Background

Man has successfully landed on Moon. He is searching for another untouched earth in the universe. One day, he will succeed in landing to start with on the Moon Two. His capabilities have developed to such an extent that automobile is to run on air, water and even human urine. Already Honda Company has succeeded in making a car to run on oxygen. He is planning to house under water on the sea bed. With all that, each individual is different that lays the foundation for human skills. What is most important is he has not understood himself fully and others too. This is resulting to lack of oneness of understanding. clashes, disaster and decay. Hence, there is need for all humans to understand each other for mutual benefit. 

What is the Foundation of Human Skills?

The basic foundation of human skills is the individual differences. Every person differs not only physically, but more so mentally. If mental differences were not there, there would not have been conflicts, confusions, chaos and destruction, frustration, low productivity and so on. Not only two individuals differ, but even twins do differ, though they may look identical and overt behaviour is more or less same. That is all are not equally proficient or efficient in a given field. That leads to human diversity, which has to be managed, especially  when a task assigned is team one. This can be achieved by human skills, which can be developed and sharpened. Human Skills are the abilities to work with, understand and motivate other people both individually and in groups. A skill is an ability to do something. which is learnt through practice. Skills are not inborn, but learnt by imitation and practice. Unfortunately, the word "skill" is used very loosely. "Skill refers to the quality of performance" as rightly said by Professor A. C. Croft. Skill is synonymous with proficiency. Higher the level of proficiency, more ripe are one's skills. 

The basic determinants of human nature or behaviour covers wide variety of factors, such as personality motives, attitudes, values, beliefs and abilities including the presence of perception and learning. It is because a person's behaviour is greatly and deeply influenced by his perception of objects and people and his learning experience.

Individual Differences

The outstanding feature of human beings is diversity. That is, each individual is unique. One is not like another in all respects. A statement very often we come across is : "All men and all women are equal and therefore all human beings are equal". This is true in one sense and not true in another. Hence, not true in the cases of all human beings. Humans may be males and females in physical terms. where all males and females are having one head, consisting of brain, two eyes, two ears, one mouth. one nose with two nostrils, two hands, two legs, genital organ and so on. On the other hand, we classify them into males and females based on gender and other external features not talking of internal differences. Again, one male is not exactly like another and so is the case with females. lence, the statement that "all men are equal" or "all women are equal" fails. Men and women differ in height. weight, structure of the body, skin colour, hair, growth in physical indicators. Much more they differ mentally or psychologically. Taking brain as one of the power a think tank, one broadly classifies them as dull, intelligent, wise and genius and so on. based on intelligence quotient. Thus, each human being may be male or female is unique as he or she is not a standardised product, which is identical in all respects of a particular category.

In any organisation, we come across the diversity or difference in job performance of employees, be it a floor level employee or top ranking officers. That is, the work performance differs both in case of seniors and juniors, that is ordinates and subordinates. Even if a team of workers is given exactly the same material, machines and other working conditions, the productivity differs from team to team and a member of a same team. Productivity differences are clearly seen and felt. Thus, the taste of a cup of tea differs even though two persons are preparing it with identical ingredients. This speaks of differences in productivity.

Dimensions of Individual Differences

Individual differences are personal attributes that vary from one person to another. We all agree that individual differences are there and they can not be totally ironed out. These differences have both primary and secondary dimensions as identified by the experts.

Primary Differences

Primary dimensions are those, which have significant and impinge impact on one's life throughout. These are age, gender, nationality, physical ability and mental ability. Let us note these in brief before we got secondary dimensions of individual differences.

1. Age

Age factor is highly individualistic and multifaceted. This has deep influence on performance, turnover, absenteeism, productivity and satisfaction. Performance is dependent on age. As age advances performance is likely to decline. It has impact on turnover. As one grows older, the less likely one is to quit the job. Age and absenteeism are related depending on whether absenteeism is avoidable or unavoidable. It is noticed that older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than those younger employees. As opposed to this, they do have high rates of unavoidable absence, because of poor health or it worsens with advance of age. Old age results in reduced productivity, because of decline of an individual's skills as he or she grows older. So far as satisfaction, there is positive. association between the age and satisfaction. However, changes in technologies may change this equation. For instance, in case of those jobs where workers are subject to dramatic changes causing their skills to become obsolete like those affected by computerisation, satisfaction levels of older employees tend to be lower than those of youngsters with hot blood.

