Introduction

Some people are found to be more efficient than others. The difference in their performance can be attributed either to their urge or willingness to perform as best as possible or difference in their abilities. Omitting the ability and skill, it is the motive of employees which determines whether they will be more or less efficient. Motivation, the bringing about an inner urge or desire in employees to work to the best of their ability is an important function of management. 

Definition of Motivation

Motivation may be defined as the complex forces inspiring a person at work to intensify his willingness to use his maximum capabilities for the achievement of certain objectives. In other words, motivation is something that motivates a person into action and induces him to continue in the course of action enthusiastically. At the work, it determines the behavior of a person.

Motivation refers to the way in which urges, desires, drives, striving, aspirations, or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human being".            

Dalton E. McFarland

Concept Of Motivation

Motivation is a basic psychological process; Technically, the term ‘motivation’ can be traced to the Latin word ‘movere’, which means “to move”.  This meaning is evident in the following comprehensive definition: “A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates or moves (hence) motivation” and that directs or channels behavior towards goals”.  The key to understanding motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals.

Motive may be defined as wants, drives, needs or impulses within the individual. Motives are personal and internal because it is an expression of a person's needs. The term 'need' should not be associated with pressing desire or urgency for something. Simply it means something within an individual that prompts him to action. Behavior of a person starts from this needs or motives. These needs and motives start and maintain activity and eventually it determine the direction of a person. These motives give direction to human behavior because they are directed towards certain 'goals' which may be conscious or sub-conscious.

The starting point in the motivation process is motives or needs of a person. Motives are directed towards the achievement of certain goals which in turn determine the behavior of individuals. This behavior ultimately leads to goal directed activities such as preparing food and a goal activity such as eating food. Unsatisfied needs result in tension within an individual and engage him search for the way to relieve this tension. He will develop certain goals for himself and try to achieve them. If he is successful in his attempt, certain other needs will emerge which will lead to setting a new goal. But if he is unsuccessful he will engage himself in either constructive or defensive behavior. This process keeps on working within an individual.

Nature of Motivation

Motivation helps in inspiring and encouraging the people to work willingly.

1. One motive may result in many different behaviors

The desire for prestige may lead a person to give money away, get additional educational training, run for political office, steal, join groups or may change his outward appearance. A person wanting acceptance will behave differently in a car pool, swimming pool or office secretarial pool.

2. Motives are the energizing forces within us

These forces are invisible and it is very difficult to measure them, because all of us are different and the motives energizing us at a point differ from time to time. Observing someone's behavior may indicate that a certain need is present in this person which motivates him onwards. 

3. The same behavior may result from many different motives

Behavior may be caused by a number of different motives. For example, the motives behind the purchase of a car may be: to appear respectable; to satisfy economic values and to reinforce company created status differentials; to appear younger and attractive; to gain acceptance from others or to maintain the acceptance already gained through a similar income level. Therefore, it is wrong to asses that all behavior as coming from the same motive. For different motives people do different things like attend classes, get married, join unions or groups etc. Thus motives cannot be identified from any specific behavior.

4. Motives may operate in harmony or in conflict

Behavior is frequently the result of the interplay of several motives. These motives may drive a person to one direction or in a number of other directions. For example, an employ may desire an outstanding performance and may also be sensitive to being outcast by his fellow employees if he performs too well and receive too much of appreciation from the employer. Therefore, behavior is the result of many forces differing in direction and intent.

5. Behavior can be used as an estimate of an individual's motives

It is possible to make an estimate of the cause of an individual's behavior by repeatedly observing his behavior. For example, there is truth in the statement that some people always seem to feel insecure and thus behave continuously in a manner reflecting the insecurity of feeling. There are also people who behave in a way that radiates confidence. They are confident in many different social settings so that one finds a constant and repeated behavior from which people probably estimate the motive of the person. Obviously, if a person is at a state of near starvation, most of his behavior will be related to the need for food.

