Philosophy and Philosophers - an Introduction to Western Philosophy - Bibliography

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

The aim of this bibliography is to give guidance as to where to go for further

reading on matters dealt with in this book. The bibliography, although large,

does not pretend to be exhaustive; indeed its being exhaustive would defeat

the object of selecting what seems most helpful. I have included only books

and not articles that appear in philosophy journals. It should also be pointed

out that what is listed are only works in English. Often the publication date

given is the date of the individual copy I have consulted. Where necessary the

original publication date is also given in brackets immediately after the title.

General works

This section of the bibliography lists some general works on philosophy and

its history. Sometimes the items mentioned are reference works that are not

meant to be read right through.

Of general works on the history of philosophy, Frederick Copleston, A

history of western philosophy, 9 vols. (New York: Image Books, 1964), is long but

very useful. Another valuable work on the history of philosophy, which is

accessibly in one volume, is D.J.O’Connor (ed.), A critical history of Western

philosophy (London: Macmillan, 1985, first pub. 1964). Works that jointly cover

the history of philosophy from about 1840 to recent times are John Passmore, A

hundred years of philosophy, 2nd edition (London: Penguin, 1966), and John

Passmore, Recent philosophy (London: Duckworth, 1985).

The following are general introductions to philosophy. The most

elementary introduction is Martin Hollis, Invitation to philosophy (Oxford:

Blackwell, 1985). Another accessible introduction is Robert C.Solomon, The big

questions: a short introduction to philosophy, 3rd edition (New York: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich, 1990). Brief and good is John Cottingham, Rationalism

(London: Paladin Books, 1984), which is more general than its title might

suggest. A fine introduction with plenty of detailed philosophical discussion is

James W.Cornman, Keith Lehrer, and George S.Pappas, Philosophical problems

and arguments: an introduction, 3rd edition (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing

Company, 1987). There is also A.C.Ewing, The fundamental questions of

philosophy (London: Routledge, 1951); this book has the merit of being

beautifully written. A classic work is Bertrand Russell, The problems of

philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967, first pub. 1912), and a book

written in the same philosophical spirit is A.J.Ayer, The central questions of

314 Bibliography

philosophy (London: Penguin, 1976). A longer general work is Anthony

Quinton, The nature of things (London: Routledge, 1973).

An excellent introduction to modern philosophy, which deals with

problems rather than philosophers, is Anthony O’Hear, What philosophy is

(London: Penguin, 1985). Two other books complement this: Ted Honderich

and Myles Burnyeat (eds), Philosophy as it is (London: Penguin, 1979) which

contains a collection of important recent articles by leading modern

philosophers, and Ted Honderich and Myles Burnyeat (eds), Philosophy through

its past (London: Penguin, 1984), which contains important articles on past

philosophers.

A useful thing to have by one in reading any work of philosophy, and by

no means to be despised, is a good dictionary of philosophy, such as Antony

Flew (ed.), A dictionary of philosophy (London: Pan, 1984). A helpful reference

source on philosophy is J.O.Urmson and Jonathan Rée (eds), A concise

encyclopedia of Western philosophy and philosophers, new edition (London:

Unwin Hyman, 1991). A collection of essays on the central concerns of

philosophy is G.H.Parkinson (ed.), An encyclopedia of philosophy (London:

Routledge, 1989). A very valuable and rich reference source of massive size is

Paul Edwards (ed.), The encyclopedia of philosophy, 8 vols. (London: Collier

Macmillan, 1967).

Logic and philosophical logic have always been important in philosophy, if

sometimes only implicitly, but they have become increasingly important in a

more explicit way since the beginning of the twentieth century. Good logic

books are Irving M.Copi and Carl Cohen, Introduction to logic, 8th edition

(London: Macmillan, 1990); E.J.Lemmon, Beginning logic (Surrey: Thomas

Nelson, 1971); Howard Kahane, Logic and philosophy (Belmont, California:

Wadsworth, 1990); W.Hodges, Logic (London: Penguin, 1977). On philosophical

logic there are Susan Haack, Philosophy of logic (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1978) and A.C.Grayling, An introduction to philosophical logic

(London: Duckworth, 1990).

Presocratic Greek philosophy

There is no substitute in the study of Presocratic philosophers for actually

examining the surviving fragments of their thoughts and comments by those

who had access to the original works. The most convenient collection of

translated Greek texts is Jonathan Barnes (tr. and ed.), Early Greek philosophy

(London: Penguin, 1987). Another collection, including both the original Greek

and the translation with some valuable commentary, is G.S.Kirk, J. E.Raven

and M.Schofield (eds), The Presocratic philosophers, 2nd edition (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1983).

The most recommendable single-volume work on Presocratic philosophy

in general is Edward Hussey, The Presocratics (London: Duckworth, 1972). W.

K.C.Guthrie, A history of Greek philosophy, vols I, II, III (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1962, 1965, 1969) is humane, scholarly, and full

of good sense, as well as being a pleasure to read; it is a work that aids

greatly a deeper understanding of the Presocratics. A classic work, in places

rather dated, is J.Burnet, Early Greek philosophy, 4th edition (London: A. & C.

Black, 1930).

Bibliography 315

There are useful collections of essays in David J.Furley and R.E.Allen (eds),

Studies in Presocratic philosophy (London: Routledge, 1970, 1975) and A.

P.D.Mourelatos (ed.), The Presocratics (New York: Anchor Books, 1974).

A comprehensive analysis is Jonathan Barnes, The Presocratic philosophers,

vols. I, II, 2nd edition (London: Routledge, 1982). This work critically applies

the techniques of modern philosophy to the ancient texts; it is not a flowing

guide, but more of a philosophical dissection—in consequence it is

frequently difficult.

The intellectual backdrop to the period preceding the Greeks of Ionia is

described in a classic work: Henri Frankfort (ed.), Before philosophy (London:

Penguin, 1949).

A poetic exposition of the scientific and moral consequences of the ancient

atomist tradition, written at a time when Greece had become part of the

Roman Empire, is Lucretius, On the nature of the universe (London: Penguin,

1976).

Greek philosophy

Plato

The works of Plato take the form almost entirely of dialogues of great literary

merit, concerning a wide range of philosophical problems; most have Socrates

as the central figure. The authenticity and chronology of the works are open to

scholarly dispute, but some matters are more or less settled, and it helps to

divide the works into three periods. The chronological order within these

periods is, of course, even more difficult to determine.

Early Period: Apology, Crito, Laches, Charmides, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and

Minor, Protagoras, Gorgias, Ion.

Middle Period: Meno, Phaedo, Republic, Symposium, Phaedrus, Euthydemus,

Menexenus, Cratylus.

Late Period: Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, Politicus, Timaeus, Critias,

Philebus, Laws.

There is a shift in philosophical emphasis between the periods from ethical

through metaphysical to epistemological concerns, but it is only a shift; Plato’s

philosophical interests are integrated.

It is usual to refer to places in the works of Plato by the title of the work

followed by standard numbers that appear in the margin of most editions.

These numbers, in fact, derive from the page numbers of the 1578 Stephan-us

edition, and the numbers are followed by a letter (a–e), which divides each

page into approximately equal segments. Central to understanding Plato are

the Republic, Book 5, 472c to Book 7, 541b, and also the Phaedo. Other dialogues

of great importance are the Symposium, Theaetetus, Sophist; although any such

selection must to some degree be arbitrary. Many of Plato’s works appear in

excellent editions as Penguin Classics. An almost complete collection is

E.Hamilton and H.Cairns (eds), Plato: collected dialogues (Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 1961). Special mention should be made of the classic

F.M.Cornford, Plato’s theory of knowledge (London: Routledge, 1960), which is

an annotated edition of the Theaetetus and Sophist; some of Cornford’s views,

316 Bibliography

however, are not uncontroversial: see the commentary by Robin Waterfield in

Plato, Theaetetus (London: Penguin, 1987). Another good edition with a

lengthy and helpful introduction is Myles Burnyeat and M.J.Levett, The

Theaetetus of Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1990). A major

controversy concerning the Theaetetus is over the relation of Plato’s theory of

Forms to that work. Whatever the result of this debate, it can be argued that it

makes good sense to read the Theaetetus in conjunction with those dialogues

where the doctrine of the Forms receives exposition, such as the Phaedo,

Republic, and Sophist.