2. Gender

Gender or sex variable has received considerable focus of attention from academicians, sociologists and researchers. Research has amply proved that problem solving ability, analytical skill. competitive drive, motivation, leadership, sociability or learning ability are not gender-dependent. However, in our male-predominant society, the presence of women employees in organisations is not appreciated or encouraged. Sex has an impact on turnover and absenteeism. It is proved beyond doubt that tendency to change jobs and abstain from work is likely to be higher among female than male employees. The explanation lies in the phenomenon is that our society has historically placed home and family responsibilities on female. When a child is ill or someone needs to stay at home to await a plumber, it has traditionally been the woman who has taken time off from the work to attend these needs.

3. Nationality

The nationality of a person has its own impact on behaviour. Americans are more overt and simple in expression and have straight forward approaches. On the other hand, Japanese are introverts. less talking but more busy in work and having deep trust in masters. Coming to Indians, basically they are hard-working and complacent The behaviour pattern differs from nationality to nationality. Thus, we see Indians going and settling all over the world, create a mini-India having subcultural and ethnic habits in everything.

4. Intellectual Abilities

Intellectual abilities are needed to perform mental activities. I.Q. tests, for example, are designed to determine one's intellectual abilities. We come across good many college or university admission tests such as CAT, GAT, CRE, ZAT, GMAT and so on. Some of the more relevant dimensions making up intellectual abilities include number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed and inductive reasoning. "Number aptitude" is the ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. This is more applicable to jobs of accountant. "Verbal comprehension" is the ability to understand what is read or heard of and the relationship of words to each other. It is applicable to all departmental managers following corporate policies. "Perceptible Speed' is the ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately as in case of a fine-investigator. "Inductive reasoning" is the ability to identity a logical sequence in problem and then solve the problem as is the case of market researcher. "Deductive reasoning" is the ability to use and assess the implications of an argument as is the case of a supervisor. "Spatial visualisation" is the ability to imagine how an object would look, if its position in space were changed as is the case with an interior decorator. "Memory" is an ability to retain and recall past expressions as is the case of salesman.

5. Physical Abilities

Physical abilities indicate one's stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like. Experts have identified nine such physical abilities. These nine physical abilities are based on three sets of factors namely strength flexibility and other factors. The strength based physical abilities are dynamic strength, truck strength, static strength and explosive strength. "Dynamic Strength" is the ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over a time. "Trunk Strength" is the ability to exert force against external objects. "Explosive Strength" is the ability to expand maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts. The flexibility based abilities are extent flexibility and dynamic flexibility. "Extent flexibility" is to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible. "Dynamic flexibility is the ability to make rapid, repeated flexible movements. The other factors based on physical abilities are body coordination, balance and stamina. "Body coordination" is the ability to coordinate simultaneous actions of different parts of the body. "Balance" is the ability to maintain equilibrium despite unbalancing forces. "Stamina" is the ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time.

2. Secondary Differences

The secondary dimensions consist of personal characteristics of people acquire, discard and/or modify these throughout their lives. These are family status, education, work experience, organisational role, work style, communication style and attitudes. Personality is both primary and secondary dimension. Again, secondary dimensions undergo changes due to the influences of perception and learning. Let us note the secondary dimensions in brief.

1. Family Status

When one talks of family status, it is referred to the type of the family as to joint or nucleus - and the closely related aspect of marital status. There is correlation between the number of dependents a employee has and his or her absences and satisfaction. The number of children an employee has is positively related to absence, especially among females. Similarly, there is positive correlation between the number of dependence and satisfaction. Married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than unmarried ones. Marriage imposes additional responsibility, hence the need for a steady job and steady income.

2. Education

Education has its impact on individual behaviour, largely through the level and type of education received. Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual's expectations about positive outcomes. These outcomes are generally perceived to be more satisfying job, higher level of income and greater alternative services for occupational choice. That is to say - expectation of quality life. Disillusionment occurs when outcomes do not match the expectations. The type of education received can also affect individual behaviour. Education can be 'general' or 'specialized' or 'formal' and informal". The former includes the areas like arts, humanities and social sciences, whereas the latter covers the disciplines like engineering, medicine, computer science and the like. General education tends to both attract and develop individuals differently than the education in specialized fields. Specialist programs tend to be relatively narrow and focussed, whereas generalist programs expose individuals to broad ranged subjects designed to enhance an overall understanding of concepts and issues.

