Attitude (Definition & Characteristics)

Attitudes have usually been associated with the notion of 'liking' or 'disliking' someone or something. That is, attitudes are inner expression or feelings that reflect whether a person is favourably or unfavourably predisposed to a product or brand or establishment. 

Long ago a psychologist, Gordon Allport had given a classic definition of attitudes, which says

"Attitudes are learned predispositions to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way"

There could be several implications of this definition.

• Attitudes are learned: This means attitudes get formed on the basis of some experience with or information about the object.

• Attitudes are predispositions and reside in the mind of the individual. 

• Attitudes cause consistent response: This means attitudes precede and produce behaviour.

Martin Fishbein has defined 'attitude' in a way that it can be useful in predicting behaviour. As per this definition a person's overall attitude towards an object is said to be the function of (a) the strength of each of a number of beliefs the person holds about various aspects of the object and (b) the person's evaluation of each of the belief's held by him as he relates it to the object.

From a marketer's point of view, this definition is helpful, for it implies that consumer's will perceive a product (or object) to be having many attributes and accordingly, may develop beliefs on each of the attributes. For example, a consumer may strongly believe that Vicks VapoRub provides fast and long lasting relief from the six symptoms of cold namely: blocked nose, cough, body ache, headache, muscle stiffness and breathing difficulty. Since this consumer evaluated all of these attributes as favourable qualities, as per the definition, she has a strong favourable overall attitude towards the brand. However, if there was another consumer who may not believe Vicks VapoRub to possess all the above mentioned attributes, she may not evaluate all attributes as favourably as the first consumer. Accordingly, her overall attitude towards the brand would be less favourable.

Attitudes, Opinion and Belief

Attitudes are said to be resulting from a combination of beliefs and value and opinions. Terms such as opinion and belief are often used quite closely with attitudes. Attitudes tend to be generalised predispositions to react in some way towards objects or concepts, Whereas, opinions tend to be focused on more specific aspects of the object or concept. Earnest J. Me Cormick and Joseph Tiffin have opined " The measurement of attitudes is generally based on the expression of opinions. But we should distinguish between aftitude scale which, like a thermometer or barometer, reflects the generalised level of individual attitudes towards some object or concept, and opinion surveys, which typically are used to elicit the opinions of people towards specific aspects. "

Belief can be defined as "an enduring organisation of perceptions and cognitions about some aspects of an individual's world'. (Krech and Crutchfield, 1948) This means beliefs could be hypothesis and are based on one's judgement regarding the probability of the nature of the objects. Simply stated beliefs are the body of knowledge we hold about the world (may be incomplete or inaccurate). Beliefs are often expressed in sentences where the word 'is' appears. For example, the information that "Complan is good for you" has been presented as a fact (endorsed by the health and nutrition specialist in the ad clipping) in the cleverly designed advertising campaign. As a result, this view now forms a part of many peoples' (especially mothers) belief system.

Value is very often viewed as an attribute possessed by an individual and considered to be desirable. According to psychologist Milton Rokeach, values are centrally held and enduring beliefs which guide actions and make judgments in specifics situations. They may induce one to respond (or adopt specific behaviour) which can help or come in the way of attainment of some values (David Louden & A.J.D.Bitto, Consumer Behavior, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Ed., pp. 88-89)

From the above definition we can see that values involve an individual's judgement on what is right, good, desirable and worthwhile. Unlike beliefs, these are usually ideals to which we aspire and may be expressed in sentences which includes words like 'should be'. For example, the Government's pulse polio statement - "India must be eradicated and free from polio" is an expression of the value of the principle of social justice.

The differences between attitudes, opinions and beliefs and values exist only on a conceptual basis. The relationship between them is a complex one. It is usually said that people have thousands of beliefs and opinions about the world, hundreds of attitudes although probably fever than fifty values.

Interestingly, advertisers have used these values to sell products. Typically, a product is associated with a particular value dimension to give it an appeal.

So firms try to sell their products by using the dimension of truth. At times they support this with the presentation of facts and figures or graphs or professionals in related areas endorsing the brand.

