singer, as opposed to a writer. It is said that after his death on the island of Ios, others kept his work alive by reciting them wherever they traveled and eventually scribes wrote them down.

Life of Homer

Homer created fabulous poetry expressing deep human emotions. The Greeks put him on a very high pedestal proclaiming him their greatest poet and almost worshiping him. His most acclaimed works include the epics Iliad and Odyssey. The Iliad is written in twenty four books and talks of Achilles wrath caused by the Greek commander Agamemnon and its disastrous consequences in the Trojan War. It was considered by many as a symbol of unity and heroism, as an anti-war poem actually, although it is set in the last 50 days of the Trojan War. The Odyssey, again written in twenty four books, deals with incidents connected with the return of Odysseus to his homeland. Homer drew inspiration from history and real life blending it with his fascinating imagination to create them. The plot of both epics consist of a series of exploits and adventures that help shape the protagonist and give the message of heroism, wisdom and other desirable qualities that set an example for lay people to follow. Not a lot is known about this mysterious figure except for bits and pieces of information obtained from here and there. Beyond that one can only speculate about his life. In fact, we do not even know what century he lived in for sure, though on the basis of linguistic, geographical and historical evidence we can say that he lived considerably before 776 B.C. Herodotus places the age of Homer about 400 years before his own time which would be about 850 B.C and that date has been accepted as the most probable by many scholars. Almost all the legendary evidence points out that he was Greek, born in Asia Minor, modern Turkey. There are at least seven cities that claim to be his birthplace including Chios island, Rhodes island, Smyrna, modern Izmir, Colophon in Turkey near Ephesus, Salamis and even Athens and Argos on the Greek mainland but the most evidence points to Smyrna as the possible candidate. Little is known about Homer that some scholars even debate his very existence and also whether he was just one person or many. There is also controversy about whether Homer actually wrote both the Illiad and the Odyssey. Many find it highly unlikely that the Odyssey was written by one person while others find that the style of writing is the same throughout and therefore has to be written by one person. Homer is said to have died on the island of Ios and his grave is supposedly located at Plakoto, today considered as a very popular tourist attraction on the island of Ios. Many say that his mother Clymene was from Ios and that is why he chose to spend his last days here. Some believe that he died of an illness while others believe that the locals had to kill him because he was unable to solve a riddle posed by them. It probably will be a long time before anyone can actually solve the enigma of Homer. Even that however is not a given. But what we should be thankful for is the fact that his great epics have been passed down intact. Both Illiad and the Odyssey are considered as landmarks in human literature. The content, ideals and style of his epics formed the foundation of the Greek education in the age of Socrates, Aristotle and Plato and have influenced works of Western literature, including those of William Shakespeare while also inspiring multitudes of readers over the centuries. The sheer beauty and power of the imagery and the universality of the themes is commendable. What must be applauded also is the fact that Homer had no literary work to guide him for literature itself was in its infancy when he created his works. He is thought as the world's first great writer and a model for other to imitate for centuries to come.

Socrates the Enigmatic Philosopher

Socrates is considered today as the founder of Western philosophy. His notions of ethics, virtue and truth passed through centuries. Although we have no manuscipts of Socrates himself, his life and ideology are vividly presented in the works of Plato and Xenophon, his direct students, while some accounts are also found in Aristotle and Aristophanes. Socrates believed that the real truth is hidden in every man and all he has to do is to discover it. Because of his philosophical teachings, he was accused of corrupting the youth and was sentenced to death by the Athenian politicians. He died in prison drinking poison.

Socrates (469-399 BC) is considered as the original founder of Western Philosophy. He was the man to develop the notion of ethics the most till his time and to introduce a new method of pedagogy, where the student actually finds the truth himself through a series of questions. The surprising thing is that we actually have no writings of Socrates and the only descriptions we have of him and his philosophy is through the manuscripts of his famous students, the philosopher Plato, the historian Xenophon and of the comedy writer Aristophanes, who actually mocks Socrates in one of his plays, The Clouds.

Personal life

The father of Socrates was Sophroniscus and his mother was Phaenarete, a midwife by profession. In fact, Socrates used frequently the profession of his mother to describe his teaching methods: as a midwife is helping a woman give birth to her child, so was Socrates helping people to give birth to the truth, which is hidden inside everyone of us. The figure of Socrates was unattractive: he is said to have been short, fat, with a malformed face. However, he got married to a girl much younger than him, Xanthippe, and had three sons. According to some historical accounts, he earned his living orating philosophy to his students whereas others mention that he followed the footsteps of his father, a stone sculpture. Some believe that the figurines of the Three Graces that once adorned the Acropolis were actually his work. Apart from that, Socrates was also a brave soldier and fought in the battles of Potidaea, Amphipolis and Delium.

Historical context

The time Socrates was born, Athens was living the golden years under the ruling of Pericles, a charismatic politician who gave emphasis on culture and arts and who made the town the strongest naval power of that time. However, as Socrates was growing old, the decline was starting for Athens, with the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC, the final defeat of Athens in 404 BC and the fall of the Athenian democracy. The social decline thus led to a moral decline in the society of the city-state. Therefore, the concept of moral virtues and ethics that Socrates was teaching was not made understood by many of its citizens.

The philosophy of Socrates

Socrates believed that every man hides a set of truths in his heart and he tried to make each one reveal these truths. His whole philosophical ideology circulated around some basic principles. First of all, he believed that nobody likes to do immoral actions and if one acts immorally, this is because he doesn't know the moral thing. Moreover, he believed that righteousness leads to knowledge and also that righteousness is the only bringer of happiness in people and in society. The inclination of Socrates to moral virtues, his explicit thoughts about honesty and justice and moreover his belief in doing good actions made him become an unfavourable figure to all the politicians of his time. At this point, the people of Athens were quite taken aback after their defeat in the Peloponnesian War. They started to doubt the effect of the reign of democracy in their country.

The trail and death

Seeing this, the politicians blamed Socrates for corrupting the minds of the young boys with such thoughts. Moreover, they also accused that it was him who taught them to disregard the Athenian Gods and who filled their minds with ideas of listening to an inner voice called daemonion. The Athenian politicians were also infuriated for one more thing: in public discussions, Socrates was mocking their knowledge and would make them look unintelligent to people. Socrates believed that no man in wise, if he doesn't acknowledge his unawareness of the truth. He frequently said for himself I know one thing, that I know nothing, claiming his lack of knowledge. In 399 BC, Socrates was put to trial under the accusation of corrupting the young Athenians. In his defense, he compared himself to an annoying stable fly which disturbs people from their inactivity and forces them to turn their head towards the truth. When he was asked to propose a punishment for himself, he ironically answered that the Athenian state should pay him and give him free diners for his lifetime, as long as he is a benefactor to the people. Socrates was eventually found guilty and was sentenced to death by drinking the poison hemlock. Although his students had prepared everything for him to escape prison and death, Socrates refused. He believed that the time had come for him to die. After all, if he escaped, he would be proved disobedient to the rules of the state, so he would harm his own city. He also stressed that the fear of death doesn't indicate any true philosopher, as death actually frees the immortal soul from the mortal body. Socrates is probably the philosopher with the greatest influence ever. Plato and Aristotle, the other famous philosophers of classical Athens, were actually his students and on their work the whole Western philosophy was based. His busts can be seen in most philosophical universities, as a tribute to this great thinker.

