Introduction

Job analysis, as a basic exercise, can serve and support many HR processes in the organization. Human resource planning, recruitment and selection, training and development, compensation management, and performance appraisal, all benefit from the inputs provided by job analysis. Job specification and job description are the main end results of a job analysis. 

Concept of job analysis

Job analysis is the process of determining and recording all the pertinent information about a specific job, including the tasks involved, the knowledge and skill set required to perform the job, the responsibilities attached to the job and the abilities required to perform the job successfully, Job analysis differentiates one job from the other, in an organization, and is based on observation and study. It is also referred to as job review or job classification. Job analysis provides the basic foundation for many of the HR activities. The analysis involves compiling a detailed description of tasks, determining the relationship of the job to technology and to other jobs and examining the knowledge, qualifications or employment standards, accountabilities and other incumbent requirements. In short, job analysis is a recording of all the activities involved in a job and the skill and knowledge requirements of the performer of the job.

Job analysis provides the necessary inputs for a number of HR activities like recruitment, selection, job design, estimating job worth, training, and appraisal. These activities depend on job analysis and its end products for their own functioning. For example, job description and job specification - the end products of a job analysis - form the basis for recruitment. They help in evaluating a candidate against the requirements of the job and selecting the most suitable one. Similarly, job analysis provides inputs for training. While training employees for a particular position, the parameters on which the employees need to be trained can be obtained from job analysis. Job analysis also helps management in evaluating the relative worth of each job, which would be one of the basic inputs in designing the compensation system. Following figure shows the different uses of job analysis in an organization.

Job analysis plays a key role in designing and managing the performance appraisal system in an organization. It helps in identifying the key responsibility areas (KRA's) for a position and then setting the goals or objectives for the appraisal period. This forms the basis for the evaluation of an employee's performance. A comparison of the the job specifications arrived at, at the end of a job analysis, with the existing competencies of an employee, helps in identifying his training needs. Thus, job analysis contributes either directly or indirectly to almost all the fields of human resource management.

Exhibit 1 describes some of the common terms used in job analysis

Exhibit 1

Common Terms Used in Job Analysis

1. Micro motion: It is the simplest unit of work and involves very elementary movement

2. Element: It is an aggregation of two or more elements and is normally a complete entity

3. Task: A task is a logical and necessary element in the performance of specific work and needs effort.

4. Position: A group of tasks and responsibilities assigned constituting the work of a single employee.

5. Job: A group of positions that are identical in terms of their responsibilities and tasks is termed as job. A number of employees can be in the same job, but in different positions.

6. Occupation: A group of jobs that are similar and are found throughout an industry or the entire country is termed occupation.

7. Responsibilities: They are the obligations to perform certain tasks and assume certain duties.

8. Job Analysis: According to the US Department of Labor, job analysis is  “the process of determining, by observation and study, and reporting pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job. It is the determination of the tasks which comprise the job and the skills, knowledge, abilities and responsibilities required of the worker for successful performance of the job and which differentiate one job from all others."

9. Job Description: An organized, factual statement of the nature and requirements of a specific job is termed job description.

10. Job Specification: It is a statement of the competencies in terms of knowledge, skills and abilities and educational and experience qualifications necessary to perform a job successfully.

11. Job Classification: The grouping of jobs on some specific basis, such as work or pay, is termed job classification.

Process of job analysis 

The process of analyzing a job consists of the following basic steps.

1. Information Gathering

The first step in job analysis is to gather all the necessary information.This includes information on the organization structure; the role of the job in relation to other jobs in the organization; the class (of jobs) to which the job belongs; and a detailed description of the activities and responsibilities involved in the job. This information is collected through observation and study.

2. Job-Specific Competency Determination

Based on study and observation, the competencies required for the job are identified. This can also be done with inputs from the employees in the jobs being analyzed.

3. Developing a Job Description

A description of the tasks, responsibilities, duties and functions of the job is prepared. This forms the job description. 

4. Developing a Job Specification

The job specification provides a complete list of competencies and qualifications required to match the job description. This is also prepared based on study, comparison or direct inputs from the job-holders.