6. Motives come and go

Energy level of a motivation may differ in different times. i.e. rarely we find the same energy level of motivation for a long period like a year or 10 years. For example, a young man who prefers to travel during vacation may give up the idea during the tennis season because the joy of playing tennis takes place the need of traveling. The girl who is overly concerned about her hair and clothes during adolescence may turn her attention to other things once she grows up. Humans are constantly growing and the motive at one point in time will not be as intense as the motive at another point in time.

7. Motives interact with environment

The situation at a particular point in time may trigger or suppress the action of a motive. You probably have experienced situations where you did not realize the intensity of need of a car till the traveling requirements of your business are not developed. Similarly, many of these sociological needs become stimulated when you are in a situation filled with the sociological factors. 

Process of motivation

Motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements- need, drives and incentives. Needs form the basis for drives which in turn seek the attainment of certain incentives. To understand the process of motivation , we should first understand the meaning of needs, drives and incentives, and the relationship between them. The process through which motivation arises is illustrated in following figure.

1. Needs

A physiological or psychological imbalance leads to the creation of need. For example, the need for food or water arises when the person is hungry or thirsty. Similarly, people who are deprived of the company of other people may look for friends or companions. However, psychological needs may sometimes arise without any deficiency or imbalance. For instance, a person who has a strong need to progress may move from success to success. Even if a person has several extraordinary achievements to his credit, he may feel still feel the need to achieve more money, even though they are considered rich by other standards.

2. Drives

Drives or motives (the two terms are used interchangeably) propel individuals to attain their goals or satisfy their needs. A psychological drive is a condition which causes a person to work in a particular direction. Both physiological and psychological drives push an individual towards achieving a certain goal or accomplishing a certain task. Drives constitute the core element in motivation. For example, the need for food and water is transformed into the drives of hunger and thirst, and the need to achieve manifests itself as the achievement drive.

3. Incentives

Anything that can mitigate a need and decrease the intensity of a drive is called an incentive. When a person obtains the incentive, the strength of that drive is reduced and physiological and psychological balance is restored, for example, eating food, drinking water, or finding friends reduces the corresponding drives and helps in achieving balance. Here food, water and friends are the incentives.

Features of motivation

Inducing employees to work hard for achieving common goals constitutes the motivational function of management. As a function of management, the main features of motivation are as follows.

1. Component of directing

Motivating is an important component of directing functions of management. It is the responsibility of the managers to motive their subordinated to get all things done.

2. Psychological aspect

Motivation is a psychological aspect of management. It is the internal feeling which arises from the need and desires of a person. Motivation generates from within an individual. It starts and keeps individual at work

3. Goals directed

Motivation generates goals-directed behavior. Feeling of need by the persons causes him to behave in such a way that he/she tries to satisfy himself. Human needs influence behaviors to achieve desired goals.

4. Continuous process

Motivation is a continuous process. Where a particular need is satisfaction, a new need is seen. It is the result of an interaction between human needs and the incentives offer to satisfy them.

5. Integrated

A person is either motivated or not. He cannot be partly motivated. Each individual in an organization is a self contained separate unit. All their needs are interrelated and influence their behavior in different ways.

6. Positive or negative

Motivation may be positive or negative. Positive motivation means inspiring people to work better by providing rewards and incentives. Negative motivation means forcing people to work by punishing them.

7. Complex and Dynamic process

Motivation is a complex and dynamic process. Individuals differ in their needs and wants. Different individuals work to fulfill their own needs. They satisfy their need in different ways. Moreover, human need change from time to time

Importance of motivation

1. Puts human resources into action

Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources to accomplish the goals. It is through motivation that the human resources can be utilized by making full use of it. This can be done by building willingness in employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best possible utilization of resources.

2. Improves level of efficiency of employees

The level of a subordinate or a employee does not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result into

• Increase in productivity,

• Reducing cost of operations, and

• Improving overall efficiency.

