Introduction

Personality can be defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person think and act in an environment. The inner characteristics of personality are specific qualities, attributes, traits, factors and mannerism that distinguish one individual from other individuals.

Personality of an individual also affects human behaviour. Personality is the sum total of an individual's psycho-physical systems that determine his/her behaviour in a given environment/situation. Personality differs from person to person depending on their varying psycho-physical aspects. For example, we find in our day-to-day life that some people are quiet and passive, while others are loud and aggressive in their behaviours. 

It is a fact that psychological factors of an individual are rarely known to others. An individual’s personality is not a superficial fact or occurrence that can be easily understood, merely on his personal appearance. Personality is the whole aspect of an individual from general point of view. It includes a person’s physical, psychological and emotional aspects. 

Therefore, understanding human/employees behaviour in organisations in a better way underlines the need to understand personality in its various aspects. What exactly personality is? What do determine an individual's personality? How do the theories of personality help us understand and predict human behaviour in a given situation? The aim of this chapter is to attempt to answer these questions. 

In modern organisations, personality attributes of a manager are considered important, since they affect the entire behavioural pattern of the person. In common parlance, personality refers to the impression, which an individual forms on others through his personal attributes making attractive or unattractive view. 

Concept of personality

There may be so many personalities as many persons. Hence, there is no consensus what personality is. Personality means different things to different people. To some, it means one's charm, dress and attractiveness, to others, it means a unitary mode of response to life situations.

The English word 'personality' has been derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’ meaning to speak through (mask). As in the ancient days masks were worn in Greece and Rome by actors, while enacting plays. Thus, personality is used for influencing others through external appearance. However, perceiving personality in terms of external appearance is in narrow sense. Personality includes something more. Let us go through some definitions on personality that will help us understand personality in a proper and better sense. 

Definition of personality

A number of definitions are given in respect of personality in order to give meaningful one. Let us extract some standard definitions.

According to Gordon Allport, personality is “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”

Fred Luthans defines the term personality as, “how people affect others and how they understand and view themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation intervention.”

According to Robert Park and Earnest Burgess “Personality is the sum and organization of those traits which determine the role of the individual in the group.”

According to Linton, personality embraces the total organized aggregate of psychological processes and status pertaining to the individual.

Personality says Maclver is all that an individual is and has experienced so far as this all can be comprehended as unity.

According to Lundberg the term personality refers to the habits, attitudes and other social traits that are characteristic of a given individual’s behavior.

By personality Ogburn means the integration of the socio-psychological behavior of the human being, represented by habits of action and feeling, attitudes and opinions.

Davis regards personality a psychic phenomenon which is neither organic nor social but an emergent from a combination of the two.

According to Young personality is the totality of behavior of an individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations.

Robbins defines personality as, “the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts until others.” 

Personality characteristics that influence individual

1. Locus of Control

The degree to which individuals perceive control over a situation being internal or external is called locus of control. Locus of control refers to the range of beliefs that individuals hold in terms of being controlled by self (internal locus) or controlled by others or the situation (external locus).

2. Self-Efficacy

Generalized self-efficacy refers to a belief about one’s own ability to deal with events and challenges. High self-efficacy results in greater confidence in one’s job-related abilities to function effectively on the job. Success in previous situations leads to increased self-efficacy for present and future challenges.

3. Self-Esteem

An individual’s self-worth is referred to as self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem have positive feelings about themselves. Low self-esteem individuals are strongly affected by what others think of them, and view themselves negatively.

4. Self-Monitoring

The extent to which people base their behavior on cues from other people and situations is self-monitoring. Individuals high in self-monitoring pay attention to what behavior is appropriate in certain situations by watching others and behaving accordingly. Low self-monitoring individuals prefer that their behavior reflects their attitudes, and are not as flexible in adapting their behavior to situational cues.

5. Positive/Negative Affect

Individuals exhibit attitudes about situations in a positive or negative fashion. An individual’s tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of situations is referred to as positive affect, while those accentuating less optimistic views are referred to as having negative affect. Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often. Negative affect individuals report higher levels of job stress.

6. Risk-Taking

People differ in their willingness to take chances. High-risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than low risk-taking managers.

Determinants of personality

1. Biological Factors

The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:

A. Heredity

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents.

The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.

B. Brain

The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing personality.

Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give an indication that a better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain.

C. Biofeedback

Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control.

Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to the body.

D. Physical Features

A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept.

2. Cultural Factors

Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us.

The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses.

According to Paul H Mussen, “each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child’s cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.”

3. Family Factors

Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development.

A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality development.

The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the person’s early development.