For instance, Star chef Sanjeev Kapoor endorses that it is possible to make tasty sweet (Gajjar Ka Halva) by using Sugar Free or when he opines that it is possible to make healthy and tasty (with less fat and cholesterol content) snacks by using Saffola Gold cooking oil. Similarly, Jawed Habib, Hair stylist & Grooming expert, states the goodness of using Sun Silk Shampoo (helps the hair to remain conditioned, smooth and silky).

Characteristics of Attitudes

Individuals hold different attitudes. The following are generally referred to as characteristics of attitudes : 

• Attitudes can be held about any object, person, issue or activity - referred to as the attitude object. For instance, if as a researcher one is interested in knowing about consumer attitudes towards major brands of mobile phones (object) then the study will include Airtel, Hutch and Reliance.

• Attitudes may be strongly or weakly held. An attitude is an assessment based on continuous evaluation.

• Attitudes are learned: We acquire attitudes in much the same way we acquire culture, through classical and operant conditioning and social interaction. Attitudes having relevance to purchase behaviour may have been formed (or learned) through direct experience with the product, word-of-mouth, from ads (or other mass media advertising, from retail outlet leaflet, internet etc.) Such learned predispositions will lead to attitude formation and the subsequent purchase behaviour.

• Attitudes are dynamic and can change. We no longer have the same attitudes as we did when we were younger. We are constantly modifying attitudes based on our experiences and acquiring new attitudes as we encounter new attitude objects. Sometimes, attitudes occur within and are affected by the situation also. By situation, we are referring to events or circumstances at a particular point of time which can influence the relationship between an attitude and behaviour.

• Some attitudes are more fundamental than others and more resistant to change. Certain opinions stay with us throughout our lives, while others may change from week to week.

Marketers are more concerned with understanding attitudes (for instance, does a brand have a favourable or unfavourable image), modifying attitudes (to make consumers more favourable toward certain attitude object and or less favourable towards others), and turning positive attitudes towards an object or product into an action resulting in the purchase of the item in question.

Marketers are trying to understand and meet consumer demands by trying to match products with the situational requirement. For example, consumer preference may vary, in terms of eating situations, if one were to look at outlets such as McDonalds, Pizza Hut, Nirula's, Coffee Café Day or The Indian Coffee House. So accordingly Coffee Café Day may be preferred by young, trendy executives working in the IT sector. While middle age, price conscious customers may prefer to eat at the Indian Coffee House. Examples of how situations can influence attitudes are given in the table below.

Nature Of Consumer Attitudes 

Brand attitudes are based on the schema of a brand consumer's store in long term memory. For example, say a schema of Ambassador car as being a dull and old fashioned car has led to many of the younger generation customers selecting other trendy cars. The older consumers are likely to have certain attributes such as reliability, security and good after sales service associated with Hindustan Motors (the makers of Ambassador). Due to this belief that the older consumers have of Ambassador they are likely to make a positive evaluation of the car. Consequently, brand beliefs (Ambassador is reliable) can lead to brand evaluation (I like Ambassador) and thus can lead to the intended behaviour (I am planning to use Ambassador for a long term period).

The Three Components of Attitudes

In order to understand the nature of consumer attitudes, we will briefly discuss the three components, cognitive, affective and conative components of attitudes. These components can be defined in term of brand beliefs, brand evaluation and intention to buy.

Brand Beliefs 

Brand beliefs are the cognitive components of attitudes. These could be in terms of the consumer's beliefs about a brand and the characteristics they ascribe to it. Marketers, through marketing research can interact with consumers and ask them to rate brands utilizing the vocabulary of product attributes developed by them. Then the marketer must determine the value consumers place on the various attributes based on the benefits they feel they will derive from it. Descriptive beliefs connect an object or person to a quality or outcome. For example, "this train is always late" is a descriptive belief an individual may have of that train.