3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals

The goals of an enterprise can be achieved only when the following factors take place

• There is best possible utilization of resources

• There is a co-operative work environment

• The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner

• Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation

4. Builds friendly relationship

Motivation is an important factor which brings employees satisfaction. This can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive plan for the benefit of the employees. This could initiate the following things:

• Monetary and non-monetary incentives

• Promotion opportunities for employees

• Disincentives for inefficient employees

In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a concern, the above steps should be taken by a manager. This would help in

• Effective co-operation which brings stability

• Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce

• The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be no resistance to the change

• This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which individual interests will coincide with the organizational interests

• This will result in profit maximization through increased productivity.

5. Leads to stability of work force

Stability of workforce is very important from the point of view of reputation and goodwill of a concern. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of participation in the management. The skills and efficiency of employees will always be of advantage to employees as well as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market which will attract competent and qualified people into a concern. As it is said, “Old is gold” which suffices with the role of motivation here, the older the people, more the experience and their adjustment into a concern which can be of benefit to the enterprise.

6. Improves Performance Level

The ability to do work and willingness to do work both affect the efficiency of a person. The ability to do work is obtained with the help of education and training and willingness to do work is obtained with the help of motivation.

Willingness is more important in comparison to ability. For example, a person is highly educated and he is recruited on this very basis. But it is not essential that he will do outstanding work.

He shall have to be motivated to do good work. This is possible only through motivation. Therefore, motivation improves efficiency. The efficiency of a person is reflected through increase in productivity and decrease in costs.

7. Helps to Change Negative or Indifferent Attitudes of Employees

Some employees of an organization have a negative attitude. They always think that doing more work will not bring any credit. A manager uses various techniques to change this attitude.

For example, if the financial situation of such an employee is weak, he gives him a raise in his remuneration and if his financial condition is satisfactory he motivates him by praising his work.

8. Reduction in Employee Turnover

The reputation of an organization is affected by the employee turnover. This creates a lot of problems for the managers. A lot of time and money go waste in repeatedly recruiting employees and giving them education and training.

Only motivation can save an organisation from such wastage. Motivated people work for a longer time in the organisation and there is a decline in the rate of turnover.

9. Helps to Reduce Absenteeism in the Organization

In some of the organizations, the rate of absenteeism is high. There are many causes for this-poor work conditions, poor relations with colleagues and superiors, no recognition in the organization, insufficient reward, etc. A manager removes all such deficiencies and motivates the employees. Motivated employees do not remain absent from work as the workplace becomes a source of joy for them.

10.  Reduction in Resistance to Change

New changes continue taking place in the organization. Normally workers are not prepared to accept any changes in their normal routine,Whereas it becomes essential to bring in some changes because of the demands of time.

Employees can be made to accept such changes easily with the help of motivation. Motivated people accept these changes enthusiastically and improve their work performance.

Frederick Herzberg Theory of Human Motivation

Frederick Herzberg's theory of motivation is also called 'Two Factor Theory', 'Dual Factor Theory' and 'Hygiene / Maintenance Theory of Motivation'. This theory is based on the information collected by him and his associates (in the USA in 1959) by interviewing two hundred engineers and accountants. The information collected relates to the attitude of people towards work. This attitude towards work depends on two sets of factors namely hygiene or maintenance factors and the motivating factors.

Hygiene Factors of Two Factor Theory

According to Frederick Herzberg, the Hygiene Factors do little contribution to provide job satisfaction. He called them "dis-satisfiers” as their absence cause dissatisfaction but their presence is not motivating but only prevent dissatisfaction. The hygiene factors meet man's needs to avoid unpleasantness but do not motivate them to take more interest in the work. Hygiene factors (when provided) create a favorable environment for motivation and prevent job dissatisfaction. They are not an intrinsic part of a job, but they are related to the conditions under which a job is performed. When employer is unable to provide enough of these factors to his employees, there will be job dissatisfaction. However, if they are provided, they will not necessarily act as motivators. They will just lead employees to experience no job dissatisfaction. Such hygiene factors are as noted below.