Job analysis methods

There are different methods of job analysis. These can be broadly classified as given below:

1. Observation Method

This method is simple and can be used in conjunction with other methods of job analysis. In this method, the individuals performing the job are observed and relevant points are noted. The notes might include what was done and how was it done. Motion and Time Studies are examples of observation methods. This method has some serious drawbacks. For jobs which are not repetitive and are quite complicated, it becomes very cumbersome and difficult to make a note of the observations. This problem can however be tackled by work sampling. It is important that the observer knows what has to be noted and what has to be ignored. Otherwise, the wholc analysis might result in a lengthy but redundant document.

2. Individual Interview Method

This method is employed when the job in question is complex and has varied tasks. It is very effective when the interview is structured and the analyst is clear about what information has to be obtained from the interview. An unstructured interview might help in culling out all the information about the job, but might be very cumbersome and time-consuming

3. Group Interview Method

This method is similar to the individual interview method, except that the employees performing the same job are interviewed in groups. Information that might have been missed out in individual interviews, would come up in a group interview; the method is also less time consuming.One drawback of this method is the effect that group dynamics might have on the direction of the interview.

4. Questionnaire Method

In this method, the analyst usually gives a long and structured questionnaire to be filled up by the job incumbents. This questionnaire has both objective and open-ended questions. It is a good method to get the information from the employee without disturbing him on the job. However, the analysis part of it becomes quite cumbersome, especially when there is lack of clarity. The analyst might fail to convey what he intends to and in the process fail to obtain the required information. A different type of questionnaire would be one that lists all the likely tasks that might be performed on the job being analyzed, or a similar job; the employee has to select the tasks that are relevant to his job, and rank them according to their importance. The disadvantage of this method is that such a list can never be completely exhaustive. In the questionnaire method, a supervisor normally vets the information furnished by the employee to ensure that it is accurate. 

5. Technical Conference Method

This is a method of gathering all the job related information from 'experts' - usually supervisors - and not the job incumbents. Though more, and perhaps unbiased, information can be gathered, the viewpoint of the job holder cannot be obtained with this method.

6. Diary Method

In this method, job incumbents make immediate note of the activities they perform. A lot of information can be gathered about the job and its activities, but the time and effort required to be put in by the job holder to keep notes of this kind is enormous. This exercise takes longer to complete as there may be activities that occur only at fairly long time intervals. For example, an Office Assistant might have the responsibility of sending a monthly attendance report to the headquarters. This activity, which would be performed at the end of every month would be missing from his list of responsibilities, if the study were conducted for a shorter period.

These are not the only methods used in job analysis. These and other methods are used alone or more often, in combination, by organizations to gather information about various jobs. Some of the more formalized job analysis methods are explained below. These formalized methods are highly specialized and use standardized statements and terminology. On the other hand, the methods that have been discussed above are more generic and can be modified to suit organizational requirements. 

7. Functional Job analysis

Functional job analysis was developed by the U.S. Department of Labor. In this method, the job analyst conducts background research , interviews job incumbents and supervisors , makes site observations, and then prepares a detailed document.

The work functions of any job can be categorized under the headings of data, people and things. Basically, an employee's handling of data, his relationship with colleagues and the kind of work that he does are covered under these headings. This technique also helps managers to group jobs into job families that require similar kind of worker behaviors.

Table above defines the levels of difficulty associated with various job functions, which in turn help in determining the difficulty associated with various jobs. This analysis is based on the three parameters of data, people and things. The greater the difficulty of a function, the lower the number associated with it. For example, Mentoring (0) is more difficult than Supervising (3).

8. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

Ernest J. McCormick's Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is another standard method of job analysis that describes jobs in terms of worker activities. It generates job requirement information that is applicable to all types of jobs. The PAQ procedure contains 194 job elements that fall into six major job categories as shown in table below.

In contrast to the Functional Job Analysis approach where there were only three key behavioral aspects (data, people, and things) on the basis of which jobs differed, the use of statistical analysis on the PAQ showed jobs differing from one another on the basis of five dimensions. By analyzing the 194 elements in the PAQ for more than five hundred different jobs, researchers identified the following important dimensions on which jobs differed from one another.

a) Having Decision-Making/Communications Social Responsibilities

Activities that involve considerable amount of communication and interaction with people, as well as the responsibilities associated with decision-making and planning functions are reflected by this dimension.

b) Performing Skilled Activities

Skilled activities that are performed by using technical devices or tools and in which the emphasis is on precision, recognizing subtle differences, and on manual control, are part of this dimension. 

c) Being Physically Active/Related Environmental Conditions

This dimension is characterized by activities that involve considerable movement of the entire body or major parts of it, and by environments like those found in factories and shops.

d) Operating Vehicles/Equipment

Activities that use vehicles or equipment, and typically involve sensory and perceptual processes and physical functions are a part of this dimension.

e) Processing Information

This dimension is characterized by activities that involve a wide range of information-processing exercises, in some instances, accompanied by the use of machines such as office equipment.