The secondary literature on Plato is vast. Of central importance is the ever

readable and illuminating W.K.C.Guthrie, A history of Greek philosophy, vols.

IV, V (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975, 1978). On Socrates see

W.K.C.Guthrie, Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), and

the detailed Gregory Vlastos, Socrates: ironist and moral philosopher

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). A fresh and clear general

introduction to Greek thought is Terence Irwin, A history of Western

philosophy: classical thought, vol. I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

Introductory works on Plato are R.M.Hare, Plato (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1982); Frederick Copleston, A history of philosophy, vol. I, Part I (New

York: Image Books, 1962); G.C.Field, The philosophy of Plato (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1969); J.E.Raven, Plato’s thought in the making (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1965); David J.Melling, Understanding Plato

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).

There are other more difficult and analytical works: Norman Gulley, Plato’s

theory of knowledge (London: Methuen, 1962); I.M.Crombie, An examination of

Plato’s doctrines, vols. I, II (London: Routledge, 1963); Nicholas P.White, Plato

on knowledge and reality (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1976);

J.C.B.Gosling, Plato (London: Routledge, 1973). There is also R.C.Cross and

A.D.Woozley, Plato’s Republic: a philosophical commentary (London: Macmillan,

1964). Other important works are A.E. Taylor, Plato: the man and his works, 7th

edition (London: Methuen, 1960); G. Vlastos (ed.), Plato, vols. I, II (New York:

Doubleday, 1971); J.N.Findlay, Plato: the written and unwritten doctrines

(London: Routledge, 1974).

Aristotle

Most of the writings of Aristotle, which were often in the form of dialogues,

are lost; the bulk of the considerable amount that remains is notes for lectures;

there are also lecture notes made by pupils. Perhaps the central work for

understanding Aristotle’s views on epistemology and metaphysics is the

Metaphysics. But other works are also important: Categories, De interpret-atione,

Prior analytics, Posterior analytics, Physics. The best selection of the works of

Aristotle in English is J.L.Ackrill (ed.), A new Aristotle reader (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1987). The complete works in English are found in J.A.Smith

and W.D.Ross (eds), The works of Aristotle translated into English, 12 vols.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912–52). There is also Jonathan Barnes (ed.)

The complete works of Aristotle, revised Oxford translation, 2 vols. (Princeton:

Princeton University Press, 1984).

The most accessible introductory books on Aristotle are Jonathan Barnes,

Aristotle (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982); J.L.Ackrill, Aristotle the

philosopher (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981); and A.E.Taylor, Aristotle,

Bibliography 317

revised edition (New York: Dover Publications, 1955). W.D.Ross, Aristotle, 5th

edition (London: Methuen, 1953) is better used as a reference book than read

right through.

With regard to longer works it is necessary to be selective. A special

mention must be made of W.K.C.Guthrie, A history of Greek philosophy, vol. VI

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). An important work is

G.E.R.Lloyd, Aristotle: the growth and structure of his thought (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1968). Lucid and insightful is Marjorie Grene, A

Portrait of Aristotle (London: Faber and Faber, 1963). Other excellent works are

J.H.Randall, Aristotle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960); Henry

B.Veatch, Aristotle (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974); J. D.G.Evans,

Aristotle (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1988).

Medieval philosophy

The most accessible collection of excerpts from medieval writers is Arthur

Hyman and James J.Walsh (eds), Philosophy in the Middle Ages (New York:

Harper and Row, 1967); among other items this includes extracts from works

by Augustine, Aquinas and Ockham.

There are several general books on medieval thought. The most purely

philosophical in approach is Frederick Copleston, Medieval philosophy

(London: Methuen, 1972). There is also David Knowles, Evolution of medieval

thought, 2nd edition (London: Longman, 1991); Gordon Leff, Medieval

Thought: St Augustine to Ockham (London: Penguin, 1958). Much longer, but a

fine work of scholarship, is Etienne Gilson, History of Christian philosophy in

the Middle Ages (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955). Substantial collections of

essays are A.H.Armstrong (ed.), The Cambridge history of later Greek and early

medieval philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967) and

Norman Kretzmann, Anthony Kenny, and Jan Pinborg (eds), The Cambridge

history of later medieval philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1982).

Augustine

The quantity of Augustine’s writing is huge, but it is also rather

repetitive—there are too many works to list here individually. His writings

fall into three forms: sermons, treatises, and letters. There is a selection of

Augustine’s works in W.J.Oates (ed.), Basic writings of Saint Augustine, 2

vols. (New York: Random House, 1948), and Vernon J.Bourke (ed.) The

essential Augustine (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1974). The

two best known works by Augustine are R.Pine-Coffin (tr.), Confessions

(London: Penguin, 1961) and H.Bettenson (tr.), The city of God (London:

Penguin, 1984).

Discussions of the specifically philosophical content of Augustine’s thought

are rather thin on the ground. Most helpful as a starting point is Frederick

Copleston, A history of philosophy, vol. II, Part I (New York: Image Books, 1950),

and the essay by R.A.Markus, “Augustine”, A critical history of Western

philosophy, D.J.O’Connor (ed.) (London: Macmillan, 1985, first pub. 1964). A

work devoted to Augustine which deals with him in philosophical depth is

318 Bibliography

Christopher Kirwan, Augustine (London: Routledge, 1989); but some may find

inappropriate his dedicated application to Augustine of the methods of

modern analytical philosophy. There is also R. A.Markus (ed.), Augustine: a

collection of critical essays (London: Macmillan, 1972). Another work on

Augustine is Henry Chadwick, Augustine (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1986); but this is mostly theological in its concerns.

Aquinas

The quantity of Aquinas’ writings is gigantic. Anthony Kenny, in his book

on Aquinas, illustrates this fact by pointing out that just one relatively

minor work by Aquinas, like the Disputed questions on truth, alone

represents more than half of the total of all the surviving works of Aristotle.

Aquinas achieved this magnitude of work partly by dictating to secretaries.

Lack of space prohibits the listing of all of the works of Aquinas

individually. The best known works are the two massive Summae: Summa

contra gentiles, printed in 5 vols. as, A.C.Pegis, J.F.Anderson, V.J.Bourke,

C.J.O’Neil (tr.), On the truth of the Catholic faith (New York: Random House,

1955–57) and Summa Theologiae, 60 vols., Blackfriars English edition

(London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1963–75), which appears in a one volume

version, Summa theologiae: a concise translation, Timothy McDermott (ed.)

(London: Methuen, 1991). Other works vital to understanding Aquinas are:

Quaestiones disputatae, on a variety of philosophical and theological subjects,

and De ente et essentia. An accessible selection from the works of Aquinas is

Christopher Martin (ed.), The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas: introductory

readings (London: Routledge, 1989). Useful selections of Aquinas’ works are

A.C.Pegis (ed.), Basic writings of St Thomas Aquinas, 2 vols. (New York:

Random House, 1945), and the even more compressed collection in one

volume, A.C.Pegis (ed.), Introduction to Saint Thomas Aquinas (New York:

Random House, 1948).

Aquinas has perhaps received more attention than any other medieval

thinker; much of this is, however, concerned with theological matters. A fine

philosophical guide to Aquinas is Frederick Copleston, Aquinas (London:

Penguin, 1955). Also excellent, more recent, but not so comprehensive, is

Anthony Kenny, Aquinas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980). Kenny has

also edited a collection of critical essays on Aquinas; but many of these are

quite technical and difficult: Anthony Kenny (ed.), Aquinas (London:

Macmillan, 1970). A clear introductory essay is Knut Tranøy, “Aquinas”, A

critical history of Western philosophy, D.J.O’Connor (ed.), (London: Macmillan,

1985, first pub. 1964).