This evaluative component of attitude will help the marketers to understand whether the consumer has a positive or negative attitude towards the brand and segment the market accordingly. Such evaluate beliefs connect an object to personal likes or dislikes or perceptions. Say a consumer states "the service in this store is poor".

Brand beliefs are relevant only to the extent that they influence brand's evaluation, the primary determinant of intended behaviour. There are also normative beliefs which invoke moral and ethical judgements like "It is wrong to advertise about cigarette smoking being enjoyable".

Overall Brand Evaluation 

The affective component is the second attitude component and represents a consumer's overall evaluation of the brand. Beliefs about a brand are multidimensional because they represent the brand attributes consumers perceive. The affective component, is one-dimensional. That is consumer's overall evaluation can be measured by rating the brand from 'poor' to 'excellent' or from 'prefer least' to 'prefer most'. From brand evaluation, it can be said that it conforms to the definition of brand attitudes which says it is "a tendency to evaluate brands in a favourable or unfavourable way".

Intention to Buy 

The Behavioural Component: Brand beliefs influence attitudes and attitudes influence intention to buy i.e., consumer's tendency to act towards an object. Measuring buying intent helps in the development of a marketing strategy. Marketers generally try to test elements of the marketing mix such as ad packages, brand names etc., to determine what is most likely to influence purchase behaviour. For example, consumers viewing alternative ads are asked about their intentions to buy after experiencing these marketing stimuli. Marketers will regard the alternative producing the highest buying intent as the best choice in the absence of actual buying behaviour. Unlike brand evaluation and beliefs marketers can try to influence this third component of attitude. For, a sharp reduction in price or a special coupon can work out to be inducements for consumers to try a less favoured brand. Table below gives examples of the three attitude components against two services. The relationship between the three components of attitudes is known as the hierarchy of effects.

The High-Versus Low Involvement Hierarchy

The hierarchy of effects works as a sequence in the consumers choice process and can be distinguished between a high and low involvement hierarchy. The high involvement hierarchy involves a "think before you act" process while low involvement hierarchy is described as an "act before you think" process. These are briefly described in terms of the three components of attitudes. When consumers get involved, they will first develop beliefs about the brand through a process of active information search. Based on this they will evaluate the brand, develop definite brand attitudes and make a purchase decision accordingly. Marketers have found that attitudes were more closely related to purchase intentions for the motivated group as compared to that of the unmotivated group. For example, a consumer tries out a new paper tissue and decides that it is not as good as her regular brand and so she is not likely to purchase it again. Such overall evaluation provides important information for the marketers even though the consumer is not very involved with the brand.

The Experimental Hierarchy

The experimental hierarchy is mainly concerned with a consumer's emotional response to a brand. From the table below it can be said that consumers first evaluate a brand on an overall basis treating it on the basis of their feelings, emotions and fantasies. It is only after this that their beliefs, about the attributes and characteristics of a brand may be formed. Consumer's primary purchase motive is the anticipated experience of enjoying the brand and not the projected performance of the brand based on evaluative product criteria. Since experimental hierarchy considers consumer's emotional involvement, they are likely to search for stimuli such as symbols and imagery on an on going basis which could affect their feelings about a brand. Many marketers use this hierarchy by advertising product features and benefits to influence beliefs.

A Business Today-Synovate Study (Bt-Synovate)

A BT-Synovate study was carried out by Business Today (with the help of Market Research firm Synovate) in order-to understand how many different kinds of tweens are there in India. The study was conducted (involving both quantitative and qualitative exercises) across six cities namely-Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Bangalore. The target audience were 8-12 year olds who belonged to households in the higher socio-economic classification Sec- A and Sec-B. The study was carried out in two stages. In the first stage 563 respondents across the six cities were administered an in-depth questionnaire in order to understand their lifestyle, aspirations and influences, attitudes and values, involvement in purchase decisions, media habits and consumption pattern.