Plato the Metaphysic Philosopher

Plato (428-358 BC) is one of the three most famous Athenian philosophers. Student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, Plato is the most vague of the classical thinkers. His theories were much innovative for his time. Plato introduced a new political system, where philosophers, as the holders of real truth and knowledge, would rule. An opponent of democracy, Plato thinks that ruling a state must not be based on persuasion but on wisdom. Giving his theories a metaphysical aspect, Plato believed that two parallel worlds exist, the real world and the world we live in, which is a reflection of the real world.

Plato (428-348 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher and founder of the Academy of Athens, the first university of the western world. Along with his teacher Socrates and his student Aristotle, Plato is considered to have set the grounds for Western philosophy and to have influences the thinking of many modern philosophers.

Life and education

The son of two wealthy and prominent members of the Athenian society, Ariston and Perictione, Plato was born around 428 BC and died around 348 BC. He belonged to the prominent, oligarchic class and it is said that his mother originated from Solon, the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet. Moreover, two of Plato's uncles were members of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchic regime established in Athens after the end of the Peloponnesian War (404-403 BC). As a child, Plato received good education. A Hellenistic legend says that his original name was Aristocles after his grandfather, but he got the nickname Plato from his wrestling coach, due to his broad ("platys" in Greek) and strong figure. From an early age, he showed a special interest in philosophy and became a follower of Socrates, the famous Athenian thinker who would stroll around the town and ask people questions, trying to find the right answer out of them. A fact that marked the life of Plato was the trial and sentence to death of Socrates, his beloved mentor, in 399 BC. That time, he lost his belief in the Athenian society and disappointed as he was, Plato left his homeland to travel all around the world. He traveled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Libya. There, he met new people and civilizations, while he had the chance to discuss with famous personalities of his time.

The Academy

When Plato returned to Athens, at the age of forty, he established a school on a plot of land that belonged to some man named Academus, which is why the school was called Academy. The Academy of Plato is one of the earliest upscale institutions in the western world and young Athenians would learn philosophy, mathematics, music, art astronomy and other subjects there. One of the first students of the Academy was Aristotle, the third most famous of the Athenian philosophers. The Academy of Plato worked for almost 900 years, until it was closed by Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 529 BC for spreading pagan, anti-Christian ideas.

The Dialogues of Plato

The works of Plato have the form of dialogues/discourses. Scholars divide his works in three categories: the early, middle and late works. His most famous dialogues are the Apology of Socrates, where Plato describes the trial of his mentor and the last days in prison; Republic, where he suggests a new form of government and political system; Timaeus and Critias, where he discusses the origins of language and knowledge; and Protagoras, referring to the ideas of this famous Sophist philosopher. The central character in all the Dialogues of Plato is his teacher Socrates, who discusses with other people a certain issue. Scientists, however, haven't concluded whether the ideas expressed in these dialogues were indeed the teachings of Socrates, or whether they were ideas of Plato that he put in the mouth of Socrates to give them more credibility.

The Ideal State

In his Republic, Plato describes the ideal state, according to him. Disappointed by all the political systems that Athens had used till that time, including democracy and oligarchy, Plato suggested his own system. He divided the society in three categories: the Philosopher Rulers or Kings, the Warriors or Guardians and the Workers. He divided the society in these categories in comparison to the categories of the soul. The philosopher-rulers correspond to the reasonable part of the soul and they are the elite of every society. Intelligent, rational, self-controlled and wise, the philosophers have conquered the Knowledge and therefore, they must rule the state. The Guardians represent the spiritual part of the soul. Adventurous and brave in nature, these people should guard the well-being of the state. The lower social category was the Workers, in whose soul the "appetite" element dominates. These people occupy manual professions, so they can be laborers, merchants, farmers, carpenters or do any other manual work. According to Plato, a state must not base on rhetoric and persuasion, as happens in democracy, but on reason and wisdom. As philosophers are the few enlightened people of every society, they must govern all the others because they have conquered the "real truth". Therefore, Plato rejects all kinds of existing political systems and introduces his own.

The Ideal Education

A very important issue for the Ideal Society of Plato is the education of the youth. He suggests that all children must seperate from parents since their birth and that public institutions must take care of their education. Children do not need to know their parents, brothers or relatives, but consider the broader society as their family. The public institutions must be governed by the philosophers who will provide children all the opportunities to "remember" the real knowledge.

Knowledge

Knowledge, for Plato, is not a matter of learning or observation, but a matter of recollection. He believes that there are two parallel worlds: the real world and the world we live in, which is a reflection of the real world. People on earth do not see the real sight of the objects, but their shadow. To explain this theory, Plato used the allegory of the cave.

The Allegory of the Cave

Imagine, says Plato, that the real world is like some people inside a cave. These people are chained and made to look at a wall since their childhood. Behind these people, there is the entrance of the cave and outside the entrance, there is the real world. Between these chained people and the real world, there is a big fire. Therefore, the chained people can't see the real world, but only their shadows/ representations as reflected by the big fire on the wall. Wouldn't they believe that these shadows are the real world, for they have seen only that? Imagine now, he continues, that someone manages to unchain himself and turn the head towards the outside world. He sees the truth, he gets to know the real side of things, but when he tells the other people, they don't believe him. This unchained man, for Plato, is the philosopher. That is why, Plato thinks that knowledge is all about recollection: we all have seen the truth in another parallel world, but only a few get to remember it. Such interesting metaphysical beliefs were innovative for the ancient world and they influenced a lot modern philosophical thinking. Although a lot of these ideas were questioned even by his student Aristotle, a defender of reason instead of passion, Plato is considered as a greatly-inspiring philosopher, even in our days.

Aristotle the Philosopher of Reason

Aristotle, student of Socrates and Plato, is the third most famous philosopher of the Greek antiquity. He studied in the Academy of Plato, the first university of the world. When Plato died, he went to teach the son of king Phillip of Macedon, Alexander the Great. On his return to Athens, he founded Lyceum, a school of philosophy and other sciences. Although only one third of his work survives today, it can be seen that he studied almost all sciences known in the ancient times. His philosophical notions survived for centuries and influenced a lot the Western culture.

Aristotle is one of the most renowned philosophers of ancient Greek period. His name is remembered along with other great philosophers of that time, such as Socrates and Plato. Although only one third of Aristotle's works has survived, his concepts have been instrumental and extremely influential for modern ideologies. Aristotle was in fact the student of Plato and had studied in the Academy, founded by Plato, for almost twenty years. When Plato died, it is at this time that he left the institution.

His life

Aristotle was born in 384 BC at Stagira, Halkidiki. His father, Nichomachus, worked at the royal residence of the King of Macedon, Amyntas, as a physician. At the age of 18, Aristotle went to Athens to study at the Academy that Plato had founded. He remained there for almost 20 years, till 347 BC, the year of Plato's death. Then Aristotle left for Asia Minor where he visited his dear friend Hermias of Atameus. With another friend, he went to the island of Lesvos where he spent time studying zoology and botany. In Asia Minor, Aristotle married Pythias, the adoptive daughter of Hermias, who gave him a girl child. When Hermias passed away, Aristotle was invited by King of Macedon, Philip II, to teach his son, Alexander the Great. He also taught philosophy, literature and politics to other Macedonian nobles. In 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, Lyceum, where he taught for about 12 years. At that time, he wrote most of his works, which used to be lecture aids for his students. Unfortunately, today only some fragments of these material survive and they are mostly in form of discourses. In the meantime, Pythias, his wife, had died and Aristotle had taken a second wife, Herpyllis, who gave him a son. However, as Aristotle had a lot of students, he also had a lot of adversaries. When he was accused that he showed no respect to the gods with his philosophical ideas, Aristotle left Athens and went to Halkis, the birthplace of his mother. There, he died in 332 BC of natural causes.