Ockham

Ockham is generally regarded as the most important philosopher of the

fourteenth century, and the last of the great scholastic philosophers. As with

the other philosophers of the Middle Ages, Ockham was a theologian first

and a philosopher second. Christian doctrine was largely fixed; it was the

unalterable framework within which one worked, although it was a system

of belief capable of some reinterpretation. Ockham’s contribution to

philosophy is to be found among his theological and logical works. The most

important works, from a philosophical point of view, are: Commentary on the

Bibliography 319

sentences, Summa logicae and Quodlibeta septem. The best introductory

selection of Ockham’s own writings is Philotheus Boehner and Stephen

F.Brown (tr. and eds), Ockham: philosophical writings, revised edition

(Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1990); this has Latin/English

facing text.

Comprehensive works on Ockham are Gordon Leff, William of Ockham

(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975) and Marilyn McCord Adams,

William Ockham, 2 vols. (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press,

1987); it should be pointed out, however, that both these works are massive. A

good place to start is with the article by Ernest A.Moody, “William of

Ockham”, The encyclopedia of philosophy, Paul Edwards (ed.) (London: Collier

Macmillan, 1967). There is also Ruth L.Saw, “Ockham”, A critical history of

Western philosophy, D.J.O’Connor (ed.) (London: Macmillan, 1985, first pub.

1964). An accessible secondary source is Frederick Copleston, A history of

philosophy, vol. III, Part I (New York: Image Books, 1964); in this Copleston

devotes a good deal of space to Ockham. A more specialized work, but dealing

with what some regard as the most important part of Ockham’s thought, is

Ernest A.Moody, The logic of William of Ockham, 2nd edition (London: Russell

and Russell, 1965).

Rationalism

Descartes

The works of Descartes that are central to an understanding of his

philosophy are: Meditations on first philosophy; Objections and replies; Discourse

on the method; Principles of philosophy; Rules for the direction of the mind. The

best and most accessible place to start is with the Meditations; these should be

read in conjunction with the Objections and replies. A good collection is

Margaret D. Wilson (ed.), The essential Descartes (New York: Mentor Books,

1969); this also contains a helpful introductory essay. Another excellent

collection is John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch (tr. and

eds), Descartes: selected philosophical writings (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1989). The best comprehensive version of Descartes’ works

in English is John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (tr.

and eds), The philosophical writings of Descartes, vols. I, II (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1987).

There are many excellent books on Descartes’ philosophy. Very helpful and

detailed is Bernard Williams, Descartes: a project of pure enquiry (London:

Penguin, 1978). Another good work is John Cottingham, Descartes (Oxford:

Basil Blackwell, 1986). There is also Anthony Kenny, Descartes (New York:

Random House, 1968). A short introduction is Tom Sorell, Descartes (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1988). There is also Margaret Wilson, Descartes

(London: Routledge, 1978). A collection of essays is Willis Doney (ed.),

Descartes (London: Macmillan, 1968).

Spinoza

The magnum opus central to an understanding of Spinoza is the Ethics,

originally written in the universal language of scholarly exchange, Latin.

320 Bibliography

This he began in 1663, and finished in 1675; a wise caution meant that it

remained unpublished until after his death. In 1663, Spinoza began an

exposition of Cartesian metaphysics titled Principles of Cartesian philosophy,

which set it out in the form of geometric proofs; but it is clear that he is

critical of what he expounds. Early indications of Spinoza’s philosophy are

found in the Treatise on the improvement of the understanding, begun in 1661,

but left unfinished, and also, in draft form, A short treatise on God, man and his

well-being, completed around the same date. He also published anonymously

in 1670 the Theologico-political treatise, which advocated religious tolerance; its

author was soon identified, and the work was banned in 1674; it was the last

work published in his life-time. At his death Spinoza was working on a

Tractatus politicus.

The definitive English edition of Spinoza’s works on metaphysics and

epistemology, including the Ethics, is Edwin Curley (tr. and ed.), The collected

works of Spinoza, vol. I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). A

handier version of the Ethics, with a much improved translation thanks to

revisions by G.H.R.Parkinson, is Spinoza, Ethics (London: Everyman, 1989);

this also includes very helpful extensive annotations by Parkinson. Also

available but an unreliable edition is Spinoza, On the improvement of the

understanding, Ethics, Correspondence, R.H.M.Elwes (tr.) (New York: Dover,

1955).

The best book to start with is either Stuart Hampshire, Spinoza (London:

Penguin, 1987) or Roger Scruton, Spinoza (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1986). Other relatively easy introductions are Edwin Curley, Behind the

geometrical method: a reading of Spinoza’s Ethics (New Jersey: Princeton

University Press, 1988), and Henry E.Allison, Benedict de Spinoza: an

introduction (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987). Works of greater

difficulty that apply sharp critical analysis to Spinoza are R.J.Delahunty,

Spinoza (London: Routledge, 1985), and Jonathan Bennett, A study of Spinoza’s

Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

Leibniz

Leibniz never systematically put all his ideas into a magnum opus, so in

studying him we have to rely on his many concise essays, which are often of

great clarity. The best shorter collection, containing the most important

works, is G.H.R.Parkinson (ed.), Leibniz: philosophical writings (London: Dent,

1973). A more extensive collection is Leroy E.Loemker (ed.), Gottfried Wilhelm

Leibniz: philosophical papers and letters, 2nd edition (Dordrecht: D. Reidel,

1969). Very useful is Nicholas Rescher, G.W.Leibniz’s Monadology: an edition for

students (London: Routledge, 1991). Also useful is Robert Latta (tr. and ed.),

Leibniz: the monadology and other philosophical writings (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1971); this contains annotations and an exposition of

Leibniz’s philosophy.

An excellent introduction to Leibniz, which also goes quite deep, is

Nicholas Rescher, Leibniz: an introduction to his philosophy (Totowa, New

Jersey: Rowan and Littlefield, 1979). A more general and shorter

introduction is G.Ross MacDonald, Leibniz (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1986). A book of characteristic meticulousness is C.D.Broad, Leibniz: an

introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). A work with

scholarly attention to detail is Stuart Brown, Leibniz (Brighton: Harvester

Bibliography 321

Press, 1984). A classic, although difficult, work is Bertrand Russell, A critical

exposition of the philosophy of Leibniz, 2nd edition (London: Allen & Unwin,

1937). An important work is G.H.R.Parkinson, Logic and reality in Leibniz’s

metaphysics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965). An fine work that treats Leibniz

in depth is Benson Mates, The philosophy of Leibniz (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1986).

Empiricism

An important general, but difficult, work on the philosophers considered in

this chapter is Jonathan Bennett, Locke, Berkeley, Hume: central themes (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1971).

Locke

Fortunately, most of Locke’s views on epistemology and metaphysics are

contained in one work: John Locke, An essay concerning human understanding.

This went through many editions. The best and most complete edition now

available of the Essay is Peter Nidditch (ed.), An essay concerning human

understanding (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975). But there are also

handier abridgements that are quite adequate for the general philosophical

reader: A.D.Woozley (ed.), An essay concerning human understanding (Glasgow:

Fontana, 1977), and John W.Yolton (ed.), An essay concerning human

understanding (London: Everyman, 1985); the former has the advantage of a

longer and highly informative introduction.

There are several introductions to Locke’s philosophy. Accessible and

helpful is R.S.Woolhouse, Locke (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1983). Another

useful general work is D.J.O’Connor, Locke (New York: Dover, 1967). Two

longer classic works of a general nature are Richard I.Aaron, John Locke, 3rd

edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), and James Gibson, Locke’s theory of

knowledge and its historical relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1917). A substantial study is Michael Ayers, Locke, vol. I: Epistemology, vol. II:

Ontology (London: Routledge, 1991). More specialist works of importance are

John W.Yolton, Locke and the compass of human understanding (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1970), and Peter Alexander, Ideas, qualities, and

corpuscles: Locke and Boyle on the external world (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1985). There is also John W.Yolton, Perceptual acquaintance

from Descartes to Reid (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984). There are valuable collections

of essays on Locke, particularly, I.C.Tipton (ed.) Locke on human understanding

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977); also J.L.Mackie, Problems from Locke

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), and C.B.Martin and D.M. Armstrong,

Locke and Berkeley (London: Macmillan, 1969). The definitive work on Locke’s

life is Maurice Cranston, John Locke: a biography (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1985).