In the second stage, focus groups were conducted to understand attitudinal and behavioural facets of tweens, which would not be possible to obtain through quantitative exercises. Based on both sets of findings, the study arrived at a conclusion that there are four tween segments, although each segment is unique in some ways and the same in some others. These segments include:

1. Tween Type I - The All Indian Jock / Cheerleader (15.2 percent of tweens) 

who I can be described as brash, spoilt not academically oriented and prone to tantrums. This type of tweens receive the most pocket money and freedom of space from their parents. However, they are not involved with big-priced purchases as expected. They receive an average pocket money of Rs. 421.86 per month.

2. Tween Type II - The Traditional Reticent (11.8 percent of the tweens) 

can be described as quiet, ambivalent to most things and a traditionalist at heart. These tweens do not really seem to care about most things, nor do their parents have high expectations of them.

It was also found that this segment has the least influence, when it comes to big or high priced product decisions at home. This segment on an average receives Rs. 287.69 per month.

3. Tween Type III - The Dependent Diffident (25.38 percent of the tween population) 

can be described as toeing the parental line and still clutching on to the apron strings. This segment of tweens tend to be highly involved in the purchase of high priced products for home. Although this segment of the respondents expressed views of their parents, they received the least pocket money (Average being Rs 192.18 per month), probably because they get their parents to buy almost everything for them and so do not feel the need to have money of their own.

4. Tween Type IV - The Righteous Angel (47.51 per cent of the tween population) 

can be described as home birds with an active outside life, good at school and with a strong value system ingrained in them.

The tweens from this segment have an inherent goodness and never push for anything. For instance, they do not mind missing out on fun and games if it means securing the top rank in an examination. However, they feel that the system has too many exams for their liking and also do not like being pushed. They receive on an average pocket money of Rs 245.09 per month.

The researching teams concluded that children in the 8-12 years age group, although from similar backgrounds tend to think and behave alike sometimes and very differently at some other times.

Since the study covered only the metros and two major cities, it cannot be said to be conclusive and a representative of the entire country. Nevertheless, since these children (in the age group of 8-12 years) are more aware of lifestyle changes due to media exposure, marketers could try out unique ways to communicate their product offerings and through interactive ways get them more involved in purchase decisions.

Personality Influences And Consumer Behaviour

  Marketers are interested in knowing how personality can influence consumption behaviour. Availability of this information will enable them to go for suitable market segmentation and then target these consumers with appropriate communication programmes. There are certain specific personality traits which influence consumer acceptance of new products and services.

Especially while trying to analyse the likely market response for new innovations, marketers are interested in knowing the personality traits which can be useful in differentiating between consumer innovators and non innovators. Schiffman and Kanuk (Consumer Behavior, PHI, 2005, pp. 126-131) 'have referred to the personality traits (behaviour) as:

• Consumer innovativeness.

• Dogmatism.

• Social character.

• Need for uniqueness

• Optimum stimulation level.

• Variety - novelty seeking.

Consumer Innovativeness

Innovation always has an element of risk, because there will be easy accepters of the new products and services only if both the marketers and consumers are to equally gain from the right innovation. Consumer researchers have developed various measurement instruments to understand the level of consumer innovativeness, specifically the personality trait which provide insights into the nature and boundaries of a consumer's willingness to innovate.

Recent researches have indicated about the positive relationship that exist between purchasers of online products and the innovative use of the internet. The personality of internet users can be described as people who are confident about themselves and in their ability to control their own future and in using the internet to seek out information, enjoy change and are not afraid of uncertainty.

Gray and Starke have identified sixteen source personality traits, which are presented below in table 

Dogmatism

Dogmatism is the personality trait which will indicate the degree of rigidity individuals display when confronted with something which is unfamiliar to them or towards information which is contrary to their own established beliefs. The person who is high on dogmatism will approach the unfamiliar defensively and decide on the worthiness of the products or services. On the other hand, those who are low on dogmatism will willingly consider unfamiliar or opposing beliefs.

Consumers with low dogmatism (open minded) display more acceptance of innovative products than to established or traditional alternatives. Whereas, highly dogmatic (close-minded) consumers display preference for established rather than innovative product alternatives.