3. Work Experience

An employee has never an experience unless he is put to work on a given job. There is no substitute for experience, because it is not meant for purchase and sale in market at a price. It has to be earned by oneself by exposing himself learning the skills of performing a job to reach highest rate of efficiency, ease and productivity. Some struggle hard to complete a job still some do it smartly without much of donkey input. Work experience differs from person to person and from time to time and is influenced by good many factors both physical and psychological conditions of work.

4. Organisational Role

Every person or an employee is an actor, occupying a working position or work role. It does not mean that each worker has a different role. The groups of workers or teams of employees has similar role to play as a part of organisation overall attainment. The organisation work is divided into well identified tasks and are interrelated, divided and coordinated to attain the organisational goals. Each is important in an organisation, because of his organisational role. However, each one's role is not equally important. Thus, we have a definite role for top level executives, middle level executives and lower level employees. Organisational role, right from the CEO to the last person - toilet cleaner, is important. Thus, organisational role has the sense of dignity of work. No worker can undermine or overestimate his role, because all roles are designed towards attaining certain common goals. 

5. Work Style

Style of work has its own role to play in improving employee's productivity, setting him at ease. making him enjoying the job, making him proud of the way he does or performs the job. A style is an alternative way of doing or performing a job. We experience that amongst the students, with the same stuff in case of each subject, the results differ because of the style of working. It refers to the methods and techniques of attaining the goal. Some students are day-timers, while some are night workers. Some will grasp each and everything; some pick and choose and concentrate on those aspects only. Some work on the perfect theory of "know everything of something, and something of everything". Some rely heavily on textbooks, some on the notes given by the teachers and still some on their own prepared notes. Even in case of a given job, the style of performing differs widely from person to person and from time to time.

6. Communication Style

Communication plays a significant role in binding the organisation by making it one unit towards the achievement of predetermined goals. There is no organisation, which has no communication system or process because everyone in the organisation is to be kept informed of what is expected of him, how he is to contribute to attain the goals and target set, to keep in touch with between peers, superiors and juniors and even outside parties he comes across as a part of his job. Though communication is the process of sharing the ideas in common, it is pouring the ideas into the heads of others to have the intended meaning that leads expected understanding and action. However, communication styles differ from individual to individual. The same thing is put clearly to others to have intended understanding and sharing into action. These styles may be symbolic or non-symbolic, detailed or briefed, humorous or serious and so on. What is important is to get the result what is expected. Communication gaps or mistakes are really costly resulting in misunderstanding, confusion and chaos.

7. Attitudes

Employee attitudes are the beliefs, feelings and action tendencies of an individual or a group of individuals towards objects, ideas and people. An attitude is a mental state of readiness, learned and organised through experience, exerting a specific influence on a person's response to people, object and situations, with which it is related. Attitudes are learnt predispositions towards aspects of outer environment. They may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, service or institutions. Attitude is also a prejudice in which a person prejudices an issue without giving unbiased consideration to all evidence. If I am prejudiced against a person, who is accused of a crime, I may regard him as guilty regardless of the evidence. It is equally true that one is prejudiced in favour of something or someone.

In case of Primary Dimensions of individual differences, three points are worth waffling. These are: 

1) Some specific primary dimension may have a powerful impact on an individual's life. Take religion or caste, it has an unduly deep impact on some persons. As a resuit, a person who gives top importance to religion or caste, enjoying a position of an authority, favours employees who belong to his religion or caste. Like religion, nationality has its impact. Thus, Japanese business houses prefer persons of their own nationality. This is true in case of almost all countries, exceptions apart.

2) Primary dimensions of individual difference are salient to other people in that they tend to be noticed. Thus, youngsters love to gather and mingle with youngsters and elderly with like age groups. 

3) Primary dimensions of individual differences are more likely to be associated with prejudices or stereotypes. These are more visible and vibrant. "Prejudice" is an unjustified attitude. Generally, prejudice is against a person or a thing. "Stereotyping" is judging someone on the bases of one's perception of characteristics of the groups to which that person belongs.

As opposed to primary dimensions, the Secondary Dimensions of individual differences are comparatively less visible to others. In addition to this, their power to influence a given person's lite varies from time to time.

Individual Differences and Modern Organisations

The truth that individual differences among the employees is much more significant to an organisation than those of differences in skills. It is so because of three points - 

1. The concept of individual differences is more concerned with basic differences in the capacity or ability of a person, Hence, individual differences can play a significant role as to how well a person performs his job and even whether he gets the job. 

2. Knowledge of an employee's characteristics enables an organisation to place him in the position or work role that matches his abilities and interests. 