Berkeley

The two central works for understanding Berkeley’s philosophy are A treatise

concerning the principles of human knowledge and Three dialogues between Hylas

and Philonous; and fortunately neither of these is very long. But other

322 Bibliography

significant works are An essay towards a new theory of vision, De motu, and the

collection of short notes, Philosophical commentaries. These, and other works, are

handily collected in one volume: George Berkeley, Philosophical works, M.

R.Ayers (ed.) (London: Everyman, 1983). Another single volume collection is

George Berkeley, The principles of human knowledge: with other writings, G.

J.Warnock (ed.) (London: Fontana, 1975). There is also George Berkeley,

Principles of human knowledge and three dialogues, Roger Woolhouse (ed.)

(London: Penguin, 1988). Berkeley’s works are found complete in A.A.Luce

and T.E.Jessop (eds), The works of George Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne (London:

Nelson, 1948–57).

There are several excellent works on Berkeley. The best short

introductory work is J.O.Urmson, Berkeley (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1982). An excellent longer but more difficult work is George Pitcher, Berkeley

(London: Routledge, 1984). Other works of high quality are: G.J.Warnock,

Berkeley (London: Penguin, 1969); Jonathan Dancy, Berkeley: an introduction

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987); A.C.Grayling, Berkeley: the central arguments

(London: Duckworth, 1986). There are valuable collections of articles in John

Foster and Howard Robinson (eds), Essays on Berkeley (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1985), and C.B.Martin and D.M Armstrong, Locke and Berkeley: a

collection of critical essays (London: Macmillan, 1969). The definitive

biography is A.A. Luce, The life of George Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne

(Edinburgh: Nelson, 1949).

Hume

The two major works by which Hume’s philosophy must be judged are A

treatise of human nature and the somewhat later Enquiries concerning human

understanding and concerning the principles of morals. The Treatise made relatively

little impact at its first appearance; thinking this due to the manner of

presentation Hume recast his ideas in the Enquiries. The relation between the

two works is complex; what can be said is that there are differences both of

style and of some philosophical substance.

There are several good editions of Hume’s Treatise available: A Treatise of

Human Nature, L.A.Selby-Bigge (ed.) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); A

Treatise of Human Nature, Ernest C.Mossner (ed.) (London: Penguin, 1984); A

Treatise of Human Nature, D.G.C.Macnabb (ed.) (Glasgow: Fontana, 1987); and

for the Hume Enquiries, 3rd edition, L.A.Selby-Bigge (ed.), revised by

P.H.Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).

Of books on Hume, excellent introductions are Terence Penelhum, Hume

(London: Macmillan, 1975) and D.G.C.Macnabb, David Hume (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1966). A useful short work is A.J.Ayer, Hume (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1980). A book of fundamental importance for the

interpretation of Hume’s philosophy is Norman Kemp Smith, The

philosophy of David Hume (London: Macmillan, 1941). A fine work treating

Hume in depth is Barry Stroud, Hume (London: Routledge, 1977). More

specialized works are John Passmore, Hume’s intentions, 3rd edition

(London: Duckworth, 1980); Robert J.Fogelin, Hume’s skepticism in the

Treatise of Human Nature (London: Routledge, 1985); David Pears, Hume’s

system: an examination of the first book of his Treatise (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1990). A collection of essays is V.C.Chappell (ed.), Hume

(London: Macmillan, 1968). The definitive biography of Hume is

Bibliography 323

E.C.Mossner, The life of David Hume, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1980).

Transcendental idealism

Kant

Kant’s own thoughts on epistemology and metaphysics are contained in two

main works: Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to any future metaphysics that will be

able to present itself as a science (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1971),

and Immanuel Kant, Critique of pure reason (London: Macmillan, 1976), which is

the authoritative English translation by Norman Kemp Smith containing both

the 1781 and 1787 editions of the Critique.

There are many good books on Kant in English. Good introductory

accounts are Frederick Copleston, A history of Western philosophy, vol. VI,

Parts I, II (New York: Image Books, 1964), Roger Scruton, Kant (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1982); John Kemp, The philosophy of Kant (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1979). Stephen Körner, Kant (London: Penguin,

1977), gives a lively critical overview. Also useful is A.C.Ewing, A short

commentary on Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (London: Methuen, 1938).

Norman Kemp Smith, A commentary to Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (London:

Macmillan, 1923) is valuable as a detailed guide through the Critique of Pure

Reason. C.D.Broad, Kant: an introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1978), is a detailed, clear, illuminating study. A helpful work is Ralph

C.S.Walker, Kant (London: Routledge, 1978). There is also H.J.Paton, Kant’s

Metaphysics of Experience, 2 vols. (London: Allen & Unwin, 1936). A

comprehensive guide is Paul Guyer (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Kant

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Books that go considerably

beyond being expositions are: P.F.Strawson, The bounds of sense (London:

Methuen, 1978), and Jonathan Bennett, Kant’s Analytic (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1966), Kant’s Dialectic (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1974); Strawson is ultimately sympathetic, Bennett is highly

analytical. A detailed study is Paul Guyer, Kant and the claims of knowledge

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Another work worth

studying is W.H.Walsh, Kant’s Criticism of Metaphysics (Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 1975). Ernest Cassirer, Kant’s life and thought

(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), fills in the intellectual background

and origin of Kant’s ideas.

Later German philosophy

Hegel

Hegel’s philosophical works are characteristically long and difficult; his

output is large, but the most important items are mentioned here. Of major

importance are: Hegel, The phenomenology of spirit (also known as The

phenomenology of mind), A.V.Miller (tr.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1977); Lectures on the philosophy of history, J.Sibree (tr.) (New York: Dover,

1956); Science of logic, A.V.Miller (tr.) (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969);

324 Bibliography

Philosophy of right, T.M.Knox (tr.) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1942). Giving

an overall picture of his philosophy is Hegel, Encyclopedia of the philosophical

sciences, which is published in three parts, Part I: Logic, W.Wallace (tr.)

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), Part II: Philosophy of nature, A.V.Miller (tr.)

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), Part III: Philosophy of mind, A.V.Miller (tr.)

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971). Useful is the edited collection of excerpts

from Hegel’s works, M.J.Inwood (ed.) Hegel: selections (London: Macmillan,

1989).

There are quite a few good guides to Hegel’s philosophy. An excellent

overall exposition of Hegel’s philosophy, notable for its clarity and orderly

approach, is W.T.Stace, The philosophy of Hegel (London: Macmillan, 1924). A

good short general introduction is Peter Singer, Hegel (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1983). Another introductory work is Richard Norman, Hegel’s

phenomenology: a philosophical introduction (Brighton: Sussex University Press,

1976). An important work is Ivan Soll, An introduction to Hegel’s metaphysics

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969). A helpful collection of essays is

M.J.Inwood (ed.) Hegel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). Large works

on Hegel are Charles Taylor, Hegel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1978), and the analytical examination by M.J.Inwood, Hegel (London:

Routledge, 1983). There is also J.N.Findlay, Hegel: a reexamination (London:

Allen & Unwin, 1958). A useful companion while reading Hegel is

M.J.Inwood, A Hegel dictionary (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992).

Nietzsche

The works of Nietzsche are unconventional when regarded as philosophical

works; they contain an enormous variety of literary styles: arguments,

narratives, aphorisms, metaphors, polemics and hyperbole. Indeed, the

pluralism of Nietzsche’s style can be seen as an attempt to distinguish himself

from traditional philosophy so that he is understood as marking the beginning

of a new philosophy. The following lists some of the most important of

Nietzsche’s works, in roughly chronological order of their creation, written

between 1872 and 1888.

