Section 1 - Gender and Sex
MAIN IDEA QUESTION
What are the major differences between male and female gender roles?
VOCABULARY
gender - the perception of being male or female
gender roles - the set of expectations, defined by a particular society, that indicate what is appropriate behavior for men and women
sexism - negative attitudes and behavior toward a person based on the person's gender
gender schema - a mental framework that organizes and guides a child's understanding of information relevant to gender
Throughout our lives, the way others think of us, and even the ways we view ourselves are based to a large extent on whether society labels us as a woman or a man - our gender. Gender is the perception of being male or female. Sex and gender are not the same; sex typically refers to the sexual anatomy and sexual behavior, whereas gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society.
GENDER ROLES: SOCIETY'S EXPECTATIONS FOR WOMEN AND MEN
Our conclusions about what is or is not "appropriate" behavior for others and ourselves are based on gender roles. Gender roles are a set of expectations, defined by a particular society, that indicate what is appropriate behavior for men and women. Gender roles may result in favoritism and stereotyping. Stereotypes about gender roles are reflected in sexism - negative attitudes and behavior toward a person that are based on the person's gender.
~People in Western societies generally hold well-defined stereotypes about men and women, regardless of age, economic status, and social and educational background. Men are more apt to be viewed as having traits involving competence, such as idnependence, objectivity, and competitiveness. In contrast, women tend to be seen as having traits involving warmth and expressiveness, such as gentleness and awareness of others feelings. These perceived differences are biased in favor of men, since competence is more valued in Western society than warmth and expressiveness.
~In addition, cross cultural research (a 25-nation study) found a core set of descriptors that were consistently used to describe men and women. (PPT) In most societies, men receive a somewhat higher status than women. By shaping beliefs about hwo both should behave, inequality stays alive. Stereotypes put pressure on people to fulfill them, rather than act in accordance with their own abilities.
SEXISM ON THE JOB
Differences exist in what occupations are deemed appropriate for men and women. Females are seen as best suited for pink-collar jobs - secretary, nurse, cashier, and jobs in other female-dominated professions that often feature low pay and low status. Women hold lower expectations than men about their entering and peak salaries. Although the gap has been decreasing, women earn an average of 80 cents for every dollar that men earn. Black women earn 69 cents for every dollar men earn. Even when in the same profession and position, women generally earn less than men.
~Attitudes are shifting. Most people endorse gender equality. Both men and women equally endorse the idea that jobs should be family friendly by offering flexible work schedules. Polls today find that most men no longer believe that a woman's most appropriate role is to care for her home and children, while men shoudl be earning money. In the 1970s, the majority of men endorsed the opposite.
~Professional women who become mothers face obstacles; they tend to be perceived as warm but less competent than before motherhood. Men who become fathers on the other hand, are viewed to be warm and competent.
~Many women hit what has come to be known as the glass ceiling - an invisible barrier that may prevent women from being promoted beyond a certain level because of gender discrimination. EX: Although women fill 29% of science and engineering jobs at U.S. educational institutions, they occupy only 15% of those positions at the top 50 research universities.
Sexual Harassment
Women - even those in high status professions - may face workplace sexism in the form of sexual harassment, defined as unwanted sexual attention, the creation of a hostile or abusive environment, or explicit coercion to engage in unwanted sexual activity. One-fifth of women say they have been sexually harassed at work. 10% of men report experiencing sexual harassment on the job.
~30% of female graduates at one large California university reported receiving some form of harassment.
~81% of middle and high school students reported recieving some form of sexual harassment in school. 6 in 10 experienced physical sexual harassment at some point in their school lives. One-third of students are afraid of being sexually harassed; girls more than twice as likely to report a concern. Estimates show that 50% of women will be harassed at some point in their academic or working careers.
~Sexual harassment often has more to do with power than sex. In some cases, it results from benevolent sexism - stereotyped and restrictive attitudes that on the surface appear to be beneficial to women. EX: A male employer may compliment a woman on her attractiveness or offer her an easy job so that she won't have to "work so hard." Such actions may undermine an employee's competence, and she may feel she is not being taken seriously.
~Regardless of the cause, the consequences of sexual harassment are clear; Feelings of shame and embarrassment are standard and may be compounded by a sense of helplessness and powerlessness because targets of harassment are typically in lower-status positions. People in these situations often suffer emotional and physical consequences, and the quality of their work may decline. They are less likely to believe they can attain higher positions.