His work

Aristotle dealt with every possible subject of his time: from anatomy, zoology, physics and metaphysics, to theology, rhetoric, psychology, geology and meteorology. It is said by historians that Aristotle literally studied everything that constituted the Greek encyclopedia of that time.

Logic

Aristotle also was the founder of notion of formal logic, as its references can be seen in most of his works. His theories on logic were considered till the 19th century as the ultimate concepts of Western Logic.

The three notions of science

His method of dealing with philosophy is both inductive and deductive. His concept of natural philosophy deals with the exploration of nature in terms of physics, biology and other similar sciences. He considered philosophy to have a harmonic balance with another science, known as reasoning. To him, science had an altogether different meaning. Science had three basic characteristics or better explained as having a certain sort of classification. The three words "practical, poetical and theoretical" very well explains science. Practical science would suggest concepts dealing with ethics and politics. Poetical science deals with research of poetry and artistic endeavours, and by theoretical science he refers to physics, mathematics and metaphysics.

The five elements of the Universe

Aristotle in his study of Physics has said that there are basically five elements which constitute the universe: these are fire, earth, air, water and aether. These elements are positioned according to their gravitational pull from the centre of the universe. When, by chance, they tend to shift from their natural domain, then they again fall back to the same region or place without the use of necessary force. Thus heavy objects tend to sink in water, air bubbles usually rise upwards, rain water falls on the earth and flames shoots up in the air.

Biology

In the field of biology, especially zoology, Aristotle has dissected and studied animals during his stay on the island of Lesvos which enabled him to understand a lot about various species. He used to categorize animals as having blood and not having blood. Moreover, the animals having blood were further divided into two types: life bearing and egg bearing. In case of animals without blood there were basically three types: insects, crustacea and testacea.

Ethics

In Ethical theory, it is seen that Aristotle regards the concept of ethics to be a part of practical science. In this sphere, actions bear more importance than reasoning. Ethical knowledge is basically general knowledge. Moreover, he says that virtue is related to an object's proper actions. Soul functions as the giver of happiness. An individual must not be tempted to have excess and thereby should be happy with whatever he has. He also introduced the golden mean, believing that virtue in not in excess or in deficiency, but somewhere in the middle.

Politics

Aristotle's concept of politics was however different. He considered city to be a political community. This city can thrive on the basis of political partnership. The creation of a city gives one a good life. He stated that man was a political animal. He makes us comprehend the fact that individual leads to the formation of the family which in turn leads to the formation of a city. This order in Aristotelian concept is in the reverse. Politics functions like an organism and is the collective action of several individual parts, which are all interrelated.

Poetics

In the field of Poetics, Aristotle considered all forms of art (epic poetry, tragedy, comedy or music) to be an imitation. He believed that mankind has advantage over animals as they can subject themselves to imitation. Aristotle's Poetics had two parts: tragedy and comedy. He believed that comedy makes people look worse than the average,while tragedy makes them look better than the average man. Tragedy is the resultant effect of actions that lead to the arousal of emotions, like pity or fear, and thereby causes catharsis of these emotions. In any case, they both deal with imitation, which is natural in man. Unfortunately, most of Aristotle's works were actually lost after the fall of Rome. Still his philosophies have been instrumental in shaping modern thoughts and language structures. Till the 20th century, Aristotle's Logic was considered supreme. With the arrival of Renaissance, many of Aristotle's theories of the Universe were taken as the basis for the formation of newer theories by astronomers of those periods. Before Charles Darwin came to the forefront in the field of zoology, Aristotle's findings and classifications had great importance. The 20th century saw Aristotle being praised for the amount of work he had done and the theories he had left behind in education, literary criticism, human and political analysis being studied worldwide.

Pericles the Inspired Statesman

Pericles (495-429 BC) was the man who led Athens to its glory. An inspired politician, a brave general and a persuasive orator, Pericles led his hometown to the top scale. It was under his guidance that Athens became the greatest naval power all over Greece, that the Acropolis was built and that culture was developed. Born in 495 BC, he took part in many battles and remained leader of the town for 40 years. After his death, Athens lost his power and never managed to recover from this loss.

Pericles was the most famous and influential Athenian statesman of ancient times. His name means surrounded by glory in ancient Greek. Pericles was born in the small town of Holargos, north of Athens, in 495 BC. His father was Xanthippus, famous for his commandership, which led to the Greek victory over the Persians, at Mycale, in 479 BC. His mother was Agariste, who came from the wealthy family of Alcmaeonidae. It is narrated that, while she was pregnant, Agariste dreamt that she would give birth to a lion, a sign that the child would be strong and brave. Pericles was shy in his early years. He devoted most of his time to education and was greatly inspired by his two mentors, the sophist philosopher Damon and the Ionian philosopher Anaxagoras. Some of his notable friends included historian Herodotus, sculptor Phedias and sophist Protagoras. He always appears in statues with beard and a helmet. It is said that Pericles would always wear his helmet in public to hide his unusually oblong head.

Political career

His political career took off in the spring of 472 BC when in the religious festival of Dionysus, he presented the play of Aeschelus, Persae, to the audience, a sign that he was one of the wealthiest men in Athens that time. Gradually, Pericles managed to weaken his political opponents, Cimon and Ephialtes, and in 461 BC, he became the ultimate statesman in Athens. He remained in power for almost forty years, till his death in 429 BC, and scientists name this years the golden age of Pericles, as under his guide, Athens became the most powerful city-state in Greece.

Interest in education

Pericles showed special interest to the education of the lower social classes. He thought that all Athenians should be educated in philosophy, art, music and poetry. He also built many gymnasiums for the young people to exercise their body. As part of education, Pericles believed that theatre was an important part, which is why he passed a law that the state was burdened with the theatre tickets of the lower classes, so that all Athenians could attend theatrical plays. Pericles also constructed many public works, monuments and temples in Athens. The great walls that protected Athens and Piraeus were his work. The Acropolis was built after his encouragement and with the money of the Delian League, as Athens became the leader of this league in his time. War and commercial ships were built that developed trade all over the Mediterranean and made Athens the greatest naval power in Greece.

Aspasia and her trial

Due to his popularity, Pericles was much hated by his political opponents, who in 432 BC accused him, his companion Aspasia and their friends of immorality. Particularly, they accused Aspasia of corrupting the women of Athens. Pericles, in 465 BC, had divorced his legal wife, who bore him two sons, to live with Aspasia, a courtesan from Miletus. Courtesans, or else heterae, were very popular in ancient Athens and in fact, they were educated women who frequently hosted philosophers and politicians in their houses. These women were highly respected for their mind and, as they were usually foreigners, they were the only women allowed to walk unescorted in the streets. The opponents of Pericles also accused Aspasia of involving Athens in two wars. The first was in 440 BC, when Pericles persuaded the Athenians to interfere between the conflict of Samos and Miletus, the homeland of Aspasia, and the second war was the Peloponnesian War that had just started. Pericles, in a great emotional scene, presented in the court with tears in his eyes and persuaded the judges to release Aspasia from the accusations.