The birth of tragedy, Walter Kaufmann (tr.) (New York: Vintage Books, 1966);

Human, all too human, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1988); Daybreak, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1982); The gay science, Walter Kaufmann (tr.) (New York: Vintage Books,

1974); Thus spoke Zarathustra, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (London: Penguin, 1980);

Beyond good and evil, Walter Kaufmann (tr.) (New York: Vintage Books, 1966);

On the genealogy of morals, Walter Kaufmann and R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (New

York: Vintage Books, 1969); Twilight of the idols, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (London:

Penguin, 1982); The antichrist, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (London: Penguin, 1982);

Ecce homo, R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (London: Penguin, 1979); The will to power,

Walter Kaufmann and R.J.Hollingdale (tr.) (New York: Vintage Books, 1968).

There is also Nietzsche’s Nachlass, which consists of large numbers of

fragmentary notes.

A good place to start reading Nietzsche is the selective compendium R.J.

Hollingdale (tr. and ed.), A Nietzsche reader (London: Penguin, 1977). There are

convenient collections of Nietzsche’s works: Basic writings of Nietzsche, Walter

Kaufmann (tr.) (New York: Random House, 1968) contains The Birth of Tragedy,

Beyond Good and Evil, On the Genealogy of Morals, The case of Wagner, Ecce homo;

Bibliography 325

The portable Nietzsche, Walter Kaufmann (tr.) (New York: Viking Press, 1954)

contains Thus spoke Zarathustra, Twilight of the idols, The antichrist, Nietzsche

contra Wagner.

It is important to note that there are significant divergences of

interpretation over Nietzsche. Of works on Nietzsche that are philosophically

deep there are Alexander Nehamas, Nietzsche: life as literature (Harvard:

Harvard University Press, 1985); Arthur C.Danto, Nietzsche as philosopher (New

York: Columbia University Press, 1980); Richard Schacht, Nietzsche (London:

Routledge, 1983). A valuable study is Maudemarie Clark, Nietzsche on truth and

philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). There is also Gilles

Deleuze, Nietzsche and philosophy (London: Athlone Press, 1983). An excellent

collection of essays designed to aid the reading of Nietzsche is Robert

C.Solomon and Kathleen M.Higgins, Reading Nietzsche (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1988). A more general work is Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche:

philosopher, psychologist, antichrist, 4th edition (Princeton: Princeton University

Press, 1974). An interesting study is Ruediger H.Grimm, Nietzsche’s theory of

knowledge (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1977); it unfortunately leaves quotes

from Nietzsche untranslated. Also good is John T. Wilcox, Truth and value in

Nietzsche: a study of his metaethics and epistemology (Michigan: Michigan

University Press, 1974). The best account of Nietzsche’s life, and one that also

gives some idea of his philosophy, is Ronald Hayman, Nietzsche: a critical life

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).

Analytical philosophy

The best general introduction to the subject of this chapter is perhaps J.O.

Urmson, Philosophical analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967). But it

should be noted that Urmson’s point of view is a critical one.

Russell

A complete list of Russell’s works would be very long. Much of Russell’s early

intellectual activity was concerned with technical aspects of mathematics and

mathematical logic, although some of this had philosophical import. This work

is partly found in The principles of mathematics, 1st edition 1903, 2nd edition

(London: Allen & Unwin, 1937), and culminates in the monumental work

Russell completed with A.N.Whitehead, Principia mathematica, 3 vols.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910–13). There is also Russell,

Introduction to mathematical philosophy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1919). The list

below is of the works whose emphasis is philosophical. Russell changed some

of his views over his lifetime; the best introduction to his philosophy is

Bertrand Russell, My philosophical development (London: Allen & Unwin, 1959)

read in conjunction with the relatively early work, Bertrand Russell, The

problems of philosophy (1912) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978). In order

to gain a balanced view of Russell’s work it is necessary to consult his later

thoughts on the central questions of philosophy in An inquiry into meaning and

truth (1940) (London: Penguin, 1965) and Human knowledge: its scope and limits

(London: Allen & Unwin, 1948). Other works by Russell of importance are Our

knowledge of the external world (1914) 3rd edition (London: Allen & Unwin,

1926); Mysticism and logic (1917) (London: Penguin, 1954); The analysis of mind

326 Bibliography

(London: Allen & Unwin, 1921); The analysis of matter (London: Allen & Unwin,

1927); An outline of philosophy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1927); History of

Western philosophy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1945); Logic and knowledge

(London: Unwin Hyman, 1956).

As to works on Russell, good is A.J.Ayer, Russell (London: Fontana, 1972)

and A.J.Ayer, Russell and Moore: the analytical heritage (London: Macmillan,

1971). Longer and more detailed is R.M.Sainsbury, Russell (London: Routledge,

1979). A detailed and sometimes difficult work is David Pears, Bertrand Russell

and the British tradition in philosophy (London: Fontana, 1972). There is also a

collection of essays, P.A.Schilpp (ed.) The philosophy of Bertrand Russell (New

York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1951). A valuable collection of essays which

pay due attention to Russell’s later work is C. Wade Savage and C.Anthony

Anderson (eds), Rereading Russell: essays on Bertrand Russell’s metaphysics and

epistemology (Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. XII)

(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).

Wittgenstein

That Wittgenstein appears in two separate chapters in this book (Chs 8 and

11) reflects the distinction between his earlier and later philosophies. All of

Wittgenstein’s books, apart from the Tractatus logico-philosophicus of 1921,

were published after his death, when many of his papers and notes were

compiled into books. His earlier philosophy is found in Wittgenstein,

Tractatus logico-philosophicus (1921), D.F.Pears and B.McGuinness (tr.)

(London: Routledge, 1974), which in the hardback edition has facing German

text. There is also an earlier translation, Tractatus logico-philosophicus,

C.K.Ogden and F.P.Ramsey (tr.) (London: Routledge, 1955), which has facing

German text and was checked by Wittgenstein. Also useful is Wittgenstein,

Notebooks 1914–1916, G.H.von Wright and G.E.M.Anscombe (tr. and eds)

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979).

In listing books on Wittgenstein for Chapter 8 there is some overlap with

books appropriate to the bibliography for Chapter 11 on Wittgenstein

because several books deal with both the early and late philosophy in one

work.

Of works on Wittgenstein’s thought in general a fine introduction is

Anthony Kenny, Wittgenstein (London: Penguin, 1973). Also useful as general

introductions are: A.C.Grayling, Wittgenstein (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1989); David Pears, Wittgenstein (Glasgow: Fontana, 1977). Other works

which consider Wittgenstein’s thought as a whole are: R.J. Fogelin,

Wittgenstein, 2nd edition (London: Routledge, 1987); David Pears, The false

prison: a study of the development of Wittgenstein’s philosophy, 2 vols. (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1987, 1988); Derek Bolton: An approach to Wittgenstein’s

philosophy (London: Macmillan, 1979); P.M.S.Hacker, Insight and illusion, 2nd

edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). An enormous collection of

essays is found in Stuart Shanker (ed.) Ludwig Wittgenstein: critical arguments,

vols. I–IV (London: Croom Helm, 1986).

Works specifically on the early philosophy are: H.O.Mounce,

Wittgenstein’s Tractatus: an introduction (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981); Erik

Stenius, Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1960); Max Black, A

companion to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1964); G.E.M.Anscombe, An introduction to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus

Bibliography 327

(London: Hutchinson, 1959). A valuable collection of essays is I.M.Copi and

R.W.Beard (eds), Essays on Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (London: Routledge,

1966).

Biographical information is contained in Norman Malcolm, Ludwig

Wittgenstein: a memoir (London: Oxford University Press, 1962) and

B.F.McGuinness, The young Wittgenstein (London: Duckworth, 1988). The most

complete biography is Ray Monk, Ludwig Wittgenstein: the duty of genius

(London: Cape, 1990). There are general assessments of Wittgenstein and

articles on his philosophy in K.T.Fann (ed.), Ludwig Wittgenstein: the man and

his philosophy (Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978).

Phenomenology and existentialism

Husserl

Husserl wrote a large amount; although there is a standard edition in

German of his output, the various English translations present one with a

rather bewildering array of works. The quantity of Husserl’s work partly

reflects the extent to which he constantly rethought and reformulated his

views. Perhaps the best concise introduction is Husserl, The idea of

phenomenology, William P.Alston and George Nakhnikian (tr.) (The Hague:

Martinus Nijhoff, 1964). There is also the relatively short work, Husserl, The

Paris lectures, Peter Koestenbaum (tr.) (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985).