Hygiene / Maintenance Factors are

1. Company's Policies and Administration

2. Supervision

3. Working Conditions

4. Interpersonal Relations with superiors and other subordinates

5. Salary

6. Job Security

7. Status

8. Personal Life

9. Employee Benefits

Motivating Factors of Two Factor Theory

Motivating Factors act as forces of job satisfaction. They create positive and a longer lasting effect on employee’s performance and are related to work itself. Adequate provisions of such factors called are 'Satisfiers'. They make people happy with their jobs because they serve man's basic needs for psychological growth. In addition, they also motivate employees in their work. Such factors are five and are called motivators by Herzberg. The motivating factors are:

Motivating Factors are

1. Achievement

2. Recognition for Accomplishment

3. Increased Responsibility

4. Opportunity for Growth and Development

5. Creative and Challenging Work

Motivating factors motivate subordinates to take more interest in the work. They raise efficiency and productivity of employees. According to Frederick Herzberg, motivating factors are essential in order to provide job satisfaction and in order to maintain a high level of job performance. Employees will not have job satisfaction if the motivating factors are not provided in sufficient quality by the employer.

According to Frederick Herzberg, these two sets of factors are quite independent of each other. It may be noted that hygiene factors, when satisfied, tend to eliminate dissatisfaction but do not motivate an individual employee for better performance. The motivating factors will permit an individual to grow and develop in a natural way. In brief, hygiene factors affect an individual's willingness to work while motivating factors affect his ability and efficiency to work. This theory can be compared to Maslow's theory of human needs as both the theories refer to needs and their role in motivation. In addition, the assumptions in both the theories are identical.

Frederick Herzberg's theory has many limitations. They are related to research methodology used, empirical validity and assumptions in the theory. His theory is criticized on many grounds. Many have found the theory to be an oversimplification. Despite such criticism, Herzberg's two factor theory has made a significant contribution towards improving manager's basic understanding of human behaviour. His theory is simple to grasp, based on some empirical data and guides managers to improve employee motivation. Herzberg provided stimulus to other researchers to develop alternative theories of motivation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

It was in 1943 a Psychologist Mr. Abraham Harold Maslow suggested his Theory of Human Motivation. His theory is one popular and extensively cited theory of motivation. Maslow's theory is based on the Hierarchy of Human Needs. According to Maslow, human behavior is related to his needs. It is adjusted as per the nature of needs to be satisfied. In hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow identified five types / sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy of their importance and priority. He concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating factor. Thereafter, the next set of needs in the hierarchy order takes its place. These needs in hierarchy can be compared to a pyramid. At the lowest level, there will be first set of needs which can be described as basic needs and are universal in character. This will be followed by other sets of needs.

Assumptions  in Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow's Assumptions in Hierarchy of Needs Theory are

1. Man is a wanting being, i.e. his wants are growing continuously even when some wants are satisfied. Human needs are of varied and diversified nature. They can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance progressing from a lower to a higher order of needs

2. Needs have a definite hierarchy of importance. As soon as needs on a lower level are fulfilled, those on the next level will emerge and demand satisfaction. This suggests that bread (food) is essential and is a primary need of every individual. According to Maslow, "Man lives by bread alone when there is no bread." However, he feels the other needs when his physiological needs are fulfilled. In brief, bread is important but man does not live by bread alone. There are other needs (security / safety, social, esteem and self actualization which influence behavior of people (employees) to work. This is the basic feature of Maslow's need hierarchy. Attention to all human needs is essential for motivation of employees. Attention to the provision of bread alone is not adequate for motivating employees. Bread can act as motivating factor when there is no bread but when it is available, its use as motivator comes to an end. Here, other motivators (e.g. security of job, social status, etc.) will have to be introduced for motivating employees. Attention to other needs such as security needs, social needs, esteem needs and self actualization needs is equally important and essential for the motivation of different categories of employees. Maslow, in his theory, has referred to different needs and suggested that attention needs to be given to all such needs as attention to physiological needs alone is not adequate for motivating employees. According to Maslow, "Man does not live by bread alone". This conclusion of Maslow is a practical reality and needs to be given adequate attention while motivating employees.

