Background

For most individuals, work is defining aspect of life. Indeed, our happiness and fulfillment can hinge on how well are we able to control the course of our work-lives, and manage the effects of our work on our family and personal life. Yet many people enter their careers with a lack of insight and purpose, drifting to and from jobs, or lamenting unwise career choices. For others, the task of career management because of risk of not making personally correct decisions, is frightening and full of anxiety. A person having skills, qualifications, background experience, should know how to make successful career out of them.

What is Career?

In broad terms, there are two ways of viewing a "career". One approach is to view "career" as a structural property of an occupation or an organisation. For instance, one could think of a career in law as a sequence of positions held by a typical or ideal practitioner of the occupation : law student, law clerk, junior member of a law firm, senior member of a law firm, judge and finally retirement. also could be seen as a mobility path within a single organisation, as the following path in marketing function illustrates: sales representative, product manager, district marketing manager, regional marketing manager and division vice president of marketing with several staff assignments inter-spread among these positions.

Another approach views career as a property of an individual than an occupation or an organisation. Because almost everyone accumulates a unique series of jobs, positions and experiences. This view states that each person, in effect, possesses a unique career. Even within this individual perspective, however, several different definitions of career have appeared over the years, each reflecting a certain theme embodied in the meaning of career. Three such themes are clear in most of the definitions.

The advancement theme is present in many definitions of career. Such definitions imply that a person is pursuing a career only if he or she exhibits steady or rapid advancement in status, money and the like. Such a kind of definition severally limits the meaning of career, because it implies that people, who have not experienced advancement or other substantial achievements, do not really have a career.

A second theme places emphasis on the career as a profession. For instance, physicians and lawyers are thought to have careers, whereas clerks and machinists not. This emphasis also appears to be rather limiting, because it suggests that one must achieve a certain occupational or social status for one's work activities to constitute a career.

A third theme revolves round the career as a source of stability within the single field or closely connected fields. In this context, we often hear "career soldier" or "career police officer". Similarly, a person's pursuit of closely connected jobs such as teachers, guidance counsellor, private tutor - is thought to represent a career, whereas a sequence of apparently unrelated jobs - novelist, politician, ad-copywriter - violates a neat consistency of job content and would not constitute a career. 

As these three themes-advancement, professional statement and stability - put severe limitations on the meaning of career, less restrictive definitions have come to the surface. In the words of Michael Arthur, Douglas Hall and Barbara Lawrence, "Career is to be an evolving sequence of person's work experience over time". According to Professor Jeffrey H. Greenhaus, Gerald A. Callanan and Veronica M. Godshalk, "A career is defined as the pattern of work-related experiences that span the course of a person's life". Professor Edwin B. Flippo defines career as "a sequence of separate but related work activities that provides continuity, order and meaning in a person's life". In terms of Professor Edwin B. Flippo, "Career is a sequence of separate but related work activities that promotes continuity, order and meaning in a person's life".

Career Development Stages

As noted earlier, career development is an on going process, by which individual's progress through series of stages, each of which is characterised by a relatively unique set of issues, themes or tasks. Although the concepts of life development and career development are compatible, there is a greater emphasis on work-related issues in career development and hence, models following any career development model, one comes across certain stages. Based on Levinson's view of adult life development, five stages are identified and elaborated here.

1. Occupational choice - Preparation for work stage

From a career perspective, the major tasks of this stage are to form and refine an occupational self-image, explore the qualities of alternative occupations, develop at least a tentative occupational choice, and pursue the type of education or training required to implement the choice. The attainment of these tasks requires considerable insight into one's own talents, interests, values and desired lifestyle, as well as the requirements, opportunities and rewards associated with alternative occupational fields.

The initial time-frame for this stage, birth to 25, signifies that the formation of an image of oneself and the world of work takes place throughout childhood, adolescence and early adulthood. However, the model of career management followed here is based on continual exploration and discovery and many people develop second or third occupational choice in the course of their work lives. Because occupational choices can occur at other stages, the tasks associated with occupational choice can reappear throughout one's lifetime.