The death

Pericles, the inspired statesman of Athens, the wonderful orator and the brave general, died in 429 BC, during the First Peloponnesian War, of plague. That time, the Spartans were besieging Athens, whose residents had been gathered inside the walls. However, a great plague burst that killed almost half the population of the city, including Pericles and his two sons from the first wife. Before he died, Pericles managed to grant the Athenian citizenship to his son with Aspasia, breaking a law he himself had established in 451 BC, according to which the Athenian citizenship is granted only to people whose both parents are Athenians. His death was a great strike for the city, as all his successors were proven inferior to him. Without his inspired guidance, Athens eventually lost the Peloponnesian War and, after that, it never managed to recover its glory. It can be said that Pericles was the man who gave Athens its power and the man who deprived it with his death.

Leonidas the legendary King of Sparta

Leonidas, the legendary king of Sparta, is world famous for his act of self-sacrifice, when he and his 300 Spartan soldiers died in the battle of Thermopylae to protect the rest of Greece from the Persian invasion, in 480 BC. Today, the statue of Leonidas lies at the site of Thermopylae to commemorate this special event. The tomb of the king is found in Sparta, his homeland, where he was honored as a god till the Roman times.

Leonidas (540-480 BC), the legendary king of Sparta, and the Battle of Thermopylae is one of the most brilliant events of the ancient Greek history, a great act of courage and self-sacrifice. This man and the battle itself has inspired since then many artists, poets and film-makers that hymn the spirit of him and his Spartans.

Little is known about the life of Leonidas before the Battle of Thermopylae. Historians believe that he was born around 540 BC and the he was son of King Anaxandrias II of Sparta, a descendant of Hercules, according to the myth. Leonidas was married to Gorgo and had a son. He must have succeeded his half-brother to the throne at around 488 BC, till his death in 480 BC. His name meant either the son of a lion or like a lion. In summer of 480 BC, Xerxes, the king of Persia, was attacking Greece with a big and well-equiped army. As he had already conquered northern Greece and he was coming to the south, the Greeks decided to unite and confront him in Thermopylae, a narrow passage in central Greece. Leonidas and his army, 300 soldiers, went off to Thermopylae to join the other Greek armies. The Greeks altogether were about 4,000 soldiers, while the Persian army consisted of 80,000 soldiers. Xerxes waited for 4 days before he attacked, believing that the Greeks would surrender. When Xerxes sent his heralds to the Greeks, asking for their weapons, as a sign of submission, Leonidas said the historical phrase Come and get them!, declaring the beginning of the battle. The first days, the Greeks were resisting, until a local man, Ephialtes, revealed to the Persians a secret passage to circle the Greeks and win the battle. Seeing that the Persian army were about to circle them, Leonidas asked the other Greeks to leave the battlefield. He proposed that he and his army would stay back to cover their escape, while the other Greeks would leave to protect the rest of Greece from a future Persian invasion. Therefore, Leonidas with his 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, who refused to leave, stayed back to fight the huge Persian army. They were all killed in the battlefield, in this deathtrap, protecting theie homeland and their values. After all, it was disgraceful for a Spartan to return to Sparta beaten in war. A Spartan would either return from war as a winner, or he should not return at all. Today, a modern monument lies on the site of the battle in Thermopylae to remind of this courageous action, while the tomb of this legendary king lies in his homeland, Sparta.

Solon the Athenian Lawmaker

Solon (638-558 BC) was an Athenian politician, lawmaker and poet. He came into power in a time when the society of Athens was facing serious social problems and his reforms were crucial for the creation of a new governmental system that would make the fate of the town, democracy. He actually gave political rights to common citizens, not only the noblemen, and enforced trade as the main economic source of the town. Although his political measures lasted for short, Solon had already set the ground for the development of the town which came with Pericles about half a century later.

Solon, the Athenian politician and lawmaker: Solon (638-558 BC) was an Athenian politician, lawmaker and poet. He is considered as the first innovative lawmaker that set the ground for the creation of democracy, the governmental system that made Athens powerful and granted the city its fame all over the centuries. Although his reforms lasted for short in his time, he laid the foundations for the economic, cultural and military development of the town. Solon was born into a noble family in 638 B.C. He was a merchant by profession and a poet. In 594 BC, he was elected an Archon, kind of governor, in ancient Athens. That time, the society of Athens was facing an economic and moral depression due to an agricultural crisis. Farmers could not repay their debts to the wealthy landowners and in return they were sold as slaves, including their wives and children.

Political and social instability

This caused instability and rivalry in the society. As Athens was kind of divided in regions and families, there was much controversy over which family rules and which would prove better than the other. In this miserable point, Solon was elected and made the necessary reforms to improve the local society. In fact, he mostly reformed three domains: constitution, economy and morality.

The Laws of Solon

The first thing of Solon was to set all enslaved Athenians free and to relieve them from their debts. This made him very popular among the people. Also, as he had understood that farming couldn't get people enough for living, he envisioned to make Athens a powerful trade centre and to have Athenian ships traverse the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea. He prohibited exporting any other product than olive oil and he gave benefits for foreign tradesmen to settle in Athens. This was he set the foundation for the economic growth of Athens, which would also grant the city its cultural development and military power.

New political system

Another important contribution of Solon was in the formation and establishment of democracy, the governmental system that would mark the history of the city and would influence the entire world in the centuries to come. Depending on their income and not their noble origin, Solon divided the Athenian society in classes. Only the top three classes had political rights and could be elected in public posts, but still this was a very important measure for that time. Solon permitted all citizens to participate in the Ekklesia, the council that discussed public issues, and had the right to vote for any particular issue. Also, some of them by turns would become members of the Heliea, the court that could call the officials into account, when needed. With certain rules, Solon also tried to reform the morals of the Athenians. He abolished some laws that gave only men the right to have property and that required a large amount if dowries. Also, he gave any citizen the right to take legal action on behalf of another citizen and forced every man to take part in wars. This way he stressed out the importance to be politically active for the good of the state.

Travelling around the world

When Solon completed his reformation works, he left Athens to sail around the world. It is said that before he left, he made the Athenians sign a contract that they would keep those reformations for at least 10 years before they make any change in the political system. This way Solon wanted to prevent any political instability until the town gets strong again and recover from its political problems. However, only four years after Solon had left, Pesistratus took over the power in Athens and established tyranny. Solon, a strong opponent of Pesistratus, got killed in Cyprus shortly after the tyrant had taken over control. During his trips around the world, Solon met new people and civilizations and this made him a wise man. In fact, Plutarch includes him among the ten wisest men of the Greek antiquity. In one of these trips in Egypt, as Plato narrates, Solon met a priest who told him the story of a prosperous town that got submerged in a single day and night due to the wrath of gods. This town is today known as the lost Atlantis. In another journey to Lydia, Solon met the local king Croesus who praised that he was the happiest man on earth. Then, Solon replied Call no man happy before he dies, meaning that luck can turn unexpectedly and things might change from one day to the other. In fact, a few years later, king Croesus lost his kingdom to the Persians. In the years to follow his death, Solon was remembered as a wise man with innovative ideas. Upon these ideas, Pericles, a few decades later, established the famous Athenian democracy. Today he is thought as the founder of this governmental system.

Hippocrates the Physician

Hippocrates (460-377 BC) is the most famous physician of ancient Greece. Developing very innovative theories and practices for his time, he combined medical observation and philosophy to cure illnesses. Hippocrates believed that the human body has the power to heal itself. He said that all is a matter of balance between the four elements of the body: blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. People get ill in case this balance is interrupted. To restore this balance, he didn't use drugs, except for natural extracts and soothing balms.