Optimum Stimulation Level

Consumer researchers have examined the relationship between personality traits and differences in the stimulation which, in turn, may be related to consumer behaviour. Researches have indicated high optimum stimulation levels (OSLS) with consumers who display more willingness to take risks, try new products, be innovative etc.

It is also suggested OSL reflects a person's desire for the level of lifestyle stimulation. Accordingly, if consumer's actual lifestyles are equivalent to their OSL scores, then they are likely to be quite satisfied. Whereas if their OSL is more than their current reality, they are likely to be restless or bored, while if their (lifestyles) or OSL is below their current reality, they are likely to seek relief. This conveys that consumers will make their choice of products or services depending on the OSL. An over stimulated person is likely to seek for rest in a quiet, isolated place or holiday (Examples can be of various Resorts/Vacation halts etc. which seem to be invitations for over stimulated persons).

For instance, S Kumar's Nation Wide (SKNL) has used cine star Sushmita Sen to endorse its new brand Carmichael House. This brand offers total solutions in the home textile segment including bed linen, table linen, kitchen linen, curtains and upholstery. The brand offers unique and latest trends for the home and the personality of the brand endorser (Sushmita Sen.) as an icon, stands for international styling. Research had indicated that women, who will be the primary market segment look up to her on style issues. While men, who comprise the secondary audience admire her style. Thus, the brand is trying to appeal to customers whose lifestyles will match their OSL scores.

Variety or Novelty Seeking: 

As the term itself indicates there are certain types of customers seeking variety or novelty in their consumption behaviour. This variety seeking behaviour can be:

• Exploratory purchase behaviour (exploring newer brands).

• Vicarious exploration (consumer obtains information about new alternatives and contemplates about the new option) with caution and reservation. 

• Use innovativeness (Already using a product in a new or novel way)

The use innovativeness trait is more relevant to products which are technological or electronic products such as home appliances (home stereo system, washing machine etc.) In case of such products there could be certain product models with additional functions or features while some other models with only the essential features. Consumers who are high on variety seeking are more likely to be attracted to product brands which offer novel features or have multiple applications, unlike consumers who score low on variety seeking, who may not do so.

Social Character

The personality trait depicting social character is closely related to socio-cultural environment or sociological research. Here the reference is of two types of personality traits -inner directedness (consumers who rely on their 'own' intuition or standards or values while evaluating new products) and other directedness (These are consumers who look to others for directions or guidance, especially in case of new products). The former category of consumers are more likely to be innovators.

The inner-directed consumers have a preference for ads which stress product features and personal benefits thus enabling them to self evaluate and use the product in an innovative or novel way. Whereas, other directed people prefer ads which convey social acceptance and this can influence their purchase decisions.

Need for Uniqueness

One must have come across people who seek to be unique. Such people do not like to be in conformity to other's expectations or standards either in appearance or in terms of possessions. In a study undertaken to explore the circumstances under which persons who are high on the Need For Uniqueness make (or do not make) unconventional choices, it was revealed that these individuals were more open to making unique choices when they were not concerned about being criticized. (L.G.Schiffman, L.L. Kanuk, Consumer Behavior, 8th Edn., PHI, 2005, pp. 129). So, it would help marketers to carry out researches to measure this trait in the context of consumer behaviour, while introducing new products in the market.

Thus having knowledge of various personality traits and differences is essential for the marketer to design suitable market segmentation and other promotional strategies for their product or service.

Cognitive Personality Traits

Consumer researchers are also keen to understand the role played by cognitive personality factors in influencing various aspects of consumer behaviour. Here the discussion will be related to two cognitive personality traits.

• Visualizers Versus Verbalizers

• Need for cognition.

Visualizers vs Verbalizers: Cognitive personality researchers have classified consumers into visualizers and verbalizers. Visualizers - who stress on the visual information and visual products, for example membership of a CD/DVD cassette shop. Verbalizers - are those(consumers) who prefer verbal information on products. For example membership in books or magazines shop. The privilege card issued by Sapna Book House (Bangalore) is a written information. Thus marketers try to attract their target market by categorising them as above.