2. Organisational entry stage

The main task in second stage is to select a job and an organisation in one's chosen career field. A positive outcome at this stage is the choice of a job that can satisfy one's career values and one's talents. Unfortunately, many individual's job selections are based on incomplete or unrealistic information. Such people may experience considerable disillusionment and dissatisfaction when the reality of the work environment does not line up to their inflated expectations. The organisational entry stage, which may take several months of job search to complete, initially takes place between ages of 18-25, often depending on the number of years of education one has pursued. Although this stage is experienced initially by persons, who are moving directly from school to their first career-related work assignment, one can enter a new organisation at any age. Hence, age range can be variable. 

3. The early career stage

The stage three, which really encompasses two periods, reflects the dominant issues of early adulthood. These are: (1) Funding a niche for oneself in the adult world and (2) Striving to "make it" along the chosen path.

Having already selected an occupation and an initial job, a critical first task of the early career is to become established in one's career and organisation. The new employee must not only master the technical aspect of his or her job, but must also learn the norms, values and expectations of the organisation. In this establishment period of early career, the individual's major task is to learn about the job and the organisation and to become acceptor as a competent contributor to the organisation. That is, he is to make a place for one oneself in occupation and the organisation. In the achievement period of the early career, an individual is not so concerned with fitting into the organisation as he is with moving upward and mastering it.

It may seem odd that the early career can extend all the way up to the age of 40. In fact, achievement period in this stage coincides with what Edger Schein called full membership in midcareer. However, in the opinion of Jeffery H. Greenhaus and his associates, the entire stage must not reflect the early career in that the individual typically continues to pursue youthful aspirations.

4. The mid-career stage

An individual's mid-career (ages – 40-55) is initiated by the mid-life transition, which serves as a bridge between early and middle adulthood. A number of labels and concerns characterise the midyears. First, the individual is likely to reappraise the life structure that dominated his or her early career. Next, it is necessary to begin to form a life structure with its career implications to move oneself fully into middle adulthood. Whether the new life structure is consistent with the prior one or constitutes a minor or radical departure, a number of specific work-related issues confront that individual in midcareer. The mid-career stage consists of portions of the maintenance stage and the stable period. Again, one may think it strange that mid-career can extend all way to the age of 55. Here, one can argue that mid-career, like middle adulthood, raises qualitatively different concerns than do the later years, when, to a considerable extent, the "die is cast" and one has to deal with retirement and anxiety that disengagement from the work role may evoke.

5. Late career stage

Although there has not been a great deal of research on the late career, it appears that two major tasks dominate this stage. First, the individual must continue to be a productive contributor to the organisation and maintain his or her sense of self-growth and dignity. However, the maintenance of productivity and self-esteem is often hindered by changes within the individual and by society's bias against older people. Second, the individual in late career, must anticipate plan for an effective retirement, so that disengagement from work is not devastating to the individual and that the post-retirement years are meaningful and satisfying.

The late career extends roughly from the mid 50s to retirement. Although Mr. Levinson indicated that late adulthood begins at the age of 60, late career issues, especially the need to think seriously about retirement, can become significant at a somewhat earlier age. Rapid technological changes, age-related stereotypes and the pressures towards early retirement can all combine to stimulate late career concerns in one's 50s.

Career Stage Model

In any social science, a model is a picture or representation reality. A model contains a set of variables that are related to each other in a specified manner so that we can better understand some piece of the world. The model of career here describes how people should manage their careers. Not everybody manages a career in this fashion, but the activities represented in the model can lead to desirable outcomes

The model of career management is taken from "Career Management", written by Jeffrey H. Greenhaus, Gerald A. Callanan and Veronica M. Godshalk. The model is prefixed with the management cycle of young chemical engineer.

A young chemical engineer is pondering her future in her company. Although she enjoys her position as a staff engineer, a career in plant management has intrigued her for a while. She should lay low and follow the company's "plan" for her. However, she decides to take a more active role in management of her career. She has some decisions to make.

The first step in career management model indicates that the engineer should engage in career exploration (Box A). That is, she should begin gathering information. She might collect information about herself (what she enjoys doing, where her talents lie, the importance of work in her total life), about alternative jobs inside or outside the organisation (what does a plant manager really do, any way? What are the salaries of veteran chemical engineers?), and about her organisation (or other organisation) as a total system. (Is it possible to move from staff to line this company? How do you get promoted around her?)