Both of these contain helpful introductory essays by the translators. There is

an extremely concise introduction to phenomenology prepared by Husserl

which originally appeared as “Phenomenology” in the Encyclopaedia

Britannica, 14th edition, 1929; it is reprinted in an improved translation in

Peter McCormick and Fredrick A.Elliston (eds), Husserl: shorter works (Notre

Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981); this includes other shorter

essays by Husserl. Of his longer works perhaps Ideas: a general introduction to

pure phenomenology, W.R.Boyce Gibson (tr.) (London: Allen & Unwin, 1931)

gives the best notion of his phenomenology. Of the other longer works the

most important are Edmund Husserl, Logical investigations (First pub. 1901,

revised 1913) 2nd edition, J.N.Findlay (tr.) (London: Routledge, 1970);

Cartesian meditations, D.Cairns (tr.) (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1973); The

crisis of European sciences and transcendental philosophy, David Carr (tr.)

(Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970). There is also the short

work, Husserl, Phenomenology and the crisis of philosophy: philosophy as a

rigorous science and philosophy and the crisis of European man, Quentin Lauer

(tr.) (New York: Harper and Row, 1965).

An excellent introduction to Husserl and to phenomenology in general

is David Stewart and Algis Mickunas, Exploring phenomenology, 2nd edition

(Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1990). Another general introduction

is Michael Hammond, Jane Howarth and Russell Keat, Understanding

phenomenology (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991). Of longer, more detailed

studies of Husserl most helpful are David Bell, Husserl (London: Routledge,

1990) and J.J.Kockelmans, A first introduction to Husserl’s phenomenology

(Pittsburg: Duquesne University Press, 1967). There are also useful

collections of essays in J.J.Kockelmans (ed.), Phenomenology: the philosophy of

328 Bibliography

Edmund Husserl and its interpretation (New York: Double Day, 1967);

Frederick A.Elliston and Peter McCormick (eds), Husserl: expositions and

appraisals (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977); E.Pivcevic

(ed.), Phenomenology and philosophical understanding (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1975). A large classic work which covers the whole

history of phenomenology is Herbert Spiegelberg, The phenomenological

movement, 2 vols., 2nd edition (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1971). An

advanced study of phenomenology is Josef Seifert, Back to “things in

themselves” (London: Routledge, 1987). Some intellectual connections

between continental phenomenology and analytical philosophy are

explored in Harold A.Durfee (ed.) Analytic philosophy and phenomenology

(The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976)

Sartre

The most substantial single philosophical work of Jean-Paul Sartre is Being

and nothingness: an essay on phenomenological ontology (1943), Hazel E.Barnes

(tr.) (London: Methuen, 1977). Other philosophical works are Sartre,

Imagination (1936), Forrest Williams (tr.) (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan

Press, 1962); The transcendence of the ego: an existentialist theory of consciousness

(1936) Forrest Williams and Robert Kirkpatrick (tr.) (New York: Noonday

Press, 1957); The psychology of the imagination (1940), Bernard Frechtman (tr.)

(London: Methuen, 1972); Existentialism and humanism (1946), Philip Mairet

(tr.) (London: Methuen, 1948); Literary and philosophical essays, Annette

Michelson (tr.) (London: Hutchinson, 1968). There is also considerable

philosophical substance in Sartre’s novels and plays; a good example, once

one sees the philosophical points it is making, is Sartre’s novel Nausea (1938)

(London: Penguin, 1976).

There are several excellent works on the philosophy of Sartre. A fine lucid

introduction is Arthur C.Danto, Sartre (London: Fontana, 1975). A helpful work

is Mary Warnock, The philosophy of Sartre (London: Hutchinson, 1972). There

are also Peter Caws, Sartre (London: Routledge, 1984); A.R.Manser, Sartre

(London: Athlone Press, 1966); Marjorie Grene, Sartre (Washington DC:

University Presses of America, 1983). Those who wish to tackle Sartre’s Being

and nothingness may find helpful Joseph S.Catalano, A commentary on Jean-Paul

Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1980). There

is a collection of essays on Sartre in P.A.Schilpp (ed.) The philosophy of Jean-Paul

Sartre (La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1981). On Sartre’s interlinked life and

work there are Ronald Hayman, Writing against: a biography of Sartre (London:

Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1986) and Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre: a life (London,

Minerva, 1991).

Some of the thinkers often identified as existentialist, apart from Sartre, are

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55), Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), Gabriel Marcel (1889–

1973), Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). Perhaps the core figures are Heidegger

and Sartre, despite the unhappiness they expressed about the label

“existentialist”.

For a general introduction to existentialism the best is the lucid and

engaging David E.Cooper, Existentialism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990).

Another useful work is Mary Warnock, Existentialism (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1970). A useful brief survey is Alasdair MacIntyre,

“Existentialism”, A critical history of Western philosophy, D.J.O’Connor (ed.),

Bibliography 329

(London: Macmillan, 1985, first pub. 1964). Helpful both in charting the

intellectual emergence of existentialism and in its account of existentialism

itself is Robert C. Solomon, From rationalism to existentialism (New York:

University Press of America, 1972). An interesting and accessible collection of

essays is Robert C.Solomon, From Hegel to existentialism (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1987). There are expositional essays on the major

philosophers often regarded as existentialist in H.J.Blackham, Six existentialist

thinkers: Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Jaspers, Marcel, Heidegger, Sartre (London:

Routledge, 1961).

Logical positivism and falsificationism

Ayer

The chief work for the study of Ayer in the period of his adherence to logical

positivism is A.J.Ayer, Language, truth and logic (1936, revised edition 1946)

(London: Penguin, 1975). This provides a beautifully clear introduction to the

central tenets of logical positivism in general, although there were some

important differences within the logical positivist movement. The revised

edition in 1946 contains a new “Introduction”; this would be more

appropriate as an appendix as it involves replies to criticisms of the first

edition and rethinking, which in some cases produces modification of the

original doctrines; it is sensible to read the “Introduction” after the main

body of the text.

Those wishing to understand Ayer’s later thought when he moved away

from logical positivism should consult, among his other works, A.J.Ayer, The

problem of knowledge (1956) (London: Penguin, 1964) and The central questions of

philosophy (1973) (London: Penguin, 1977); also two collections of essays,

A.J.Ayer, Metaphysics and common sense (London: Macmillan, 1969) and The

concept of a person (London: Macmillan, 1973). There are also several other

important works by Ayer.

A useful collection of essays on Ayer’s logical positivism is Barry Gower

(ed.) Logical positivism in perspective: essays on Language, Truth and Logic

(London: Croom Helm, 1987). For a detailed work discussing Ayer’s

philosophy in general see John Foster, Ayer (London: Routledge, 1985); the

excellent first chapter of this book is devoted to Ayer’s logical positivism.

There is also a collection of essays dedicated to Ayer with replies by him: G.F.

Macdonald (ed.), Perception and identity (London: Macmillan, 1979). Another

substantial collection of essays is Lewis Hahn (ed.), The philosophy of A.J. Ayer

(La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing, 1992).

Among the central figures in the logical positivism movement were

Morris Schlick (1882–1936), Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970), Otto Neurath (1882–

1945), Friedrich Waismann (1896–1959); the influence of the group was

considerable.

The best introductory book on logical positivism in general is Oswald

Hanfling, Logical positivism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981); there is also a

collection of readings, Oswald Hanfling (ed.), Essential readings in logical

positivism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981). Another collection is A.J.Ayer (ed.),

Logical positivism (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1959). Although not all by

330 Bibliography

followers of logical positivism, a valuable collection of essays relevant to

logical positivism is Herbert Feigl and Wilfred Sellars (eds), Readings in

philosophical analysis (New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, 1949).