3. Modern organisations are getting bigger and more complex and managers are faced with growing diversity among the work-force. This has made manager's job pretty challenging. Managers will have to modify their training and development programs to suit the individual abilities. 

Take the case of our own country. The upliftment of the disadvantaged sections of the society in our national policy under Indian Constitution. However, most of the employees belonging to backward classes, particularly those who are from rural areas, are below average level in their language and human skills. Hence, training program in industrial and commercial, both governmental and private organisations, will have to be designed so that these deficiencies are evened out.

Outstanding Features of Individual Differences

When we notice, we come across two outstanding features of individual differences. These are quantitative and continuous.

1. Qualitative Differences

Individual differences among the people are quantitative and not qualitative. We can not say that some persons have a characteristic, and other do not. For instance, one can not say that a person has a height, weight or intelligence, and another lacks these. They differ from person to person in level or degree.

2. Continuous Differences

These individual differences not sharp and exact, but continually varying. If a person is to classify the persons by height, weight, colour of the skin, level of intelligence not in exact terms, this classification will in two categories say, "taller" and "shorter", "darker" and lighter", "intelligent" and "dullard". If he speaks of exact terms - say 7 feet and 5 feet in case of height - what about others who are taller than 7 feet and shorter than 5 feet? Hence, the differences are not sharp or exact, but are continuous.

When one measures these differences as to whether height, weight, intelligence or say interest in music or magic, comedy or tragedy, the normal distribution worked by experts says that majority of the average but fall between the extremes. The normal distribution course of pattern is that 68.26 percent are below average and another 15.87 percent are below average and another 15.87 percent are above average. Of these, extremes only 0.13 percent are either very much below the average and another 0.13 percent very much above average.

Inter-Individual and Intra-Individual Differences

Irrespective of the nature and size of the organisation, one comes across two kinds of differences amongst the employees, namely inter and intra-individual differences.

"Inter-individual differences" are differences in a particular characteristic amongst various people. They differ in the level of intelligence, aptitude for a given work, interest in the job and so on.

"Intra-individual" differences are differences among the various characteristics possessed by the same person. Mr. Johny has been working with the organisation, for say the last 15 years. He is proficient, still another Mr. Paul is more proficient. Mr. Jonny is losing interest in his job while Paul has shown keen interest in his work. If one compares the job-profiles having certain parameters, say outdoor, mechanical, computational, scientific, persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, social service or a clerical and so on, a person has a strength over others and weaknesses in others. This study of strengths and weaknesses will help a personnel manager to place him well to get best out of him.

Work-Force Diversity

Diversity is a naked truth, which every organisation has to accept and live along without. The issue of diversity of work-force is applicable to all the organisations of all the nations, whether they are highly advanced, advancing or not advanced. This fact makes essential that organisations will have to be proactive and develop skills and abilities for managing this work-force diversity.

What Forces Increase This Diversity

Though there can be more forces increasing this work-force diversity, following are the most important one, which are explained as under :

1. Increased Number of Unexpected Type of Workers

In the present day organisations, one witnesses more and more female workers, older employees, well-educated personnel and these persons are from different cultural groups. If one speaks of India, earlier only Brahmin community people were found occupying various top and middle positions. However, now things have changed, where we have people from different castes including disadvantaged and disabled persons.

2. Legal Protection

In almost all countries, there are laws that are designed and implemented to provide equal job opportunities to one and all. As a result, discrimination against women, religions and castes have disappeared. In fact, some organisation and individuals are facing law suits in regard to sexual harassment at work and ill-treatment on some flimsy grounds. Wide publicity is given to such cases on various news channels, which reaches every home.

3. Diversity Turns Work-force More Competitive

It is the experience of the present day organisations that this work-force diversity is a boon in disguise as it turns work-force more competitive. It is true that those companies, which are known for non-discrimination, are more likely to attract the best possible gifts to employees, irrespective of age, sex, cultural background and so on.

4. Improved Decisions

Diversity of work-force enables the organisations to get differing and light throwing view points on the decisions, which are made by the organisations. The employee suggestions will be worth million dollar consultancy. In case of Reebok Company, women employees pointed out that there are no good shoes available for doing exercises. This was respected and aerobic shoes were introduced, which brought name and fame to the company in addition to profit.

5. Organisations Are Going Global

More and more organisations are moving from the original place of "local players" to most coveted post of "global players". In global market, those companies, which have maximum workforce diversity, find easier to deal with customers with differing social status and cultures and subcultures.

How To Manage Successfully Work-Force Diversity?