Hippocrates, the famous physician of ancient Greece: The most famous physician of the ancient times, Hippocrates (460-377 BC) was the first to release medicine from any kind of religious superstition and to establish it as a science based on observation and case recording. He is often described as the model of the ancient physician and the founder of western medicine, although in modern terms we can say that he used both clinical and homeopathetic ways.

His Life and Death

Born on the island of Kos Dodecanese in around 460 BC, Hippocrates was the son and grandson of physicians, who practiced medicine in the local Asclepieion, the famous healing centre dedicated to god Asclepius. Hippocrates himself practiced medicine throughout his life, not only in the Asclepieion of Kos but also in other places and towns of Greece. Not much about his personal life is known, but sources say that he died around 377 BC in Larissa Thessaly, in one of his journeys. Other sources tell that Asclepius was over a hundred years old when he died.

Medical Schools

At that time, there were two medical schools that dominated in Greece: the Knidian and the Koan Schools of Medicine. The former concentrated on diagnosis, the later on prognosis. The former failed to achieve its purpose since in the Greek tradition it was forbidden to dissect a human body, so physicians knew very little of the human anatomy.

Hippocratic Theory and Practices

The Koan, or else Hippocratic, School developed certain theories that were based mostly on self-treatment. Hippocrates believed that a body became ill when there was an imbalance in the four humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Medicine therefore aimed to restore this balance. Another Hippocratic concept was that each disease reached to a state of "crisis", after which the disease would either subside or increase, leading eventually to the death of the patient. A relapse might occur depending on the number of days between the crisis and the contraction of the disease. Hippocrates also developed an early homeopathetic theory: he believed that a human body has the power to heal itself or restore the balance of the four humors. Thus, complete rest and immobilization was recommended to patients to remove pressure from the point of pain and diffuse it all over the body. For this end, Hippocrates had developed special machineries, such as the Hippocratic bench, a bed to pull the body of the patient and diffuse pressure. Nature could do a great job in healing illnesses, according to Hippocrates. He usually didn't use drugs, except if they were natural balms and extracts. He also gave much attention to the sterilization of the patient and he was said to use clean water and wine to heal wounds. The Hippocratic School taught physicians to be strictly professional and to follow certain procedures. They had to be calm, honest, understanding, smart and very serious.

Clinical Medicine

However, the most important innovation of the Hippocratic School was that he made physicians keep a detailed record with all their observations and methods for each medical case separately, thinking that these records would be very helpful for the latter generations. In this way, Hippocrates founded clinical medicine. After many observations, he came to believe that diseases could be a matter of family inheritance, natural environment, lifestyle and food habits.

The Hippocratic Corpus

Hippocrates and his students had made remarkable achievements in the detection of various diseases and their symptoms. He even classified illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic. All his clinical observations and medicinal applications are discussed in detail in the famous Hippocratic Corpus, which comprises of medical notes, textbooks, lectures, essays and researches. The most famous text of the Hippocratic Corpus is the Hippocratic Oath that physicians take even today upon their graduation. Unfortunately, after the death of Hippocrates, all researches and observations on clinical case histories came to a stop. Probably his discoveries were so much respected that the physicians of the following centuries didn't dare to investigate or question them. His clinical methods were utilized by the Arabs in the Middle Ages, by the Europeans after the Renaissance and by physicians till the 17th century, when medicine started to develop again as a science.

Archimedes the Mathematecian

Archimedes (287-212 BC) is famous as the greatest mathematecian, engineer, inventor and astronomer of the ancient world, a Leonardo da Vinci of his times. He was born in the Greek colony of Syracuse in modern Italy. We don't know much about his life and he probably wasn't that famous in his era. However, when his manuscripts were found and translated in the Medieval times, he attracted the attention of many scientists. His most famous theory is the Principle of Archimedes, the centre of hydrostatics, according to which when an object is immersed in liquid, the amount of liquid displaced is equal to the volume of that object. Archimedes is also famous for measuring the circle.

Archimedes, the famous mathematecian and engineer: To the modern world, the name Archimedes (287-212 BC) recalls the famous Greek mathematician who dedicated his entire life in research and invention. It was his innovative experiments that gave the contemporary world many machines that are used till today in heavy industries, theories of physics applied to scientific discoveries and formulas for solving complex mathematical problems. Having a dynamic personality, Archimedes was an engineer, mathematician, physicist, inventor and astronomer at the same time.

His life

We find extremely scarce information about the personal life of Archimedes. From information gathered by historians, we know that he was born in Syracuse Sicily, in 287 BC, when Sicily was still a Greek colony. He spent most of his life in his hometown, except when he went to Alexandria Egypt to study. In Egypt, he devised a new technique of drawing water from the lower level under the ground to the higher level. This method was given the term "hydraulic screw" for bringing water located at extremely lower levels in the ground to the land surface. When Archimedes came back to Sicily, he spent his entire time experimenting and researching. We don't know if he ever got married or had children, but we do know that his mind was continuously buzzing with so many various concepts and theories. All his life, he was passionately and totally involved in his work. Many of his discoveries were the result of problems that were posed to him by the ruler of Sicily that time, King Hiero II.

The Principle of Archimedes

The well-known Archimedes Principle used in hydrostatics results from an interesting story. King Hiero had ordered a goldsmith to make him a new crown in the shape of laurel wreath, but he was not sure whether the crown was eventually made only with gold or if gold had been mixed with other metals, like silver. Therefore, he ordered Archimedes to find this out without melting the crown to measure the gold. Archimedes was puzzled for many weeks with this problem but he could find no solution. The answer came unexpectedly one day while Archimedes was taking his bath. He noticed that when he entered the bathtub, the water surface rose up. According to Archimedes, when an object is immersed in liquid, the amount of liquid displaced is equal to the volume of that object. So, by dividing the weight of the object by the volume of liquid displaced by it, this would enable him to find the density of that object. This method could be also used to find the density of the golden crown. It is said that Archimedes was so ecstatic to find out the solution that he ran out on the streets naked to tell the king about his discovery. On his way, he was crying Eureka!, which in ancient Greek means I have found it!.

Archimedes Screw

The famous Archimedes Screw used widely even today to draw out liquids from great depths was invented when Archimedes was designing a huge ship for the king that would accommodate almost 600 people, a luxurious garden and a temple of goddess Aphrodite. Such a ship would definitely leak a considerable amount of water through the hull. Archimedes thus developed the "Screw" in such a manner that it would assist in taking out the excess water from the ship. The design of the tool was simple yet effective and had a cylinder containing a revolving screw-shaped blade. It had to be manually rotated to take out the water from the huge vessel.

Measuring the circle

However, it seemed that the most favorite science of Archimedes was not engineering but mathematics. His greatest achievement in Maths was probably the measurement of the circle. Archimedes measured the circle as being more than 1.7320261 and less than 1.7320512. As the value is approximately 1.7320508, we understand by this that the measures of Archimedes were impressively accurate.

Do not disturb my circles

It is a real shame that such a brilliant man had such an unfortunate end. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in 212 BC, during the Second Punic War. The Romans under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus had been besieging the town of Syracuse for two years, when they finally entered the walls. That time, Archimedes was at his home trying to solve a complex mathematical problem. When the Roman soldier got into the house and raised his sword to kill him, the last words of Archimedes were Do not disturb my circles, referring to the circles in the mathematical drawing he had made. Archimedes was buried near Agrigentine gate in Syracuse and at his request a sphere and a cylinder were placed on his tomb. Although in the ancient times, he was not much famous, his manuscripts were translated in the Medieval times and attracted a lot of attention. In fact, Voltaire once said, There was more imagination in the head of Archimedes than in the head of Homer.

