the world of meat

Meat Inspection, Grading, Cooking Techniques

the history of meat

Humans have hunted, farmed, and scavenged animals for meat since prehistoric times. The establishment of settlements in the Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs, and cattle.

early meat eaters

It’s not a coincidence that the earliest evidence of widespread human meat-eating coincides in the archaeological record with Homo habilis, the “handyman” of early humans. At sites in Kenya dating back to 2 million years ago, archaeologists have discovered thousands of flaked stone “knives” and fist-sized hammerstones near large piles of animal-bone fragments with corresponding butcher marks.

While our ancient human relatives had stronger jaws and larger teeth than modern man, their mouths and guts were designed for grinding up and digesting plant matter, not raw meat. Even crude stone tools could function as a second set of teeth, stripping hunks of flesh from a zebra carcass or bashing open bones and skulls to get at the nutrient-rich marrow or brains inside. By pre-processing meat with tools originally designed to dig tubers and crack open nuts, our ancestors made animal flesh easier to chew and digest.

scavengers not hunters

Primitive stone hand tools are fine for carving up carcasses or smashing open large bones, but they are lousy for hunting live prey. This is why zooarchaeologists believe our meat-eating human ancestors living more than a million years ago were scavengers, not hunters.

One theory for why so many butchered animal bones entered the archaeological record around 1.8 million years ago is that while early humans were lousy hunters, they were living among some of the most efficient killers to ever roam the earth: saber-toothed cats.

Briana Pobiner, who studies the origins of human meat-eating, wrote that “Between one- and two million years ago the large carnivore communities of the African savanna consisted not only of lions, hyenas, leopards, cheetahs and wild dogs, as we see today, but also at least three species of saber-toothed cats, including one that was significantly larger than the largest male African lions. These cats may have hunted larger prey, leaving even more leftovers for early humans to scavenge.”

animal domestication

From 10,000 to 4,500 years ago, humans began to domesticate plants and animals. From the beginning, these practices caused serious environmental damage. Animal agriculture required a significant amount of land—the land needed for 30 people, 40 cows, and 40 goats or sheep was around 1.5 x 1.5 miles. People cleared forests for land, which led to soil erosion.

To keep their herds safe, people hunted other predators to extinction. Living closer to animals also increased the chances of contracting zoonotic diseases like smallpox, malaria, tuberculosis, measles, and influenza. During this time, meat’s use as a cultural barrier started to develop. Pigs became taboo in Egypt, and camel meat became taboo in the Middle East. This created a cultural separation between people who ate certain kinds of meat and people who didn’t.

meat in the colonies

In the 1600s and 1700s, England required more land to feed its increasingly urban populations, especially as their land continued to degrade due to overgrazing.

The push to colonize North America was mostly driven by the desire for more land, and the colonizers found this land by forcing out the local indigenous people. While only half of England’s population could afford meat in any form, Chesapeake colonists ate almost 150 pounds of meat per person per year. Because meat was so closely associated with wealth, the colonists felt that they were superior to those in England.

the cause and effects of meat consumption

Throughout history, meat has had a complex cultural, environmental, and nutritional effect on humans. It’s been used for thousands of years as a tool to separate cultural groups, showcase wealth, and even incite racism. We’ve caused environmental damage at every stage of our relationship with farmed animals.

Early animal domestication caused deforestation and overgrazing, but our current reliance on factory farms has taken environmental damage to the extreme. Western countries eat more meat now than ever before in human history. Until a few hundred years ago, meat consumption was extremely limited, and most humans before us survived on primarily plant-based diets.

meat in the food industry

Meat inspection and grading

Meat Inspection is mandatory in the US. The Food Safety and Inspection Service, a division of of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), conducts these inspections. It ensures that meat is wholesome and that the processing facilities and equipment meet food safety standards.

Products that pass inspection receive a USDA stamp, which means that the product is approved for wholesomeness and is safe for people to eat.

USDA grades are based on nationally uniform federal standards. The USDA assigns two grades: Quality grade and Yield grade.

Quality grade measures the flavor characteristics of meat products. The USDA evaluates meat for traits that indicate its tenderness, juiciness, and flavor.

Yield grade measures the proportion of edible or usable meat after it has been trimmed of bones and fat.

marbling

Animals store excess energy in fatty deposits within muscles. These deposits are referred to as marbling, because the streaks of whitish-yellow fat within the red muscle make it look a bit like red marble stone. The greater the marbling in the meat, the higher the quality grade of the meat. Marbling does not necessarily indicate tenderness, but well-marbled meat is the most flavorful and juicy. Higher quality grades may actually be less attractive from a nutrition perspective because of a higher fat content.

cooking techniques for meat

The Chef or cook's goal while cooking meat should be to maximize flavor and tenderness while minimizing the loss of moisture. As meat is heated during cooking, the collagen breaks down into gelatin and water. This reduction in collagen increases the tenderness of the meat; but at the same time, the loss of moisture dries it out. A tough cut of meat cooked too quickly will still be too tough to serve when done.

dry-heat cooking

Because the tenderest cuts of meat are the most expensive, cooking them using a slow, moist-heat method is not cost efficient, because a cheaper cut of meat would produce a quality product and actually offer more flavor. That is why dry-heat methods, which cook meats quickly are best for naturally tender cuts.

The dry-heat methods of broiling and grilling are best for tender meat. It is important to master these two basic cooking techniques. Steaks and chops are two cuts that hold up well to the dry heat of broiling and grilling.

Roasting is also a dry-heat cooking method. The tender cuts from the rib or tenderloin are ideal for roasting. Trim most of the visible fat to ensure even cooking. Then, sear the meat. Searing caramelizes the outside of the meat improves the flavor and appearance of the finished product. You can also season the roast before cooking by marinating, barding, or stuffing.

dry-heat cooking with fat and oil

Another way to prepare meat is to use dry-heat cooking methods with fat and oil. These methods include sautéing, stir-frying, pan-frying, and deep-frying.

Sautéing and stir-frying use a small amount of oil. Pan-frying uses a larger amount and a coating. These methods cook meat quickly, use high heat and require tender, portion-sized or smaller pieces of meat.

Cut meat for stir-frying into small pieces, with all the fat, gristle, or silverskin removed. In stir-frying, cook food over very high heat, using little fat or cooking oil. Stir-fried meat should be moist and tender. An example is stir-fried beef with vegetables.

moist-heat cooking

Moist-heat cooking techniques produce food that is delicately flavored and moist with a rich broth. Poach, simmer, or boil tougher cuts of meat. cook an entire boiled dinner, complete with vegetables and meat, in one pot.

A New England boiled dinner is one example using the boiled method. Yankee pot roast is an example of cooking with the simmering method.

Combination cooking

The combination cooking methods, braising and stewing, use both dry and moist heat to cook food that is not very tender. first sear the meat in hot oil, and then slowly cook it with a small amount of liquid in the oven or on the stove.

Stewing is very much like braising, except the meat or other major ingredient is cut into bite-size pieces before it is seared.

in conclusion

Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Meat is edible raw, but it is mostly eaten cooked, such as by stewing or roasting, or processed, such as by smoking or salting.

The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat, as opposed to fish and poultry) increases the risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming, pollution, and biodiversity loss, at local and global scales, but meat is important to economies and cultures around the world. Some people (vegetarians and vegans) choose not to eat meat for ethical, environmental, health or religious reasons.

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