Career exploration, if conducted properly, should enable the engineer to become more fully aware of herself and her environment (Box B). She ought to gain insight, for example, into her values, interests, and talents in both her work and non-work lives. She should become more aware of job options and their requirements and opportunities and obstacles in the environment.

A greater awareness of herself and her environment can help the engineer to choose a career goal to pursue (Box C). The goal, in this case, may be to attain the position of assistant plant manager in a specified period of time, to move into project engineering position, or even remain in her current position for the foreseeable future.

The establishment of a realistic goal or set of goals can facilitate the development (Box D) and implementation (Box E) of a career strategy (that is, a plan of activities designed to attain the desired career goal). For example, if the engineer's goal is to become assistant plant manager, she may enroll in one or more management development seminars sponsored by the company, encourage her boss to assign her more managerial tasks in her present position, and learn more about the operation of the entire plant.

The implementation of a reasonable career strategy can produce progress towards the stated career goal (Box F). If the engineer chose a wise plan of action, she is more likely to attain her goal than if she did not pursue a strategy or developed an inappropriate strategy.

The implementation of a career strategy can provide useful feedback to the person. This feedback, in conjunction with feedback from other work and non-work sources (Box G), can enable the engineer to appraise her career (Box H). The additional information derived from career appraisal becomes another vehicle for career exploration (see the arrow from Box H to Box A) that continues the career management cycle. For instance, the engineer may discover that she has performed poorly on the newly acquired managerial position of her job. This appraisal might lead to the engineer to consider changing her goal, she may no longer wish to enter management. Or she may retain the goal, but revise the strategy (see the arrow from B to A). For example, she might choose to pursue to a graduate degree in management.

In sum, the career management cycle is a problem-solving, decision making process. Information is gathered, so individuals can become more aware of themselves and the world around them. Goals are established plans or strategies are developed and implemented, and feedback is obtained to provide more information for ongoing career management.

Individuals, who follow this approach to career management, do not live in a vacuum. As indicated by the model border around the usefulness of exploration, goal setting strategies, and feedback often depends on the support received from various people and organisations. For example, internship and counselling programs provided by colleges; performance appraisals, self assessment workshops and monitoring and training programs offered by the organisations; and advice, love and support from families can all contribute to effective career management.

The successful application of this career management model depends upon both the individual and the organisation. It involves exchange of information between employees, current and potential employers, co-workers, friends, and families. Individuals must be willing to take on the task of being proactive and responsible for their careers. It takes effort to gather information needed to make appropriate career decision. Organisations must be willing and able to share information with employees, to make necessary resources available and to support employees in their attempts to manage their careers.

Basic Career Anchors

According to Mr. John Van Maanen and Edger H. Schein based on research, it was discovered that certain attitudinal syndromes that served to guide many people throughout their careers were formed early in life. These syndromes were composed of a combination of needs, values and talents and serve to "anchor" the person to one or a few related types of careers. Five such anchors were identified, namely (1) Managerial competence, (2) technical functional competence, (3) security, (4) creativity and (5) autonomy - independence. 

1. Anchor of Managerial Competence 

The fundamental characteristics of those persons anchored by an overriding interest in management included a capacity to bear considerable responsibility, ability to influence and control others, and skills involved in solving problems with incomplete information. To these people, the process of influencing, leading, and controlling people at all level is important. It is suggested that those who wish to effective managers should possess qualitative, interpersonal, intergroup and emotional competencies.

2. Anchor of Technical Competence

These are the persons, who are primarily interested in the functional work performed. They look upon administrative duties as an irritant. Such people will not mind in leaving the present organisation and join another where they can get higher post due to their expertise.

3. Anchor of search for Security

These are the persons, who are primarily driven by a search for security. They are more attracted to a particular organisation and geographical area than are to their work. This type of person will account with little question the organisational preservations for his or her career. They are prepared to sacrifice autonomy to stabilize his or her total life situation.

4. Anchor of Creativity

These people demonstrate an overriding interest in creating or developing something new. They contribute their ideas, thoughts, imaginations in products, processes, ways of performance. Many of these persons are entrepreneurs, who have established a separate business, less for the sake of making money than for creating product or service that could be identified as theirs. Creative people are least compromising. They have high sense of achievement and standing out.