El Greco the painter

His real name was Domenicos Theotokopoulos, however he became famous as "El Greco" (The Greek). When he was born, Crete was under Venetian Occupation. At the age of 26, he moved to Italy, opened a workshop and spent several years there. In 1577, he moved to Toledo Spain, where he stayed till his death. Regarded as a precursor of Expressionism and Cubism by modern critics, the paintings of El Greco were mostly inspired by religion. He also made many famous portraits. El Greco died in 1614 and was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo El Antigua, in Toledo.

El Greco of Chania: El Greco was a distinguished painter sculptor and was a native of Chania on Crete island. This outstanding painter was born in the year 1541. After an eventful career as a painter, El Greco setteled down in Spain and he is regarded by the connoisseurs as the first of the genuine artisit belonging to the Spanish School. Although he was referred to as El Greco (The Greek), his real name was Domenikos Theotocopoulos and it was in this name that he put his signature in all his paintings using Greek letters.

The world of art and painting has very little information about this great artist's formative years. What is more, there are just a few paintings that remain of his youthful period in Chania, notable among which is the recently discovered Dormition of the Virgin. If one refers to a noteworthy Cretan document dating back to 1566, El Greco is referred to as a master painter. He left Chania and migrated to Venice and on to Rome in 1570. The legendary miniaturist Giulio Clovio, who incidentally came in contact with him was of the opinion that he was a disciple of Titan. But, it has to be admitted that of all the painters, it was Tintoretto who had the utmost influence on him. Even the great Michelangelo had a significant influence on his works. Among the most noteworthy masterpieces belonging to El Greco's Italian era are the two outstanding works, Purification of the Temple which is now in the possession of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, and NG, Washington, and of course the magnificent portrait of Giulio Clovio. In the year 1577, El Greco moved to Toledo, where he spent the rest of his life until his death. It was in Toledo that he mastered his craftsmanship and developed his trademark style wherein the figures take an elongated flame-like shape that are depicted in cold, bluish colors that is symbolic of immense spiritual longing. The work that took him to Toledo was the high altarpiece that is adorned in the church of Saint Domingo el Antiguo materialized through Diego de Castilla, who was the erstwhile Dean of Canons at Toledo Cathedral. El Greco reportedly met him at Rome. The altarpiece is conspicuous by its 4 meters high canvas depicting rather artistically The Assumption of the Virgin which is now showcased at the Art Institute of Chicago, was by far his best work to date. Nonetheless, there were to be a series of master altarpieces of which mention must be made of the two most significant ones: the El Espolio in which Jesus Christ is depicted of being stripped of his garments while the other one was the The Burial of Count Orgaz. These two outstanding works are symbolic of the heightened spiritual events and they have been projected in a rather mystical manner. Though, never to return to Chania, in the later stages of his life, El Greco went that extra mile to free his figures from the usual earthy limitations. In this regard, mention must be made of The Adoration of the Shepherds which was purposely painted for El Greco's own tomb. El Greco was also a very good portraitist as far as ecclesiastics were concerned. Worth mentioning are the portraits of Felix Paravicino and the Portrait of a Lady. The later in particular is symbolic of his lawful wife and is said to resemble Jeronima de las Cuevas. Apart from these, El Greco also painted two breathtaking spectacles of Toledo. The manner in which he choose his subjects, which were to say the least, very unique stems from the popular Toledo folklore that it was brought into existence by the ancestors of the Trojans. As an artist, El Greco was very proud of his stature as an artist. He carried himself as an artist-philosopher rather than just another crafts person. He led an extravagant lifestyle but it seems luck eluded him as far as gaining patronage from the rich and the famous were concerned for promoting his outstanding works. It is also true that towards the end of his life, he was beset with financial constraints as well. His workshops were indeed very intriguing and was replete with numerous replicas his earlier paintings. A characteristic feature of his works were that they were very personal, so much so that his most ardent followers were his own son as well as Luis Tristan. There was considerable interest on El Greco’s art works particularly towards the later stages of the 19th century. The coming of the age of Expressionism in the 20th century saw El Greco's art works coming into the limelight. His works are unusual as they are strange to the average art connoisseurs, so much so that, some are of the opinion that he was stark raving mad while another school of thought hold him in very high esteem as a painter particularly in the manner in which he depicted the spiritual renaissance of his country in many of his masterpieces.

Nikos Kazantzakis

Nikos Kazantzakis (1883-1957) is the most translated Greek novelist of the 20th century. Born in Heraklion Crete, Kazantzakis studied law in Athens and philosophy in Paris. His work as correspondent gave him the chance to travel in most countries of the world. His book The Last Temptation of Christ (1950), where Kazantzakis shares his metaphysical and existential concerns, was prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. When he died, the Orthodox Church didn't allow him to be buried in a cemetery, which is why his tomb lies outside the walls of Heraklion. Following his will, his epitaph reads I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.

Nikos Kazantzakis: Nikos Kazantzakis (1883-1957) was one of the most important and talented Greek writers and philosophers of the 20th century. His work includes essays, novels, poems, travelogues and translations of classic works, such as Dante's Divine Comedy and Goethe's Faust. Many of his novels deal with the history and culture of Greece and the mysterious relationship between man and God.

Biography

Nikos Kazantzakis was born on February 18th, 1883, in the town of Heraklion in Crete. His father was Michael Kazantzakis, a farmer and a dealer in animal feed and his mother was Maria Kazantzakis. Nikos left Crete at a young age to attend the Franciscan School of the Holy Cross in Naxos and in 1902 he went to study law at the University of Athens for four years. From 1907 to 1909, Nikos studied philosophy at the College de France in Paris and he was greatly influenced by the teachings of Henri Bergson. On returning to Greece, he began translating works of philosophy. Besides writing, Nikos dedicated a lot of time to public service. In 1919, he was appointed Director General at the Greek Ministry of Public Welfare. He was responsible for feeding and eventually rescuing more than 150,000 Greek people who were trapped in the Caucasian region of the Soviet Union in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917. Since then, Kazantzakis traveled widely around the world, visiting Berlin, Italy, Russia, Spain, Cyprus, Egypt, China, Japan and many other countries. While in Berlin, Kazantzakis discovered communism and became an admirer of Lenin. In 1945, he became the leader of a small party on the noncommunist left and entered the Greek government as Minister without Portfolio. He however resigned the post in the following year. In 1947-48, he worked for UNESCO. In 1957, he lost the Nobel Prize for Literature to Albert Camus by one vote. He married twice, one to Galatea Alexiou and another to Eleni Samiou. Nikos Kazantzakis passed away in 1957 Freiburg, Germany, suffering from leukemia. He was buried on the wall surrounding the city of Heraklion, since the Orthodox Church had abolished him after his work The Last Temptation and ruled out his burial in a cemetery. However, Nikos Kazantzakis did not become truly well known until the 1964 release of the Michael Cacoyannis film Zorba the Greek based on a novel by him.