The PAQ allows management to scientifically and quantitatively group interrelated job elements into job dimensions. It also allows job analysts to cluster similar jobs into job families. It demonstrates a high degree of reliability even when the level of cooperation of employees is low or when attempts are made to manipulate the information provided. It is the most widely used job analysis method. The information gathered by PAQ is used to develop job descriptions and job specifications and to conduct job evaluation.

9. Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

According to John Flanagan who proposed the Critical Incident Technique in 1954, behaviors in specific situations contribute to the success or failure of individuals or organizations. A compilation of all the critical acts or behaviors provides a portrayal of the job, with focus on both the action of the worker and the context in which the behavior was noticed. 

Interviews and questionnaires can be used to collect and compile information on these critical incidents. Though job supervisors can be consulted, most of the information is provided by the job incumbents. CIT is more suitable for middle and top management level jobs as critical incidents can take place at these levels. Hence, this technique is limited to jobs performed by a few people, and its application to routine jobs at the lower levels of an organization structure is restricted.

Uses/Significance of job analysis 

1. Human Resource Planning

Job analysis is an analytical process from which we develop tangible results in the form of job description and job specification. These two outcomes i.e. job description and job specification determines the duties and responsibilities a particular job possesses and the qualifications, skills, knowledge, potentials required to perform the job respectively.

This in turn determines the demand for various jobs in the organization and the manpower required to hold them. Accordingly human resource manager has to plan for human resources. This is how job analysis helps in human resource planning.

2. Job Evaluation

Job evaluation is treated as the third tangible outcome of the conceptual job analysis. The information provided by the job analysis serves the purpose of job evaluation i.e. to determine the relative worth of job for fixing compensation. Here again the job description and job specification provides a base for determining worth of a job to the enterprise and for determining salary and wages for the job or jobs. 

3. Recruitment and Selection

Job Analysis helps in determining what kind of person is required to perform a particular job. It points out the educational qualifications, level of experience and technical, physical, emotional and personal skills required to carry out a job in desired fashion. The objective is to fit a right person at a right place.

A comprehensive job analysis provides sufficient information in respect of jobs that will most likely to be filled up in future. Selection of a person for a job necessitates the deep and clear understanding of the kind of work to be performed and the qualifications, knowledge, talent and potentials require doing it.

4. Performance Analysis

Job analysis is done to check if goals and objectives of a particular job are met or not. It helps in deciding the performance standards, evaluation criteria and individual’s output. On this basis, the overall performance of an employee is measured and he or she is appraised accordingly.

5.Training and Development

Job Analysis can be used to assess the training and development needs of employees. The difference between the expected and actual output determines the level of training that need to be imparted to employees. It also helps in deciding the training content, tools and equipments to be used to conduct training and methods of training.

6. Compensation Management

Of course, job analysis plays a vital role in deciding the pay packages and extra perks and benefits and fixed and variable incentives of employees. After all, the pay package depends on the position, job title and duties and responsibilities involved in a job. The process guides HR managers in deciding the worth of an employee for a particular job opening.

7. Job Designing and Redesigning

The main purpose of job analysis is to streamline the human efforts and get the best possible output. It helps in designing, redesigning, enriching, evaluating and also cutting back and adding the extra responsibilities in a particular job. This is done to enhance the employee satisfaction while increasing the human output.

8. Labour Management Relations

The information gathered from job analysis are helpful in improving labour management relations by understanding what is being expected from the jobholders, by the employees. This can be achieved if employees are informed about the information from the job analysis.

9. Safety and Welfare Measures

Job analysis process discloses the environment where job is to be performed. Hazardous and unhealthy conditions, if any, prevailing at the workplace can be taken care of by providing adequate safety and welfare measures. Most of the accidents can be thus avoided.