5. Anchor of Autonomy - Independence 

These persons have overriding interest in freedom and independence, they like full freedom as to working hours, tasks, procedures and so on. We come across good many individuals, who have come to the top as private consultants, college professors. freelance fine artists, writers, architects.

Factors affecting career choices

The careers are many and differ and requirements of each are unique. There are some careers, which bring name, fame, power and money; there are careers that bring name and fame, but no money' there are careers that give you power, but no security, peace of mind and satisfaction. Another thing is that it is foolish to expect all things from each career as it has its own plus and minus points. However, in general the factors that go to selection criterion of a career selection can be broadly explained as follows:

1. Family Background and Support

In most of the families, it is the family background support that play constructive role in career choice. In case of families of first generation, the parents have the strong desire about their sons and daughters to be an executive whether it is private or public sector. In case of families having good background, the parent's support is more than enough. In majority of families, they speak of those careers, which bring social status, power, influence, where the parents expect that the people should follow their sons or daughters. It is unfortunate that much against the willingness and interest of the career maker, the members of the family over influence to choose a career unwanted.

2. Changing Landscape of Work

The world is changing rapidly and dramatically, and these changes - economic, political, technological and cultural are having profound effects on the world's work. Accompanying these changes is a level of uncertainty, that is playing its icy hand in the peoples' careers and lives. Intense competition in the corporate world has been fueled by increased productivity of foreign competitions and an uncertain world economy. Most of the companies, in advanced nations, are fighting for a larger share of their market, if not for their very survival. This strong competition has produced numerous ·acquisitions, internal reorganisations and attempts are at "down-sizing" to contain costs.

3. Danger of Job Loss

If one goes through the international magazines such as "The Economist", there is frightening scene of Job Loss beyond one's imagination. In United States itself, 43 million jobs were lost between 1979 to 1995 and the pace of job loss has aggravated in 1990s. During the 1980s, the average annual job loss was 2.3 million, whereas the 1990s saw the number of jobs lost each year to 3.2 million, an increase of 39 per cent. Nor are these uncertainties limited to the private sector, as local, state and central governments are also under severe financial strains. In addition, these streamlining activities are hitting good many people closer to home, as white collar, professional and managerial employees are becoming increasing vulnerable to reductions in labour force. Clearly, the prospect of a severe continuous, lifetime career with one employer or even within one industry - is fading rapidly.

4. Internationalisation

The global economy reflects another major change in the world of work, and organisations need to adopt a global perspective to survive and flourish. The presence of global perspective will radically change the face of business and, as a result, new careers will develop within these organisations. The appearance of new world markets, foreign competition, and political realignments have forced many companies to adopt more global strategies. Emergence of MNCs, with extensive sales revenues coming from operations outside the company's home country, has transformed the managerial careers immensely. In many such firms, the route to the top now includes significant exposure to management of international operations. Moreover, all managers, whether or not they are executive-bound, must learn to understand foreign politics, markets, cultures, employees and new management styles if they are to be effective in today's MNCs.

5. Technology

Technological advances have affected the very phase of business from operations to sales to financial management. Computer technology has upgraded the skill requirements of many jobs and eliminated the existence of others. Rapidly changing technologies have created new career paths for employees with the proper mix of skills, while their less adaptable colleagues have often found themselves out of the time with their employers' future plans. In addition, technology, in combination with shifting demands for products and services, will continue to create new occupations. New career areas will be "artificial intelligent technician", "divorce mediator", "issues manager" and "robot sales person".

Roles in Career Development

It is very rarely that persons think of an entirely new career. The job opportunities and, hence, career openings are increasing at a faster pace. In the past, we had very limited careers in the areas of science, arts and commerce. Today, in each field, the career openings are many, because extreme specialisation or division of labour. Be it an engineering, medicine, law, management, we have countless openings to suit to the requirements of a person, who wants to make a successful career.

Career roles are significant, because these roles typify the career and career development. Thus, a student looking to the role model of his marketing professor, he wants to emulate and excel his role model. What is true of a professor, is true of every career in different disciplines. Career roles create an impression and attract the persons to go in for.