GENDER DIFFERENCES: MORE SIMILAR THAN DISSIMILAR
Gender stereotyping, combined with other factors, results in actual differences in behavior of men and women. It is important to remember that men and women are more similar in most respects than they are different. We are measuring the average male and female differences, not individual ones. EX: If we find that males are more talkative than females - as research shows they are despite the stereotype - an individual man can be less talkative than most women. Furthermore, a single woman could be more talkative than most men.
~It is imperative to note the difference between the average and the individual.
Personality Factors
One of the most pronounced differences between men and women lies in their degree of aggressive behavior. By the time they are 2, boys are more aggressive than women... and this continues for the remainder of the life span. Women experience greater anxiety and guilt about their aggressiveness and are more concerned about the effects on their victims than men.
~Men generally have a higher self-esteem than women, although the difference is not large. Women's self-esteem is influenced primarily by their independence and connection with others. Men's self-esteem reflects more from their assessment of their unique characteristics and abilities, traits that help them distinguish themselves from other people.
~In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men. (PPT) Such self-perceptions matter because they influence motivation as well as academic and career choices. They even influence performance. When women experience stereotype threat - the perception that a performance measure is sensitive to gender differences - their performance declines.
~Women's speech is more precise, however their speech patterns lead others to believe they are tentative and less assertive. EX: Women often raise their pitch at the end of a sentence and add "tags" to it. --> "It's awfully warm today, isn't it?" rather than saying, "It's awfully warm today." This makes her appear less certain of her opinion.
~In conversations with people of the other sex, women look at their partners significantly more while listening than while speaking (communicating cooperation)... whereas men look at their partners the same length of time for listening and speaking (communicating power). Women are generally better than men at decoding others' facial expressions.
Cognitive Abilities
No differences exist in overall IQ scores, learning, memory, problem-solving, and concept-formation tasks. Current evidence suggests that gender differences in cognitive skills are minimal. Particular tests of mathematical and verbal skills do elicit differences in performance. EX: Mathematics scores on the SAT, in which the very highest scores were mostly male. Furthermore, one study found that when men and women named particular objects, such as tools and plants, their brains were activated in different ways depending on their experience with the objects. In short, gender differences are complex and we still do not have the full story on differences between men and women when it comes to their cognitive abilities.
SOURCES OF GENDER DIFFERENCES: WHERE BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY MEET
People are treated differently on the basis of sex from the time they are born. We must take into account biological and social factors when we try to understand the source of gender differences. Neither alone can provide a full explanation for gender differences.
Biological and Evolutionary Factors
Do differences between male and female brains underlie sex and gender differences?
EX: Girls who were exposed before birth to high levels of androgen, a male hormone, because their mothers accidentallty took a drug containing that hormone while pregnant, preferred different toys from those girls not exposed to androgen. They were more likely to play with toys that boys typically use (such as cars) and less likely to play with "female" toys (such as dolls). It is possible that exposure to certain hormones may alter brain development, making children favor toys that involve certain kinds of skills, such as those related to spatial abilities.
~Research shows that women perform better on tasks involving verbal skill and muscular coordination during periods when their production of estrogen is relatively high. They better perform on tasks involving spatial relationships when estrogen production levels are low.
~Men are more jealous in cases of sexual infidelity than in cases of emotional infidelity; women are the reverse. According to this research, conducted by David Buss, the differences in jealously lie in evolutionary causes. For males, sexual infidelity represents a threat to their ability to ensure that their children are actually their own - females have no doubt. The major concern for women is ensuring the male's protection and support during child rearing. Emotional attachment is crucial.
~In the division of labor between men and women, psychologists argue this stems from males across cultures being more aggressive, competitive, and prone to taking risks - traits that had an evolutionary advantage.
~Some psychologists argue that these differences in beliefs about infidelity are the actual cause of jealousy, as opposed to a result of evolution. EX: Men may believe that women only have sex when they are in love. This belief will produce jealousy more than emotional infidelity alone would. In contrast, women may believe that men are capable of having sex without being in love; therefore, they may find sexual infidelity less bothersome because it does not mean he is in love with someone else.
~Other psychologists argue that physical differences can be attributed to the division of labor. Men's strength, size, and speed versus women's capacity for pregnancy and caring for children.
The Social Environment
Blue for boys, pink for girls. Form birth, boys and girls are given different types of toys and colors. Toys have been laid out according to gender appropriateness.
~Parents interact with their children differently according to sex. Fathers play more roughly with their infant sons. Middle-class mothers tend to talk more to their daughters than their sons. Such differences in behavior produce social experiences for men and women. Socialization is the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior. In this case, it applies to men and women. According to the processes of social learning theory, boys and girls are taught and rewarded for performing the socially perceived appropriate behaviors for men and for women.