The ad (A) Cancer patients aid association speaks on a unique and refreshing way of looking at it for smokers. In ad (B) for The Indian Association for promotion of Adoption and Child Welfare the transparent sheet in the middle with the child's picture was conveying about how changing some one's life could be as easy as turning a page. Both these ads communicate a lot visually and makes one think hard as the truth jolts you.

(A) (B) These ads (A) related to antismoking and (B) adopting some one makes one think really hard and help in acting as visualisers

In case of the Cadbury Dairy Milk, it works as a verbalizer because the central idea of the ad revolved around 'Celebrate the joy of Pappu passing the exams with a Dairy Milk. This message was further, appropriated at the precise moment when Pappu passed and he was given a congratulatory message from Cadbury Dairy Milk. In fact, this message was flashed out 39 million times in a span of three months and was also well received by the target audience.

Need for Cognition: Need for cognition (NC) is another cognitive personality characteristic which is related to the individual's thinking process and measures a person's craving for something. The information on consumers' need for cognition will enable the advertiser to decide on the creation of advertising messages with the right combination of colour mix.

Researches have shown that consumers who are high on the 'need for cognition' will be more receptive to an ad giving, such rich product related information. While those consumers seeking less need for cognition will be more attracted to the peripheral background or model or the celebrity endorsing the product in the advertisement.

Long back the ad of Maruti 1000 cc car had evoked some strange and yet irresistible attraction, echoes of which linger in the haunting melody of Monalisa. The ad had show a car with a celestial aura with a heading "The lady with the mystic smile". This ad is an example of an appeal to those consumers who are less on the need for cognition.

A similar intriguing charm was built up in the series of ads for the 'Taj' group of hotels and is an example of an ad which will appeal to consumers who are high on need for cognition. The setting of the ad (both in print as well as on television) takes the form of a lady moving about ethereally and purposefully in a grand manner. When the commercial was first revealed it had an element of mystery evolved around it with the viewer puzzled as to what the advertiser had in mind. The voice over could be heard saying things like. "She plays a host to celebrities. She receives you just as graciously. She is not your business manager, your secretary, your this and that...... but she values efficiency".

The puzzle is solved when it is announced "She is the Taj", she runs luxury hotels that has epitomize, elegance and a whole lot virtues. The closing line says "Nobody cares so much". Sony Entertainment Television (SET) had before the launch of its popular serial 'Jassi Jaissi Koi Nahin' tried to create hype and a need for cognition among the target audience about its launch.

The primary objective was to fuel curiosity about Jassi and build endearment for her as a character by giving the TV viewers different facets of personality-all without revealing her. During the pre-launch period of Jassi, the consumers (audience) were fed pieces of (bits of) information on Jassi's persona even allowing the viewer to create a personal image such that this character (Jassi) sounded real and identifiable.

The campaign messages and various elements were used so as to fuel the curiosity around and after the launch. The media mix included host of unconventional media vehicles such as sms, flash mobs, airport placards, leaflets designed specially for traffic junctions, shop trains. etc., apart from the conventional T.V radio, outdoor and print media. At the media launch, SET presented the entire cast of the show (except Jassi) further increasing the curiosity and intrigue among the media.

The communication strategy started with building attributes which personified Jassi. The next step involved anonymous people talking about Jassi, then the campaign moved on to characters from the show talking about Jassi (her parents, her boss and her peers) in their inimitable ways. Once sufficient momentum was generated and the initial feedback from critics, media and viewers was very positive, the next place of communication the Shaher Shaher Mein Charcha campaign was launched, which had people from all walks of life voicing their opinion about Jassi. This move continued to fuel the buzz on T.V and billboards, when the channel embarked on another unusual activity-it created a Jassi's Pals Club. The purpose of the club was to help in the creation of a community of Jassi fans who would become apostles and advocates for the show. Simultaneously Jassi merchandise was now being made available-the first in a series of items to be launched was the ring tone download.