Popper

Since the publication of his first major work Popper’s outlook has been

remarkably consistent and unified. His work has mainly concentrated on

epistemology, philosophy of science and political philosophy. Probably the

best introduction to his thought is Karl R.Popper, Conjectures and refutations

(1963), 4th edition (London: Routledge, 1972), read in conjunction with his

interesting intellectual autobiography, Unended quest, 4th edition (London:

Routledge, 1992). The origin of much of the later thinking of Popper is

contained in Logik der Forschung (1934), translated as The logic of scientific

discovery (1959) (London: Hutchinson, 1977). His ideas are elaborated in

Objective knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979). Popper’s views in the

philosophy of mind are in a work he wrote with John C.Eccles: The self and its

brain (New York: Springer International, 1977). Popper’s arguments in political

philosophy are intimately connected with his epistemology and are found in

The open society and its enemies (1945), 2 vols (London: Routledge, 1966) and The

poverty of historicism (1957) (London: Routledge, 1961). With the general

subtitle From the Postscript to The Logic of Scientific Discovery three volumes of

Popper’s work have appeared: W.W.Bartley III (ed.), Realism and the aim of

science; The open universe: an argument for indeterminism; Quantum theory and the

schism in physics (London: Hutchinson, 1982–83). Also there is Karl R.Popper,

In search of a better world: lectures and essays from thirty years (London:

Routledge, 1992).

There are several excellent books on Popper’s thought. A good short

introduction is Bryan Magee, Popper (London: Fontana, 1982). More extensive

and detailed are Anthony O’Hear, Popper (London: Routledge, 1980) and T.E.

Burke, The philosophy of Popper (Manchester: Manchester University Press,

1983). There is also a collection of critical essays by various authors in P.A.

Schilpp (ed.) The philosophy of Karl Popper, 2 vols (La Salle, Illinois: Open Court,

1977); this includes replies to critics by Popper.

Popper’s views, especially on the nature of rationality, philosophy of

science and epistemology, can be better understood in relation to others

working in these areas, including those critical of his views and those who

present alternative positions. Excellent books on these matters are, Anthony

O’Hear, An introduction to the philosophy of science (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1990); A.F.Chalmers, What is this thing called science?, 2nd edition

(Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1982); W.Newton-Smith, The

rationality of science (London: Routledge, 1981). A work with a more historical

approach is Derek Gjertsen, Science and philosophy: past and present (London:

Penguin, 1989).

Linguistic philosophy

Wittgenstein

The work central to understanding the later philosophy of Wittgenstein,

published posthumously in 1953, is Philosophical investigations, G.E.M.

Bibliography 331

Anscombe and R.Rhees (eds) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974). Ludwig

Wittgenstein, The blue and brown books, R.R.Rhees (ed.) (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1975), can perhaps be used as something like an introduction to his

later thought. The most important of his other later works are: On certainty,

G.E.M.Anscombe and G.H.von Wright (eds) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979)

and Zettel, G.E.M.Anscombe and G.H.von Wright (eds) (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1967). Other works are Remarks on the foundations of mathematics,

G.H.von Wright and R.Rhees (eds) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978); Philosophical

remarks, R.Rhees (ed.) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1975); Philosophical grammar,

R.Rhees (ed.) (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1969).

As was stated in the bibliography for Chapter 8, many books on

Wittgenstein deal with both the earlier and later philosophy together; those

books dealing with Wittgenstein’s philosophy as a whole are listed in the

bibliography to Chapter 8.

There is significant divergence of interpretation over the later philosophy.

An excellent work on the later philosophy is Oswald Hanfling, Wittgenstein’s

later philosophy (London: Macmillan, 1989). Other important works are

Norman Malcolm, Nothing is hidden: Wittgenstein’s criticism of his early thought

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986) and E.K.Specht, The foundations of

Wittgenstein’s late philosophy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1967).

There is also S.Kripke, Wittgenstein on rules and private language (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1982). Collections of essays on the later philosophy are George

Pitcher (ed.) Wittgenstein: the philosophical investigations (London: Macmillan,

1968) and Alice Ambrose and Morris Lazerowitz (eds), Ludwig Wittgenstein:

philosophy and language (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972). An extremely

detailed study of the Philosophical investigations is found in the three volumes,

G.P.Baker and P.M.S.Hacker, Wittgenstein: meaning and understanding (Oxford:

Basil Blackwell, 1980, 1983); G.P.Baker and P.M.S.Hacker, An analytical

commentary on Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1980); P.M.S.Hacker, Wittgenstein: meaning and mind (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1990).

Recent philosophy

There is no real substitute, in studying recent philosophy, for reading the

works of recent philosophers themselves. A selection of the works by the

philosophers mentioned in Chapter 12 appears below. The bibliographies

appear in the same order as the philosophers occur in Chapter 12. I have

restricted myself to books; there are, of course, many articles in journals which

are unmentioned.

There are some general works relevant to the study of recent philosophy.

The later chapters of John Passmore, A hundred years of philosophy, 2nd edition

(London: Penguin, 1966) have material on recent philosophy, and this work is

carried on in John Passmore, Recent philosophy (London: Duckworth, 1985),

which is the best general survey of recent philosophy. There is also A.J.Ayer,

Philosophy in the twentieth century (London: Allen & Unwin, 1982). A useful

collection of essays by recent philosophers—including Hampshire, Davidson,

Strawson, and Kripke—is found in Ted Honderich and Myles Burnyeat (eds),

332 Bibliography

Philosophy as it is (London: Penguin, 1979). Books that concentrate on

philosophical problems as they are addressed by recent philosophy are:

Anthony O’Hear, What philosophy is (London: Penguin, 1985); A.R.Lacey,

Modern philosophy (London: Routledge, 1982); Jonathan Dancy, Introduction to

contemporary epistemology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985).

Gilbze: Methods of logic (1962); From a logical point of view (1953); Word and object

(1960); The Ways of Paradox and other essays (1966, revised edition 1976);

Ontological Relativity and other essays (1969); Philosophy of logic (1970); The web of

belief (1970); The roots of reference (1974); Pursuit of truth (1990).

J.L.Austin: Philosophical papers (1961); Sense and sensibilia (1962); How to do

things with words (1962).

Stuart Hampshire: Spinoza (1951, revised edition 1987); Thought and action

(1959); Freedom of the individual (1965, new edition 1975); Modern writers and

other essays (1972); Freedom of mind (1972); Two theories of morality (1977).

Donald Davidson: Essays on action and events (1982); Inquiries into truth and

interpretation (1985).

P.F.Strawson: Introduction to logical theory (1952); Individuals (1959); The bounds

of sense (1966); Logico-linguistic papers (1971); Subject and predicate in logic and

grammar (1974); Freedom and Resentment and other essays (1974); Skepticism and

naturalism: some varieties (1985); Analysis and metaphysics: an introduction to

philosophy (1992).

Thomas S.Kuhn: The Copernican revolution (1957); The structure of scientific

revolution (1962, enlarged edition 1970); The essential tension (1977).

Paul Feyerabend: Against method (1975); Science in a free society (1978);

Philosophical papers: Realism, rationalism, scientific method, vol. I, Problems of

empiricism, vol. II (1981); Farewell to reason (1987); Three dialogues on knowledge

(1991).

Michael Dummett: Frege (1973); Elements of intuitionism (1977); Truth and other

enigmas (1978); The interpretation of Frege’s philosophy (1981); Frege and other

philosophers (1991); The logical basis of metaphysics (1991).

Richard Rorty: Philosophy and the mirror of nature (1979); Consequences of

pragmatism (1982); Contingency, irony, and solidarity (1988); Objectivity, relativism

and truth: philosophical papers I (1990); Essays on Heidegger and others: philosophical

papers II (1991).

John R.Searle: Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language (1969);

Expression and meaning (1979); Intentionality (1983).

Saul Kripke: Naming and necessity (1972, republished 1980); Wittgenstein on

rules and private languages (1982).