~Aside from just parents, society as a whole communicates clear messages to children as they are growing up. Children's reading books portray girls in nurturing roles, whereas boys are given the more physical and action-oriented roles. Men outnumber women on television, and women are often cast as a housewife, secretary, and mother. Data shows that the more television children watch, the more sexist they become.
~Our educational system treats boys and girls differently. In elementary school, boys are five times more likely to receive attention from their teachers. Boys receive more praise, more criticism, and remedial help than girls. Boys are more praised for intelligence shown in their work, while girls are more praised for their neatness. In college, male students receive more eye contact from professors than female students, they are called upon more frequently in class, and are more apt to receive extra help from their professors.
~Socialization produces a gender schema - a mental framework that guides a child's understanding of information relevant to gender. Children begin to behave in a way that reflect's society's gender roles.
Section 2 - Understanding Human Sexual Response: The Facts of Life
MAIN IDEA QUESTION
Why, and under what circumstances, do we become sexually aroused?
VOCABULARY
androgens - male sex hormones secreted by the testes
genitals - the male and female sex organs
estrogens - class of female sex hormones
progesterone - a female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries
ovulation - the point at which an egg is released from the ovaries
erogenous zones - areas of the body that are particularly sensitive because of the presence of an unusually rich array of nerve receptors
excitement phase - the period in which an arousing stimulus begins a sequence that prepares the genitals for sexual intercourse
plateau phase - the period in which the maximum level of arousal is attained, the penis and clitoris swell with blood, and the body prepares for an orgasm
orgasm - the peak of sexual excitement, during which rhythmic muscular contractions occur in the genitals
resolution stage - the interval after orgasm in which the body returns to its unaroused state, reversing the changes brought about by arousal
refractory period - a temporary period that follows the resolution stage and during which the male cannot develop an erection again
Individual sexual fantasies vary in degree by the individual. Still, sex is an important consideration in most people's lives; although the physical aspects of human sex are not all that different from those of other species, the meaning, values, and feelings that humans place on sexual behavior elevate it to a special plane.
THE BASIC BIOLOGY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Sexual behavior has a biological basis. Sexual behavior in dogs, for example, appears to occur naturally without much prompting on the part of others. A number of genetically controlled factors influence the sexual behavior of nonhuman animals. It is affected by the presence of certain hormones in the blood. Female animals are receptive to sexual advances only during limited periods of the year.
Human sexual behavior, by comparison, is more complicated, although the underlying biology is not all that different from related species.
~In males, the testes begin to secrete androgens, male sex hormones, at puberty. Not only do androgens produce secondary sex characteristics, such as growth of body hair and deepening of the voice, they also increase sex drive. Levels of androgen production remains fairly constant, resulting in men being capable of (and interested in) sexual activities without any regard to biological cycles. Male sexual behavior can occur at any time, given the proper stimuli leading to arousal.
~Women show a different pattern. When they reach maturity at puberty, two ovaries begin to produce estrogens and progesterone, female sex hormones. These hormones are not produced consistently, instead following a cyclical pattern. The greatest output occurs during ovulation, when an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chance of fertilization by a sperm cell the highest. Females in other species are only receptive to sex during this time, while humans are different. Although there are variations in reported sex drive, women are receptive to sex throughout their cycles.
~Some evidence suggests males have a stronger sex drive than females, although the difference may be the result of society's discouragement of female sexuality rather than of innate differences between men and women. It is clear that men think about sex more than women; 54% of men report thinking about sex every day, with only 19% of women reporting that they think about it on a daily basis.
~Biological factors "prime" people for sex, but it takes more than hormones to motivate and produce sexual behavior. In animals the presence of a partner who provides arousing sexual stimuli leads to sexual activity. Human are considerably more versatile; not only other people but nearly any object, sight, smell, sound, or other stimulus can lead to sexual excitement. People may be turned on by the smell of perfume or the sound of a favorite song, based on prior associations. The reaction to a specific, potentially arousing stimulus, as we shall see, is highly individual - what turns one person on may do just the opposite for another.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SEXUAL EXCITEMENT: WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON?
If you were to argue that the major human sex organ is the brain, in a sense, you would be right. Much of what is arousing has little to do with our genitals, instead it is related to external stimuli that through a process of learning, have come to be labeled as erotic, or sexually stimulating.