According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different perspectives.

• Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings and attitudes between child and model.

• Identification can be looked at as the child’s motives or desires to be like the model.

• It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model.

From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the understanding of personality development. The home environment also influences the personality of an individual. Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.

4. Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and especially organisations, which greatly influence an individual’s personality. This is commonly called the socialization process.

Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesized and absorbed.

Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group – play influential roles.

Socialization process is especially relevant to organisational behaviour because the process is not confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one’s life. In particular, the evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees behave the way they do in today’s organisations.

5. Situational Factors

Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications of behavior.

An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality.

According to Milgram, “Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide a push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions”. We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.

Determinants Of Personality

The determinants of personality are the various factors and influences that shape an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These determinants help explain why individuals differ in their personalities and why they respond differently to various situations. The key determinants of personality include Hereditary factors, Environmental factors, Situational factors, Cultural factors, Social factors, etc.

1. Hereditary Factors

Heredity, also known as genetics, refers to the influence of genetic factors and biological inheritance on an individual's personality. It involves the transmission of traits and characteristics from parents to their offspring. Various aspects are considered regarding heredity when it comes to the study of personality, some of them are:

a. Genetic Inheritance: The genetic makeup of an individual is a critical determinant of their personality. Specific genes and combinations of genes can predispose individuals to certain traits and behaviours. For example, genes may contribute to temperament, intelligence, and susceptibility to mental health conditions.

b. Twin and Family Studies: Research on identical and fraternal twins, as well as family studies, has provided substantial evidence for the hereditary basis of personality. These studies have demonstrated that certain personality traits, such as introversion-extroversion and neuroticism, tend to have a genetic component.

c. Gene-Environment Interplay: It is important to note that genetics interact with environmental factors. Genes can influence how individuals respond to their surroundings and the experiences they encounter. This interaction is known as gene-environment interplay and plays a crucial role in shaping personality.

2. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors encompass the external influences and experiences that individuals encounter throughout their lives. These factors can significantly shape and mold an individual's personality. Here are key aspects of environmental determinants:

a. Family Environment: The family is often the primary socialising agent in a person's life. The way parents raise their children, including their parenting style and family dynamics, can profoundly influence personality development. For example, a nurturing and supportive family environment can foster self-confidence and a positive self-concept.

b. Cultural and Societal Influences: Cultural norms, values, and societal expectations impact how individuals perceive themselves and others. Cultural factors, including cultural values and social norms, shape personality traits and behaviours. For instance, collectivist cultures may emphasisze conformity and interdependence, while individualist cultures may promote autonomy and self-expression.

c. Peer Groups and Socialisation: Peer groups, friends, and social interactions outside the family environment play a pivotal role in personality development. Peer influence can shape attitudes, values, and behaviours, particularly during adolescence when peer acceptance is highly valued.

3. Situational Factors

Situational factors refer to the immediate context or circumstances an individual encounters. While personality is generally considered relatively stable, situations can temporarily influence behavior and expression.

1. Stress and Coping Mechanisms: High-stress situations, such as academic exams, job interviews, or personal crises, can evoke different aspects of an individual's personality. People may exhibit resilience, adaptability, or anxiety depending on the situation and their coping mechanisms.

2. Role and Context: The roles individuals assume in various situations can lead to role-specific behaviors. For example, someone may exhibit assertiveness and leadership traits in a work environment but be more passive in social settings.

3. Mood and Emotional State: An individual's mood and emotional state at a given moment can affect their behaviour and expression. For instance, someone in a cheerful mood may exhibit extroverted traits, while someone feeling anxious may display introverted tendencies.

4. Cultural Factors

Cultural factors encompass the societal and cultural environment in which an individual is immersed. These factors shape an individual's values, beliefs, and behaviours. Key aspects of cultural factors include:

a. Cultural Values: Each culture has its unique set of values and beliefs that influence an individual's worldview. These values can encompass concepts like collectivism versus individualism, egalitarianism, and the importance of tradition.

b. Social Norms: Cultural norms dictate acceptable behaviour within a specific society or community. These norms impact an individual's choices and actions in various social contexts, including family, work, and social interactions.

5. Social Factors

Social factors encompass the broader societal context and interpersonal relationships that an individual experiences throughout their life. These factors include:

a. Peer Influence: The influence of friends and peer groups can significantly shape an individual's personality, values, and behaviours. Peer pressure, social acceptance, and the desire for social belonging can impact decision-making.

b. Social Support: The quality and nature of an individual's social relationships, including friendships and support networks, have a profound effect on emotional well-being and can influence personality traits like resilience and self-esteem.