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JULIAN BAGGINI AND PETER S. FOSL
THE PHILOSOPHER’S TOOLKIT
A Compendium of Philosophical Concepts and Methods
SECOND EDITION
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
===
Julian Baggini is editor and co-founder of The Philosophers’ Magazine (www.philosophersmag.com). He is the author of several books, including The Ethics Toolkit (with Peter S. Fosl, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007), Welcome to Everytown: A Journey into the English Mind (2008), Complaint (2008) and Should You Judge This Book by Its Cover? (2009). He has written for numerous newspapers and magazines, including the Guardian, the Financial Times, Prospect and the New Statesman, as well as for the think tanks the Institute of Public Policy Research and Demos.
Peter S. Fosl is Professor of Philosophy at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky. He is co-author with Julian Baggini of The Ethics Toolkit (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007) and is also co-editor of the Dictionary of
Literary Biography (2002) volumes on British philosophy, as well as co-editor with David E. Cooper of Philosophy: The Classic Readings (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009). Fosl’s scholarly publications address topics in scepticism, ethics, the philosophy of religion and the history of philosophy.
Praise for the first edition
‘
The Philosopher’s Toolkit provides a welcome and useful addition to the
introductory philosophy books available. It takes the beginner through
most of the core conceptual tools and distinctions used by philosophers,
explaining them simply and with abundant examples. Newcomers to
philosophy will find much in here that will help them to understand the
subject.’
David S. Oderberg,
University of Reading
‘. . . the average person who is interested in arguments and logic but who
doesn’t have much background in philosophy would certainly find this
book useful, as would anyone teaching a course on arguments, logic, and
reasoning. Even introductory courses on philosophy in general might
benefit because the book lays out so many of the conceptual “tools” which
will prove necessary over students’ careers.’
About.com
‘Its choice of tools for basic argument . . . is sound, while further tools for
argument . . . move through topics and examples concisely and wittily . . .
Sources are well chosen and indicated step by step. Sections are cross-referenced
(making it better than the Teach Yourself “100 philosophical concepts”) and
supported by a useful index.’
Reference Reviews
---
===
Alphabetical Table of Contents xi
Preface xiv
Acknowledgements xvi
---
1 Basic Tools for Argument 1
1.1 Arguments, premises and conclusions 1
1.2 Deduction 6
1.3 Induction 8
1.4 Validity and soundness 13
1.5 Invalidity 17
1.6 Consistency 19
1.7 Fallacies 23
1.8 Refutation 26
1.9 Axioms 28
1.10 Definitions 31
1.11 Certainty and probability 34
1.12 Tautologies, self-contradictions and the law of non-contradiction 38
---
2 More Advanced Tools 42
2.1 Abduction 42
2.2 Hypothetico-deductive method 46
2.3 Dialectic 49
2.4 Analogies 52
2.5 Anomalies and exceptions that prove the rule 55
2.6 Intuition pumps 58
2.7 Logical constructions 60
2.8 Reduction 62
2.9 Thought experiments 65
2.10 Useful fictions 68
---
3 Tools for Assessment 71
3.1 Alternative explanations 72
3.2 Ambiguity 74
3.3 Bivalence and the excluded middle 77
3.4 Category mistakes 79
3.5 Ceteris paribus 81
3.6 Circularity 84
3.7 Conceptual incoherence 87
3.8 Counterexamples 90
3.9 Criteria 93
3.10 Error theory 95
3.11 False dichotomy 97
3.12 False cause 99
3.13 Genetic fallacy 101
3.14 Horned dilemmas 105
3.15 Is/ought gap 108
3.16 Masked man fallacy 110
3.17 Partners in guilt 113
3.18 Principle of charity 114
3.19 Question-begging 118
3.20 Reductios 121
3.21 Redundancy 123
3.22 Regresses 125
3.23 Saving the phenomena 127
3.24 Self-defeating arguments 130
3.25 Sufficient reason 133
3.26 Testability 136
---
4 Tools for Conceptual Distinctions 140
4.1 A priori/a posteriori 141
4.2 Absolute/relative 144
4.3 Analytic/synthetic 147
4.4 Categorical/modal 150
4.5 Conditional/biconditional 151
4.6 De re/de dicto 153
ftoc.indd viii 1/30/2010 4:50:20 PM
CONTENTS ix
4.7 Defeasible/indefeasible 156
4.8 Entailment/implication 158
4.9 Essence/accident 161
4.10 Internalism/externalism 164
4.11 Knowledge by acquaintance/description 167
4.12 Necessary/contingent 170
4.13 Necessary/sufficient 173
4.14 Objective/subjective 176
4.15 Realist/non-realist 178
4.16 Sense/reference 181
4.17 Syntax/semantics 182
4.18 Thick/thin concepts 185
4.19 Types/tokens 187
---
5 Tools of Historical Schools and Philosophers 190
5.1 Aphorism, fragment, remark 190
5.2 Categories and specific differences 193
5.3 Elenchus and aporia 196
5.4 Hume’s fork 199
5.5 Indirect discourse 202
5.6 Leibniz’s law of identity 204
5.7 Ockham’s razor 209
5.8 Phenomenological method(s) 211
5.9 Signs and signifiers 214
5.10 Transcendental argument 218
---
6 Tools for Radical Critique 222
6.1 Class critique 222
6.2 Deconstruction and the critique of presence 225
6.3 Empiricist critique of metaphysics 227
6.4 Feminist critique 229
6.5 Foucaultian critique of power 231
6.6 Heideggerian critique of metaphysics 234
6.7 Lacanian critique 237
6.8 Critiques of naturalism 239
6.9 Nietzschean critique of Christian-Platonic culture 241
6.10 Pragmatist critique 244
6.11 Sartrean critique of ‘bad faith’ 246
---
7 Tools at the Limit 249