All over the world, the business leaders, consultants and researchers have learnt that managing successfully the work-force diversity is a rich source of competitive advantage. American corporations believe in this as they employ people from almost all countries of the east and west. The reason as why Americans have maximum noble laureates each year is due to the fact that America welcomes people from all countries to contribute their best. If Americans landed on the Moon, there is a brain of India behind it. Following steps are helpful in managing this work-force diversity. These are:

1. Take Affirmative Actions

Affirmative action involves granting equality of opportunity in the organisation. Affirmative action is a legal requirement. Thus, women and disadvantaged persons or persons belonging to weake sections - and work-challenged persons whom we call as handicapped, want not preferential treatment, but opportunity to work on merit bases.

2. Value the Work-force Diversity

Valuing the work-force diversity calls for creating an environment that permits everyone to feel valued, respected and accepted. This is a tough step that involves series of management education and training programs.

3. Managing Work-Force Diversity

Managing work-force diversity calls for creating suitable organisational changes that encourage and support the people to perform to best of their potentialities. It is a matter of focussing on changing organisational culture in such manner that permits to achieve highest degree of productivity. A study conducted by Ann Morrison of U.S.A. in case of 16 organisations, that managed successfully workforce diversity, showed that there are three strategies work towards this, namely Education, Enforcement and Exposure.

The Ways Of Managing Work-Force Diversity

The secret of managing the work-force diversity lies in the point that the organisation should turn multi-cultured unit. A multi-cultural organisation is one, which permits people of variety of cultures and subcultures as social groups come together in the vital corporate decision making. Because of "glass ceiling effect", no company or corporation has turned multi-cultured. However, it is quite encouraging of late that the CEOs are no not only the gents but ladies are allowed to occupy the coveted posts. This is also not practiced in India, both in service industrial undertakings, but product industrial undertakings as has been reported from time to time by famous business magazines of India. namely "Business Today", "Business World" and "Business India". On international scene, Fortune. Business Week, Time, The Economist - they have brought to light how underprivileged and minorities have been elevated to the highest post. The following techniques do contribute towards mending and ending work-force diversity in organisations. These are :

1. Accountability Practices

Accountability practices are related with manager's responsibility to treat the widespread diverse employees fairly. So to do this managers must learn two things, namely handling diversity and developing empathy.

"Handling diversity" is to mix freely with diverse employees, communicate with them with all types irrespective of age, sex, status, debilities. Unfortunately, most executives feel to respond to diversity. In Indian companies, which are best known for working such as INFOSYS, SEIMENS, PHILIPS. RELIANCE, TATAS, JOHNSON & JOHNSON, HLL, REDDY LABS, WIPRO and so on, the managers are to learn more about each groups personal values and the individuals like to be treated. This learning process the managers are to encourage employees, where they are to be told frankly where they stand. Where they are expected. This process helps in matching the behaviour of employees with the expected pattern of organisation or group behaviour. This irons out work-force diversity.

Developing empathy is equally important. Empathy helps the managers to understand the definite view points of different types of employees. Empathy is the ability to put oneself in another's position and see the things from that person's angle. It is otherwise called as seeing world from the sight angle of another. For instance, managers take special pains to promote women, socially disadvantaged persons. work challengeable persons or physically handicapped, partly because of legal commandments. However. it is not realised that because of the fear of failure, some of the employees do not want higher managerial positions. It is empathy that injects the confidence in case of different persons to move out of fear and contribute their best. This changes the very structure of work-force and the organisation stands to benefit as loyal workers are there and the dangers of work-force diversity are reduced to a very great extent.

2. Developing Viable Practices

The onus of these business practices is to prepare diverse employees for greater responsibilities and advancement. Here mentoring plays a significant role. Mentors offer emotional support to the employees and provide instructions in special skills for successful job performance. This helps in improving their proficiency. It is well-known practice of coaching where senior managers take this challenge.

3. Judicious Recruitment Practices

Sound recruitment practices are built on matching the abilities of a person and that a job in question needs these expected abilities. These sound practices of recruitment and selection attract really qualified applicants, who are fit and willing to accept really challenging jobs. Such employees practices reduce considerably labour turnover and absenteeism on one hand and organisation will have experienced. loyal and committed employees, who have job security and satisfaction.

In a nutshell, whether one likes it or not, there will be work-force diversity, which has to be reduced and totally killed by different managerial strategies and practices at any rate, because we want perfect match between an employee and organisation. We will have to bring what is known as "employee fit" in the settings of an established organisation, because real organisation made by good employees. who show great unity in diversity.