3. A satisfied need does not act as a motivator

4. As one need is satisfied, another replaces it

Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs

1. Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are the basic needs for sustaining human life. These needs include food, shelter, clothing, rest, air, water, sleep and sexual satisfaction. These basic human needs (also called biological needs) lie at the lowest level in the hierarchy of needs as they have priority over all other needs. These needs cannot be postponed for long. Unless and until these basic physiological needs are satisfied to the required extent, other needs do not motivate an employee. A hungry person, for example, is just not in a position to think of anything else except his hunger or food. According to Maslow, 'man lives by bread alone,' when there is no bread. The management attempts to meet such physiological needs through fair wages.

2. Security / Safety Needs 

These are the needs connected with the psychological fear of loss of job, property, natural calamities or hazards, etc. An employee wants protection from such types of fear. He prefers adequate safety or security in this regard i.e. protection from physical danger, security of job, pension for old age, insurance cover for life, etc. The safety needs come after meeting the physiological needs. Such physiological needs lose their motivational potential when they are satisfied. As a result, safety needs replace them. They begin to manifest themselves and dominate human behavior. Safety needs act as motivational forces only if they are unsatisfied.

3. Social Needs 

An employee is a human being is rightly treated as a social animal. He desires to stay in group. He feels that he should belong to one or the other group and the member of the group should accept him with love and affection. Every person desires to be affiliated to such groups. This is treated as basic social need of an individual. He also feels that he should be loved by the other members. He needs friends and interaction with his friends and superiors of the group such as fellow employees or superiors. Social needs occupy third position in the hierarchy of needs.

  4. Esteem Needs

This category of needs include the need to be respected by others, need to be appreciated by others, need to have power and finally prestigious position. Once the previous needs are satisfied, a person feels to be held in esteem both by himself and also by others. Thus, esteem needs are two fold in nature. Self-esteem needs include those for self-confidence, self-respect, competence, etc. The second groups of esteem needs are those related to one's status, reputation, recognition and appreciation by others. This is a type of personal ego which needs to be satisfied. The Organization can satisfy this need (ego) by giving recognition to the good work of employees. Esteem needs do not assume the motivational properties unless the previous needs are satisfied.

5. Self-actualization Needs

This is the highest among the needs in the hierarchy of needs advocated by Maslow. Self-actualization is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming. It is a 'growth' need. A worker must work efficiently if he is to be ultimately happy. Here, a person feels that he should accomplish something in his fife. He wants to utilize his potentials to the maximum extent and desires to become what one is capable of becoming. A person desires to have challenges and achieves something special in his life or in the area of his specialization. Though everyone is capable of self-actualization, many do not reach this stage. This need is fully satisfied rarely.

Limitations of Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow's theory of motivation (Hierarchy of Needs Theory) is very popular all over the world and provides guidelines to managers / managements for motivating employees. However, Maslow's theory has many limitations.

Limitations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory are noted below:

1. Maslow's theory is over simplified and is based on human needs only. There is lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behavior.

2. The theory has to refer to other motivating factors like expectations, experience and perception.

3. Needs of all employees are not uniform. Many are satisfied only with physiological needs and security of employment.

4. The pattern of hierarchy of needs as suggested by Maslow may not be applicable uniformly to all categories of employees.

5. Maslow's assumption of 'need hierarchy' does not hold good in the present age as each person has plenty of needs to be satisfied, which may not necessarily follow Maslow's need hierarchy.

6. Maslow's theory is widely accepted but there is little empirical evidence to support it. It is largely tentative and untested. His writings are more philosophical than scientific.

Importance of Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Although Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory has been criticized on above grounds, still it holds many advantages or merits. It helps the managers to understand the behavior of their employees. It also helps the managers to provide the right financial and non-financial motivation to their employees. This overall helps to increase the efficiency, productivity and profitability of the organization.

Maslow and Herzberg Theory of Motivation - Difference

1. Meaning

• Maslow's theory is based on the concept of human needs and their satisfaction.

• Herzberg's theory is based on the use of motivators which include achievement, recognition and opportunity for growth.