7.1 Basic beliefs 249
7.2 Gödel and incompleteness 252
7.3 Philosophy and/as art 254
7.4 Mystical experience and revelation 257
7.5 Paradoxes 259
7.6 Possibility and impossibility 262
7.7 Primitives 265
7.8 Self-evident truths 267
7.9 Scepticism 270
7.10 Underdetermination 273
---
Internet Resources for Philosophers 276
---
Index 277
---
===
Alphabetical Table of Contents
---
4.1 A priori/a posteriori
2.1 Abduction
4.2 Absolute/relative
3.1 Alternative explanations
3.2 Ambiguity
2.4 Analogies
4.3 Analytic/synthetic
2.5 Anomalies and exceptions that prove the rule
5.1 Aphorism, fragment, remark
1.1 Arguments, premises and conclusions
1.9 Axioms
7.1 Basic beliefs
3.3 Bivalence and the excluded middle
4.4 Categorical/modal
5.2 Categories and specific differences
3.4 Category mistakes
1.11 Certainty and probability
3.5 Ceteris paribus
3.6 Circularity
6.1 Class critique
3.7 Conceptual incoherence
4.5 Conditional/biconditional
1.6 Consistency
3.8 Counterexamples
3.9 Criteria
6.8 Critiques of naturalism
6.2 Deconstruction and the critique of presence
1.2 Deduction
---
4.7 Defeasible/indefeasible
1.10 Definitions
4.6 De re/de dicto
2.3 Dialectic
5.3 Elenchus and aporia
6.3 Empiricist critique of metaphysics
4.8 Entailment/implication
3.10 Error theory
4.9 Essence/accident
1.7 Fallacies
3.12 False cause
3.11 False dichotomy
6.4 Feminist critique
6.5 Foucaultian critique of power
3.13 Genetic fallacy
7.2 Gödel and incompleteness
6.6 Heideggerian critique of metaphysics
3.14 Horned dilemmas
5.4 Hume’s fork
2.2 Hypothetico-deductive method
5.5 Indirect discourse
1.3 Induction
4.10 Internalism/externalism
2.6 Intuition pumps
1.5 Invalidity
3.15 Is/ought gap
4.11 Knowledge by acquaintance/description
6.7 Lacanian critique
5.6 Leibniz’s law of identity
2.7 Logical constructions
3.16 Masked man fallacy
7.4 Mystical experience and revelation
4.12 Necessary/contingent
4.13 Necessary/sufficient
6.9 Nietzschean critique of Christian-Platonic culture
4.14 Objective/subjective
5.7 Ockham’s razor
7.5 Paradoxes
3.17 Partners in guilt
---
5.8 Phenomenological method(s)
7.3 Philosophy and/as art
7.6 Possibility and impossibility
6.10 Pragmatist critique
7.7 Primitives
3.18 Principle of charity
3.19 Question-begging
4.15 Realist/non-realist
2.8 Reduction
3.20 Reductios
3.21 Redundancy
1.8 Refutation
3.22 Regresses
6.11 Sartrean critique of ‘bad faith’
3.23 Saving the phenomena
7.9 Scepticism
3.24 Self-defeating arguments
7.8 Self-evident truths
4.16 Sense/reference
5.9 Signs and signifiers
3.25 Sufficient reason
4.17 Syntax/semantics
1.12 Tautologies, self-contradictions and the law of non-contradiction
3.26 Testability
4.18 Thick/thin concepts
2.9 Thought experiments
5.10 Transcendental argument
4.19 Types/tokens
7.10 Underdetermination
2.10 Useful fictions
1.4 Validity and soundness
---
===
Preface
Philosophy can be an extremely technical and complex affair, one whose
terminology and procedures are often intimidating to the beginner and
demanding even for the professional. Like that of surgery, the art of philosophy
requires mastering a body of knowledge, but it also requires acquiring
precision and skill with a set of instruments or tools. The Philosopher’s
Toolkit may be thought of as a collection of just such tools. Unlike those of
a surgeon or a master woodworker, however, the instruments presented by
this text are conceptual – tools that can be used to analyse, manipulate and
evaluate philosophical concepts, arguments and theories.
The Toolkit can be used in a variety of ways. It can be read cover to cover
by those looking for instruction on the essentials of philosophical reflection.
It can be used as a course book on basic philosophical method or
critical thinking. It can also be used as a reference book to which general
readers and more advanced philosophers can turn in order to find quick
and clear accounts of the key concepts and methods of philosophy. The aim
of the book, in other words, is to act as a conceptual toolbox from which all
those from neophytes to master artisans can draw instruments that would
otherwise be distributed over a diverse set of texts and require long periods
of study to acquire.
For this second edition, we have expanded the book from six to seven
sections, and reviewed and revised every single entry. These sections
progress from the basic tools of argumentation to sophisticated philosophical
concepts and principles. The text passes through instruments for assessing
arguments to essential laws, principles and conceptual distinctions. It
concludes with a discussion of the limits of philosophical thinking.
Each of the seven sections contains a number of compact entries comprising
an explanation of the tool it addresses, examples of the tool in use
and guidance about the tool’s scope and limits. Each entry is cross-referenced
to other related entries. Suggestions for further reading are included, and
those particularly suitable for novices are marked with an asterisk. There is
also a list of Internet resources at the back of the book.
Becoming a master sculptor requires more than the ability to pick up and
use the tools of the trade: it requires flair, talent, imagination and practice.
In the same way, learning how to use these philosophical tools will not turn
you into a master of the art of philosophy overnight. What it will do is
equip you with many skills and techniques that will help you philosophize
better.
===
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