Literary Work

Kazantzakis's first published work was the 1906 narrative Serpent and the Lilly, which was signed with the penname, Karma Nirvami. In 1909, he wrote a one act play entitled Comedy. In 1910, after his studies in Paris, he wrote a tragedy The Master Builder based on a popular Greek folkloric story. Kazantzakis began writing The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel in 1924 and didn't finish till 1938. He actually wrote it seven times before it was eventually published. He considered it to be his best and most important piece of work. His other important works include Zorba the Greek (1948), The Greek Passion (1948), Last Temptation of Christ (1951) and Saint Francis (1956). Throughout his life, Kazantzakis was spiritually inclined, constantly looking for answers. His thirst for knowledge made him travel around the world meeting numerous people with different backgrounds and ideologies. The influence of Friedrich Nietzsche on his work is very evident especially in his atheism and sympathy for the superman. At the same time however, he felt bound by religion to a certain degree and at a point stayed in a monastery for six months. Many Greek religious authorities condemned his work to which his only response was You gave me a curse, I give you a blessing: may your conscience be as clear as mine and may you be as moral and religious as I am. According to his will, the following phrase has been writen on his tomb: I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.

Constantine Cavafy the Poet

Constantine Cavafy (1863-1933) is one of the most famous Greek poets worldwide. Born in Alexandria Egypt to Greek parents, he managed to distinguish with his sensitive and liberal style of writing. His poems are inspired by philosophy, mythology and history, while he frequently expresses personal experience in his works. His work was often a base to express his homosexuality, which was a taboo for his time. Irony is a common feeling in his poems, while he didn't keep the structural forms of his time, such as rhyme. The best known poem of Cavafy is Ithaca, a philosophical poem based on the journey back home of Ulysses.

The Famous Greek Poet Constantine Cavafy: Constantine Cavafy is a prominent figure in Greek literature. Most of his literary works belong to the 20th century era. He published a lot of his poems when he was alive and many of them were translated in English, so he soon gained world reputation. His best known poems include Ithaca, inspired by Greek mythology and the specifically the trip of Ulysses, Waiting for the Barbarians and Thermopylae.

Cavafy was born in 1863 in Alexandria, Egypt, to Greek parents. Cavafy's father was a prosperous businessman and his business earned him the British nationality. At the age of 7, Cafavy lost his father and then he and his family moved to Liverpool, where they lived till 1877. But due to financial problems, the family again had to move back to Alexandria. Political disturbances in Alexandria, in 1882, forced the family once again to move to Constantinople. It was only in 1885 that Cavafy finally returned to Alexandria, his birth land, where he built his career as a civil servant and poet. Cavafy's first occupation was that of a journalist, although not much is known about his journalistic endeavours. He served the British Government in Alexandria as a civil servant and at the same time he published his poems that were meant to be read by a handful of his most dear friends. Most of these poems received critical commendations only from Alexandria's literary circles. It is strange to note that he was not that welcomed in the literary society of Athens at that time because of the creative difference that he had with the Athenian poets. Themes of his poetry outlines ambiguous notions about future, indulgence in mortal pleasures, concerns about the spiritual character of human beings, exploration of homosexuality and a constant yearning sense of nostalgia. In most of Cavafy's poems, it is noted that there is a subtle hint at homosexuality that gives us the most accepted notion that he was a homosexual. Such progressive themes were not acceptable as it differed a lot from the conventional Greek poetry of that time. But this did not deter him from continuing his work. Cavafy's perfectionist attitude made him rewrite every single line of his poem till they were polished and ideally suitable for expressing his opinions, thoughts and views in a free iambic form. A unique factor of these poems is that the verses do not rhyme as most of them have somewhere between 10 to 17 syllables. His vast knowledge of Hellenistic history compelled him to write poems consisting of themes from that time. Cavafy during his lifetime had basically classified his work into three sections. They were the historical poems, where most of his ideas and concepts were imbibed from the history of Alexandria and also from his exclusive knowledge about Byzantine and Hellenic history. He would also put forth mythological references in his poems to express the dilemma that is so commonly faced by mortals and immortals. In his sensual poems, the emphasis lies on the vulnerability of human emotions while enduring and recollecting actions of the past, present and future. His philosophical poems closely resemble to monologues where the poet himself gives an account of experiences and circumstances that govern an individual's life. Constantine Cavafy passed away in 1933, on the day of his 70th birthday, suffering from larynx cancer. His huge body of literary work has gained since then a lot of admiration and popularity among critics. Today he is one of the most famous Greek poets worldwide.

for more information, please visit the official website of the Cavafy Archive.

It contains all of Cavafy’s major works in the translation of Edmund Keeley and Philip Sherrard (edited by G.P. Savidis), plus select alternative translations. It also contains a wealth of unpublished material from the poet’s Archive, plus a Cavafy Companion section and up-to-date information on Cavafy’s seminal presence in today’s world, as seen through the web.

( please using the right click of your mouse, and Open Link in Next Private Window, )

THE OFFICIAL WEBSITE OF THE CAVAFY ARCHIVE

Aristotle Onassis

Aristotle Onassis (1906-1975) is probably the most famous Greek businessman and he was considered one of the richest man in the world, when he was alive. Born in Smyrna, now Izmir Turkey, to Greek parents, he left to Argentina and managed to make a vast fortune out of tobacco trade at first and then of shipping. Although his methods were not always legal, he managed to exploit his persuasive nature, acquaintances and good luck to get rich. Onassis married twice, to Athina Livanos and to Jacqueline Kennedy. He also had a long-term affair to opera diva Maria Callas.

Aristotle Onassis, the wealthy Greek shipping tycoon: Aristotle Onassis was the most famous and wealthy Greek shipping tycoon of the 20th century and probably one of the most successful businessman ever. He was born in Smyrna Turkey in 1906. His father, Socrates Onassis, was also in the shipping business. He had 10 ships and 40 sailors working for him and he did very well in his business. Hence, Aristotle and his sisters had the opportunity to go to reputed schools and educate, in a time that education was a rare thing.

From immigration to ship business

Smyrna of the early 20th century was a prosperous city with a large community of Greeks. However, things took an unpleasant turn after World War I, when the Turks started a serious pogrom against the Greeks and forced them to leave their homes. The father of Aristotle Onassis lost his job and they all moved to Athens. However, Aristotle would not stay in Athens for long. He decided to go to Buenos Aires Argentina having only $60 in his pocket. There he got his first job at the British United River Plate Telephone Company. While in Argentina, Aristotle engaged in tobacco importing business with help from his father back home. He knew that this Turkish tobacco had soft flavor, unlike the Cuban one. He thought it would be very popular with the modern American women. Due to his unsuccessful negotiation with Juan Gaona, head of a giant Argentine corporation, he launched his own line of cigarettes. His business acumen earned him lot of money. By 1925, Aristotle's fame as a wealthy and influential man enabled him to attend popular social events. Of course, his actions were sometimes disputed and he had to bribe certain politicians to achieve his goals. All of Aristotle's actions did not go unnoticed by the FBI. He was charged with violation of shipping laws and also resorting to fraud against the U.S. Government in 1954. At that time, all U.S. ships carrying goods abroad had to be owned by U.S. citizens. Aristotle, in the case that followed, pleaded guilty and paid a fine of $7 million dollars. In 1957, Onassis engaged in airlines business and established Olympic Airways, the first Greek air company. The great chance for Onassis came when large petroleum companies, like Mobil and Texaco, addressed to him to transport their goods with his ships. That time he made enormous profits. As all of Aristotle's ships had flags of Panama which transported goods tax-free and also ran at low cost. Though he charged much less from other companies, with each transaction of goods he had made maximum profits.