2. Basis of Theory

• Maslow's theory is based on the hierarchy of human needs. He identified five sets of human needs (on priority basis) and their satisfaction in motivating employees.

• Herzberg refers to hygiene factors and motivating factors in his theory. Hygiene factors are dis-satisfiers while motivating factors motivate subordinates. Hierarchical arrangement of needs is not given.

3. Nature of Theory

• Maslow's theory is rather simple and descriptive. The theory is based long experience about human needs.

• Herzberg's theory is more prescriptive. It suggests the motivating factors which can be used effectively. This theory is based on actual information collected by Hertzberg by interviewing 200 engineers and accountants.

4. Applicability of Theory

• Maslow's theory is most popular and widely cited theory of motivation and has wide applicability. It is mostly applicable to poor and developing countries where money is still a big motivating factor.

• Herzberg's theory is an extension of Maslow's theory of motivation. Its applicability is narrow. It is applicable to rich and developed countries where money is less important motivating factor.

5. Descriptive or Prescriptive

• Maslow's theory or model is descriptive in nature.

• Herzberg's theory or model is prescriptive in nature.

6. Motivators

• According to Maslow's model, any need can act as motivator provided it is not satisfied or relatively less satisfied.

• In the dual factor model of Hertzberg, hygiene factors (lower level needs) do not act as motivators. Only the higher order needs (achievement, recognition, challenging work) act as motivators.

Douglas McGregor's - Theory of Motivation

The eminent psychologist Douglas McGregor has given his theory of motivation called Theory X and Theory Y. He first presented his theory in a classic article titled 'The Human Side of Enterprise'. He treated traditional approach to management as 'Theory X' and the professional approach to management as 'Theory Y'. His theory refers to two sets of employees based on the perception of human nature. Here, theory X and theory Y are two sets of assumptions about the nature of employees. His theory is based on human behavior.

Theory - X

Theory X is based on traditional assumptions about people (employees). Here, the conventional approach of management is used as a base. It suggests the following features of an average human being/employee (assumptions about human nature):

Assumptions of Theory X

1. The average human being is inherently lazy by nature and desires to work as little as possible. He dislikes the work and will like to avoid it, if he can.

2. He avoids accepting responsibility and prefers to be led or directed by some other.

3. He is self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs.

4. He has little ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led but wants security.

5. He is not very intelligent and lacks creativity in solving organizational problems.

6. He by nature resists to change of any type.

In the case of such employees, self-motivation is just not possible. They will work only when there is constant supervision on them. A manager has to persuade, punish or reward such workers in order to achieve organizational goals.

Theory - Y

Theory Y is based on modern or progressive or professional approach. Here, the assumptions about people i.e. employees are quite different.

Assumptions of Theory Y

1. Work is as natural as play, provided the work environment is favorable. Work may act as a source of satisfaction or punishment. An average man is not really against doing work.

2. People can be self-directed and creative at work if they are motivated properly.

3. Self-control on the part of people is useful for achieving organizational goal. External control and threats of punishment alone do not bring out efforts towards organizational objectives.

4. People have capacity to exercise imagination and creativity.

5. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organisations.

6. An average human being learns under proper conditions. He is also willing to accept responsibility.

7. The intellectual capacity of an average human being is utilised partially under the conditions of modern industrial life.

Final Glance On Theory X and Theory Y.

Such types of people (employees) are self-motivated and McGregor recommends that they be motivated by encouraging participation so as to get team work. Theory Y assumes that people are not by nature, lazy and unreliable. They can be self-directed and creative at work, if properly motivated. It is for the management to unleash this potential in individuals (employees). Theory Y emphasizes creating opportunities, removing obstacles, providing guidance and encouraging growth. By using these tools, the management can integrate individual goals of employees with those of the Organisation.

The assumptions in Theory X and Theory Y are fundamentally distinct. Theory X is static, rigid, conservative and pessimistic. Theory Y is optimistic, dynamic, flexible and progressive. It suggests self direction and the integration of individual needs with organizational needs. On the other hand, more importance is given to external control imposed by the superior on the subordinate in the Theory X.