All the efforts and initiatives were taken by the channel to maintain the interest, of the audience and build viewer affinity to Jassi and the show. In the final place, since Jassi had been kept hidden all the while, it was decided that the time was right to get the viewers interact with the Jassi character and further drive up the connect and emphathy. All efforts had been made to build up the consumers' (audience) need cognition around Jassi. Finally, the channel took Jassi to Delhi where she became the talk of the town. She was interviewed live in the studios of Aaj Tak and the FM. There was a lot of excitement on seeing her, which is similar to that reserved for film personalities.

In fact, what started as a buzz turned into a roar, with the Jassimania taking the country by storm. The serial went on to command very high TPR ratings during the primary viewing time, winning many T.V awards and was even hailed by all (media, critics and audiences) as the new refreshing and popular face of Indian Television.

Certain Inter-Related Consumption And Possession Personality Traits

Consumer researchers have identified certain consumption and possession traits which influence consumer behaviour. They are as follows:

Consumer Materialism: 'Materialism' refers to the attachment people have towards (material) possessions. When considering materialism as a personality like trait, it differentiates between person's who identify themselves and others on the basis of the material goods possessed by them. As against this there are certain people for whom possession of material goods is secondary.

Researchers have made the following characteristic observation about materialistic people: 

• They give undue importance to acquiring and displaying their worldly possessions. 

• They crave for possessing 'lots of things'.

• They are usually self centered and selfish.

• They like to possess things irrespective of whether they derive greater happiness or satisfaction from possessing the same.

Fixated Consumption Behaviour: Lying between being materialistic and addictive regarding buying or possessing objects is the fixated consumption behaviour. Fixated consumers not only are interested in purchasing objects or things but also enjoy displaying them and are known for their involvement with others who share a similar interest.

The characteristics profile of fixated consumers are as follows:

• A very deep interest displayed for a particular object or a product category

• A dedicated search for additional examples of the object or the particular product category.

• Willingness to spend a considerable amount of their discretionary time and money in searching for the product or object.

Under this category, we can put the various people who are vigorously involved in collecting (or have a hobby) various objects like stamps, coins, antique articles etc. These fixated consumers become totally involved in the process of acquiring the object.

Compulsive Consumption Behaviour

Compulsive consumption is abnormal behaviour. Consumers who display this type of behaviour are sometimes said to be having abnormal behaviour. Their compulsive actions reveal an addiction, whereby their actions are out of control and could result in causing harm to themselves or to those around them. Some of the problems associated with this type of behaviour are: uncontrollable consumption of liquor, gambling, drug addiction and so on. Such problems can be handled by going for clinical therapy treatment.

Some research studies have indicated that certain actions such as self gifting, impulse buying etc. are compulsive actions adopted by few consumers to manage their moods, which may indicate "I am feeling down, so I will go and purchase something, then I will feel better".

Consumer Ethnocentrism

This term is used to measure the consumer responses to foreign made products. Under this, there can be two types of consumers consumers who are highly ethnocentric and who feel it is inappropriate to purchase foreign made goods. In India, sometimes the term 'swadeshi goods' is used. If such individuals are in reality highly ethnocentric, they would exclusively go for the purchase of 'Indian made' products - like khadi clothes etc. In contrast, those consumers who are low on ethnocentrism may have more attachment or affinity for made in U.S.A., Japan, etc., labelled products. This could probably be one of the reason's for the flourishing of the so called "Burma Bazar's, China Bazar's and so forth in many cities, where many imitation products manufacturers sell similar goods by affixing false labels like made in U.S.A., made in Taiwan etc. on them.

Self Concept Or Self Image

Individuals have a specific perception and image of themselves. These self concept or self images are closely connected to the personality of the products or services patronised by them. This means that consumers tend to purchase goods or services, which according to them have symbolic image closely related to their self image.

Multiple Selves

Researchers have proposed that instead of considering an individual as a 'single self', it would be more appropriate to think of the consumer in terms of a multiple self. This is because the behaviour of an individual at a particular time will be dependent on the person with whom he is interacting and the social setting or social role which was prominent at that time. From this the marketer must infer that they have to market their product and services to suit the context of the 'consumer's self image'.