333

Abelard 54

Absolute Idea (Hegel) 181–2, 184,

186, 189–90

absolute idealism (Hegel) 177,

179–80, 182, 186, 188, 189–90

accidents

Aquinas on 62

Aristotle on 38–40, 42–3, 44

actuality

Aquinas on 61–2, 63, 64

Aristotle on 41, 43–4, 46

Ambrose 55

analysis 203–7

Ayer on 260, 265–6, 268, 269–70

Russell on 206, 208–9, 211, 213,

214–15, 217, 219

Wittgenstein on 222–3, 224–6,

228

analytic 32, 82, 159, 164, 306

Ayer on 261–6, 267–9, 271

Kant on 163–5

Leibniz on 102, 107–9, 111

analytical philosophy 203–31

nature of 203–7

Anaxagoras xi, 5, 15, 17–18

Anaximander xi, 4, 5, 6–7

Anaximenes xi, 5, 7

Angst 253, 256

anti-essentialism

Berkeley on 132, 138–40

Popper on 282–3

Wittgenstein on 285–7, 290, 294,

296, 302

Anselm, St 54

anti-realism 309

apeiron (Anaximander) 6–7

Apollo 15

a posteriori

Ayer on 262, 263–4

empiricism on 115–16

Hegel on 180

Hume on 146–7, 150

Kant on 160–1, 163–7, 180

Leibniz on 164–5

rationalism on 115–16

Russell on 211

appearance/reality distinction 10–11,

12, 74–5, 159, 176–7

Berkeley on 130, 136, 138, 140

Hegel on 177–8, 179–80, 182, 189

Kant on 171

Nietzsche on 177, 197–8, 199

a priori

Aristotle on 48

Augustine on 58

Ayer on 262, 263–5, 267

distinguished from innateness

119–20, 167, 279

empiricism on 74–5, 114–16, 159,

165, 189

Hegel on 177, 179–180

Hume on 146–7, 148–9, 150, 159,

164

Husserl on 242

Kant on 159, 161–2, 163, 164,

165, 166, 167, 172, 175, 177, 179,

191, 197, 198, 264–5

Leibniz on 103, 113

Locke on 119–20, 127, 128

Nietzsche on 191, 197, 198

Ockham on 68, 72–3

Plato on 34

Popper on 274, 279

rationalism on 74–5, 114–15, 159,

164–5,

Russell on 210–11, 218, 219

Spinoza on 96

a priori/a posteriori distinction 115–16,

119–20, 146–7, 161–2 163–4, 167

a priori synthetic

Ayer on 263–5

Kant on 163–5

INDEX

334 Index

Aquinas Thomas, xi, 59–65; see also

54, 69, 70

accidents 62

actuality 61–2, 63, 64

Aristotle 59, 60, 61, 62

being hiearchy of, 63–4

divine revelation 60–1

esse 61, 62, 63–4

essence 61–5

existence 61–5

faith 60–1

form 60–4

God 60, 62–4

knowledge 60–1

life of 59–60

matter 63, 64

natural cognition 60–1

potentiality 61–2, 63, 64

soul 63, 64

substance 61, 62, 63–5

universals 61, 63

arche

Anaximander on 6

Anaximenes on 7

Empedocles on 16

Heraclitus on 9

Thales on 6

Aristotle xi, 35–51; see also 2, 6, 8,

15, 19, 21, 23, 27, 53–4 59, 60, 61–2,

66, 67, 78, 90, 101, 104, 162, 179

accidents 38–40, 42–3, 44

actuality 41, 43–4, 46

atomism 37

being 37, 38

categories 38

causes 45–6

change 37–8, 43, 44, 45, 46

accidental 38, 42–3, 44

substantial 38, 42–3, 44, 46

essence 38

existence 38

first principles 47–8

form 36–7, 38, 41–4, 44–6, 48–50

as essence 41–3

ontology of 36–7, 41

four causes 45

individuals 37, 39–40, 41, 42–3,

45–8, 49

intellect 44, 46–9

Heraclitus 37

knowledge 46

scientific 36, 45, 47, 48–51

sensible world 46

life of 35–6

logic 47

matter 41

natural kinds 37, 39–40, 41, 43–5,

46–7

Parmenides 37

Plato 36, 46

potentiality 41, 43–4, 46

privation 43–4

subjects 39

substance 39–40

teleology 36, 45

universals 38, 39–41, 49

way-of-being 38–41

Arnauld Antoine, 76, 101

astronomy 157, 159

atheism 88, 158, 207, 130

atomic facts

Russell on 212–13

Wittgenstein on 225–6, 229

atomic names

Russell on 212, 230–1

Wittgenstein on 225–6, 228–9,

230–1

atomic objects

Russell on 212–13 230–1

Wittgenstein on 224–6, 228–9,

230–1

atomism 18–20, 22, 37

problems of 37, 19–20, 106

theory of perception of 19

attributes

Descartes on 84

Spinoza on 91–3, 97, 98

Augustine xi, 55–9; see also 52, 53,

54, 66

blessedness 55

divine illumination 58

geometry 57

knowledge

a priori 58

of eternal truths 56–9

life of 55

mathematics 57

Plato 56

reason 57

scepticism 56

sense-experience 57

soul 57, 58

Austin, J.L. 307, 310

Ayer, A.J. xi, 260–71 see also 259

analysis 260, 265–6, 268, 269–70

analytic 261–6, 267–9, 271

a posteriori 262, 263–4

a priori 262, 263–5, 267

a priori synthetic 263–5

causation 269

Index 335

geometry 264–5

God 270

hypotheses 266–7

influences on 260

Kant 264–5

life of 260

logic 264–5

material objects 269, 270

mathematics 264–5

meaning 261–3, 266–9

meaninglessness 262–3

metaphysics 262

elimination of 260, 262–3, 264,

265

nonsense 262

ontological neutrality 269

other minds 269

phenomenalism 269

propositions

basic 267

contingent 262, 263–4

empirical 262

factual 261, 262, 267, 268–9, 270

genuine 261, 262–3, 264, 267,

268, 270

necessary 261–2, 263–5

pseudo 263

putative 261

synthetic 262, 264–5, 270

trivial 265

self 269

sense-content 268–270

sentences 261

solipsism 266

statements 261

tautologies 261, 264, 265

theology 262

unity of science 260

value 270–1

verification 266–70

verification principle 261, 272,

271

self-defeating 271

bad faith (mauvaise foi) (Sartre)

253–4, 256, 258

Beauvoir, Simone de 245

Beeckman, Isaac 75

behaviourism 305–6

being-for-itself (Sartre) 255–6

being-for-others (Sartre) 255–6

being-in-itself (Sartre) 255–6

being-in-the-world (Sartre) 246,

249–51, 255; see also Dasein

Berkeley, George xi, 129–40; see

also 122, 124, 158

appearance/reality distinction

130, 136, 138, 140

archetype 136

causal laws 138

causation 138–9

ectype 136

empiricism 129, 138

essentialism 132, 138–40

existence 135

experience

idealism 129, 131–2,

argument for 134

ideas 129

abstract 137–8

as natural signs 139

general 137

inertness of 138

imagination 137, 136

immaterialism 138

instrumentalism 138

Descartes 130

God

as cause 135–6, 138

language of 139–40

existence of 130, 132

existence proof 132, 140

nature of 132, 136

language 129

life of 129

Locke 129, 133–4, 137

Malebranche 130–1

metaphysics 139

materialism 131

arguments opposing 133–4

material objects 130, 132

matter 131

meaning 137

meaninglessness 129

mind 129, 132, 135

mind/body problem 130–1, 133

necessary connection 138–9

notions 138

occasionalism 133

ontology of 129, 136

particulars 137

phenomena 138–9

phenomenalism 135

perception

illusory 136

immedate/mediate 134

proper objects of 134

veridical 136

qualities 133

reality 136

scepticism 130, 131–3, 139

336 Index

forms of 130

origin in materialism 130–1

solutions to 132–4

science 138–9

sensible things 132, 134–5

existence of 130, 131–2

solipsism 140

spirit 130, 133, 135, 138

substance 130, 134–6

theology 139

will 131, 133, 135, 136–7, 138,

139, 140

Boethius 54

Bonaventure St, 54

Boyle, Robert 88, 101, 116, 123, 124

Brahms 219

Brentano, Franz 232, 235–6

Carnap, Rudolf 329

Carroll, Lewis 300

Cartesian Circle 84

Cartesianism 101, 104, 106, 127, 130,

132, 240, 248, 256, 288