Personal life

Aristotle's personal life was quite unstable, too. His first marriage was to Athina Livanos, a daughter of a Greek shipping magnate. They remained married for 15 years but both were not happy. From this marriage, he had a son Alexander and a daughter Christina. However, Aristotle was unfaithful to her and had many extramarital affairs. The most famous affair of Onassis was to Maria Callas, the famous Greek opera singer. They met in late 1950s and started an affair while they were both married to other people. For her, Onassis was her chance to find happiness, but for Onassis, things were not so romantic. Their relationship lasted for many years, but it was never stable. Some even say that Calls gave birth to their son in 1959, but the baby lived only for a few hours. Although they were both divorced and they could easily get married, Onassis devastated Callas with his sudden decision to marry Jacqueline Kennedy, the window of the 35th USA President J.F.Kennedy, probably for reasons of prestige. They got married in October 1968 in his private island, Skorpios, opposite Lefkada Greece. However, rumors say the he kept visiting Callas in Paris, even after his marriage to Jackie. The great strike of fate came for Aristotle Onassis when his beloved son Alexander crashed with his aircraft and lost his life in 1973, at the age of 24. This accident raised a lot of conspiracy theories and was the end for Onassis. He went ill and died two years later in Paris, of bronchial pneumonia, a complication of myasthenia gravis. According to his will, his daughter Christina inherited 55% of his fortune and the rest 45%, which would be Alexander's heritage, were used for the creation of Alexander S. Onassis Foundation to his honor.

Maria Callas

She is mostly called La Divina and she has been awarded as the greatest opera singer in the world. Maria Callas was born in 1923 in New York to Greek parents. In 1937, her family moved to Athens and she attended music courses in the Conservatory of Athens. Soon, her teachers appreciated her warm and heavy voice. After some performances in the Greek National Opera, she moved to Italy and started to perform in La Scala di Milan. Her career reached its peak in the 1950s and then it decreased, either from a vocal decline or because she wanted to focus on her personal life, which was marked by an unlucky marriage, a devastating affair to Greek ship owner Aristotle Onassis and loneliness.

Maria Callas, the divine opera singer: Maria Callas is one of the most renowned opera singers the world has ever known. With her sheer musical genius, she revived the bel canto form of singing and added her own personal musical style to it. Her musical talent has led the press and celebrated musicians around the world to bestow her with titles like The Bible of Opera and La Divina. Her beautiful captivating voice that had such a magnificent presence on stage and the intense emotional notes that she carried out altered simple dramatic performances into serious and entrancing dramatic showpieces.

Early years

Maria Callas (short for Maria Kalogeropoulou) was born in New York in December 1923 to Greek parents. Her childhood does not have many happy memories to recall because of the unending rows between her parents. Maria was the third child in the family. She had an elder sister named Jackie and a brother named Vassilis, who died a year before her birth. Her father's mellow and moderate nature seriously contrasted with her mother's highly aggressive attitude. Moreover, her mother somewhat had a fascination towards beauty, which she found only in her elder daughter, thus favoured her more and completely ignored Maria, who she considered plump and ugly. Maria was myopic at an early age and also had to wear thick glasses but alternatively she was also gifted with charming singing capabilities. As soon as her mother discovered the younger daughter's musical talent, she began forcing her to sing from the age of five. When the family returned to Athens in 1937, Maria got basic musical education from two important musical instructors, Maria Trivella of the Greek National Conservatoire and Elvira De Hidalgo of Athens Conservatoire. Both of Maria's musical educators realized during the training sessions that she had the making of a dramatic soprano. She was an extremely dedicated student and completely devoured her lessons. Apart from a warm tone, Maria also had an impressive control over her voice and was very cautious not to extend her notes, proving that she was a careful musician as well. Such expertise bagged her dramatic roles in the operas of famous German composer Richard Wagner. Her very first major performance was in "Tosca" by Puccini, in 1941. In the opera by Giuseppe Verdi, she elegantly carried out the role of "Aida".

Reaching the peak

Maria Callas reached the top of her career in 1949, when she undertook the challenge to perform both the roles of "Brunnhilde" and "Elvira" in the opera "I Puritani" by Vincenzo Bellini and that too in the same week. Both the works were completely different from each other and required contrasting vocal qualities. She performed these two roles on stage with such unimaginable ease that musicians across the world would remember this musical feat as one of the main pillars behind her success and worldwide recognition. In 1951, Maria moved to Italy and joined the La Scala opera house in Milan. It is here that she performed a total of 37 musical roles and entertained audiences year after year. It was also here that she came across Italian music director, Tullio Serafin, who became her mentor during her stay in Italy. He drew her interest towards bel canto that requires an adaptable vocal pitch, distinct articulation, a refined tonal quality and an ability to reach a high range. With sheer determination, she mastered this particular pattern of singing and was soon seen performing roles of Norma, Lucia and Rosina. In 1953 and 1954, Maria realized that due to her fatty figure she was becoming too tired while performing and sweating profusely while moving about on stage carrying out roles of young girls. So, she resolved to lose enough weight and take on such a diet that would make her look more attractive on stage. Maria lost 80 pounds and turned into a slender, graceful and more confident lady on stage. Her beautiful figure added a charming effect to her performances. In 1954, her presence in the United States was marked by some of her best performances that she imparted in front of the American audiences in Chicago's Lyric Opera and exactly two years later in New York City's Metropolitan Opera.

Problems and scandals

Unfortunately, such a great and talented singing maestro developed vocal problems in the late 1950s. Due to her continual vocal treatment, she completely withdrew from stage by 1962. Nevertheless she made a brief appearance once again in 1965 and performed the famous Tosca in Paris, London and New York City, reinstating herself as one of the best opera singers of the world. The brightness of Maria's career would hide the emotional turmoil that she went through in her own private life. According to the press, these events serve as scandals that became well known as she started to achieve accomplishment in her career. In 1949, Maria's marriage to Giovanni Meneghini, a wealthy Italian businessman, 28 years older than her, caught the attention of the press. Earlier her estranged relationship with her mother was much talked about. Maria's comments about her mother's ill treatment of her and her father were hungrily gobbled up. In fact, Callas accused her mother that she deprived her from a normal childhood that all children deserve. She even accused her mother that she pressed her daughters on dating German Nazi officers during the Second World War in Athens. However, her marriage was no happier. Although her husband had helped her career by being her manager and encouraging her musical pursuit, Maria still felt that their marriage could not stir those passionate feelings that she so much desired to feel.

Meeting Onassis

It was in the late 1950s that she came across Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis. The two of them bagan a passionate relationship, which resulted pretty fateful for her. Callas had fallen in deep live with Onassis and even divorced Meneghini in 1966 to be with him. What for him seemed to be another extramarital relationship, for her it was the love of her life, the man she could do anything for. One of her biographers even stated that in 1960 Callas gave birth to the son of Onassis in Paris but the child died after a few hours. In the 1960s, Callas was gradually failing her career and when director Franco Zeffirelli asked her in 1963 why she had stopped her performances, Callas simply replied I am trying to fulfill my life as a woman. Unfortunately, their relationship had ill fate. Onassis betrayed her with his sudden decision to marry Jacqueline Kennedy, the widow of the former US president John Kennedy, without even telling her. This devastated Callas emotionally but rumors had it that Onassis continued to visit her in Paris, even after his marriage. When Onassis died in 1975, she went into total depression. After that, Maria led a very reclusive life away from friends and social events. On September 16, 1977, she passed away at the age of 53. She probably suffered a heart attack due to overdose of sleeping pills. After her death, her ashes were distributed in the Aegean Sea as was her wish.

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