Self Image

Each individual has an image of himself or herself as that of being a certain kind of person, with certain personality traits, habits, possessions, behaviour and so on. Each individual's self image will be a unique one based on his or her background and experience, and knowledge gained from various persons' over a period of time.

According to various researchers, an individual can possess any of these self images: 

• Actual self image (how they actually see themselves).

• Ideal self image (how they would like to see themselves).`

• Social self image (how they feel the society sees them).

• Ideal social self image (how they would like the society to see them) 

• Expected self image (Their expectation of how they see themselves at some specified future time).

All the above self images will be useful for the marketer's. But the 'ideal self image' and expected self image' will be of more relevance to the marketer. This is because consumers may be induced to purchase goods or services to improve their actual self image i.e., to reach their ideal self image'. And expected self image conveys that consumers may look out for opportunity to change their 'self. This can be used by marketers to manufacture products projecting the above opportunity for consumers.

Consumers have a preference for those products and services which match their personal images. Thus a knowledge of the various types of self images of consumers, will enable marketers, work out marketing strategy programmes. For instance, the marketer can work on market segmentation programmes on the basis of the relevant consumer self image and then position their products or services to match the consumers social status and lifestyle, in various product categories.

Extension of Self Image

Researchers are convinced of the relationship between consumers ownership of goods (or possessions) to their self images. If a young son were to receive a stylish high priced wrist watch from his father, after faring well in the examination, the gift will serve as an enrichment to the son's self image. The son will feel enriched and see himself as a more hardworking, confident and successful and 'include' the stylish wrist watch to his inventory of self enhancing possessions.

This only goes to show that human emotions are related to valued possessions. Researchers have identified possessions which can extend the self in a number of ways such as:

• Motivate the individual to do things; which otherwise would have been difficult (For example, buying a personal computer to add to the status, may force the housewife to learn to operate the PC).

• Through symbolic representation, make the person feel better and bigger. The contestant receiving cine star Shah Rukh Khan's wrist watch on not earning much on the KBC reality show.

• By conferring status or rank (For instance, M.F. Hussian being given a unique status by art lovers because of masterminding and possessing a unique masterpiece of painting.

• By bestowing upon someone close, and handing over a priced possession.

• By perceiving the receipt of a 'gift' from someone as a 'good luck charm' for you,

Altering the Self Image

Going by human psychology of wishing to change themselves to enrich oneself with an 'improved self image', marketers of various products and services are working at this. Consumers have the desire to project a new self, or maintain the present self, or extend the self- all with the intention of expressing their individualism or uniqueness. Firms marketing products or services related to clothes, cosmetics, jewellery, hair styles, membership to certain clubs, other personal care products, beauty saloons etc. are working out marketing plans so as to help the consumer gain an inflated and enhanced view of their physical appearance or self image.

Jewellery brand marketers are working at innovative ways to woo the consumers and induce them to alter their self image. Well known brands are associating themselves with Bollywood films where they are endorsed by celebrities shown using signature jewellery ranges. For instance, the audience are exposed to seeing Aishwarya Rai show off Nakshatra Diamonds in Guru, the large star cast of Salaam-e-Ishq sparkle with Ira diamond jewellery, Woh Lamhe film featured a fashion show of Orrg and in Vivah, Amrita Rao is shown wearing D'damas diamonds. Later on D'damas came out with a Vivah range of jewellery and Bollywood Gold (a range of contemporary Indian jewellery).

Keeping in mind the emergence of the new, modern, multi tasking women of today with disposable cash to indulge herself in, marketers are making attempts to come out with suitable products to match their altered self-image. For example, Electrolux came out with a premium brand range called "affirmation of the self". Idea Cellular launched the first ever women's card available on both prepaid and postpaid connections packed with value add ones such as tips on beauty, fashion, health and safety alerts to near and dear ones.