~There are nbo areas of the body that automatically produce sexual arousal when touched. Areas of the body, called erogenous zones, that have an unusually rich array of nerve receptors are particularly sensitive not just to sexual touch, but to any kind of touch. When a physician touches a breast or penis during an exam, the information sent to the brain by the nerve cells is essentially the same as that sent when a sexual partner touches that spot. What differs is the interpretation given to the touch. Sexual arousal is likely only when we are touched in a way that people would define as a sexual manner, and when a person is receptive to sexual activity.
~Although individual stimuli varies, there is a good deal of agreement within a society or culture about what usually represents an erotic stimulus. In many Western societies, breast size is often the standard by which female appeal is measured... but in many others, it is irrelevant.
~Sexual fantasies also play a role in arousal. People have fantasies of a sexual nature in their everyday activities - about 60% of all people have fantasies during sexual intercourse. Often times, the fantasies include having sex with someone other than the partner they are with at the moment.
~Men's and women's fantasies differ little with each other in terms of content or quantity, although men seem to fantasize about sex more than women do. Both men and women wish they kissed more, engaged in more oral sex, and had vaginal intercourse more frequently than they actually do.
THE PHASES OF SEXUAL RESPONSE: THE UPS AND DOWNS OF SEX
We all share some basic aspects of sexual responsiveness. Sexual responses follow a regular pattern consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
~In the excitement phase, which can last a few minutes to an hour, an arousing stimulus begins a sequence that prepares the genitals for sexual intercourse. In the male, the penis becomes erect, and in the female, the clitoris swells, both caused by blood flow to those areas. The vagina also becomes lubricated, with women also sometimes experiencing a "sex flush" - a red rash that typically spreads over the chest and throat.
~Next comes the plateau phase, the body's perparation for orgasm. The maximum level of arousal is attained as the penis and clitoris swell with blood. Women's breasts and vaginas expand, heartbeat and blood pressure rise, and breathing rates increase. Muscle tension becomes greater as the body prepares for orgasm - an intense, highly pleasurable experience. When the orgasm stage is reached, rhythmic muscular contractions occur in the genitals every eight-tenths of a second. Males expel semen from the penis, a process known as ejaculation. For men and women, breathing and heart rates reach their maximum.
~After orgasm, people enter the final stage of sexual arousal; the resolution stage. The body returns to a resting state, reversing the changes brought about by arousal. The genitals, blood pressure, breathing, and heart rate all return to normal size, shape, and rate.
~Male and female responses differ significantly during the resolution stage. Women are able to cycle back to the orgasm phase and experience repeated orgasms. In contrast, it is generally thought that men enter a refractory period during the resolution stage. During the refractory period, men are unable to develop an erection and therefore unable to have another orgasm. The refractory period may last from a few minutes to several hours; in the elderly it may be several days.
Section 3 - The Diversity of Sexual Behavior
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What is "normal" sexual behavior?
How do most people behave sexually?
How prevalent are rape and other forms of nonconsenting sex, and what are their causes?
What are the major sexually transmitted infections?
What sexual difficulties do people most frequently encounter?
VOCABULARY
masturbation - sexual self-stimulation
heterosexuality - sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex
double standard - the view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females
extramarital sex - sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse
homosexuals - persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex
bisexuals - persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex
transsexuals - people who believe they were born with the body of the other gender
rape - the act by which one person forces another person to submit to sexual activity
date rape - rape in which the rapist is either a date or a romantic acquaintance
sexually transmitted infection (STI) - a disease acquired through sexual contact
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) - a sexually transmitted infection caused by a virus that destroys the body's immune system
erectile dysfunction - a male's inability to achieve or maintain erection
premature ejaculation - a male's inability to delay orgasm as long as he wishes
inhibited ejaculation - a male's inability to ejaculate when he wants to, if at all
anorgasmia - a female's lack of orgasm
inhibited sexual desire - a sexual dysfunction in which the motivation for sexual activity is restrained or lacking entirely
Early thoughts on masturbation...
"A boy who practices this habit can never be the best that Nature intended him to be. His wits are not so sharp. His memory is not so good. His power of fixing his attention on whatever he is doing is lessened... A boy like this is a poor thing to look at... He is untrustworthy, unreliable, untruthful, and probably even dishonest." - Schofield & Vaughan-Jackson, 1913
"There is hardly an end to the diseases caused by masturbation: dyspepsia, spinal disease, headache, epilepsy, various kinds of fits... impaired eyesight, palpitation of the heart, pain in the side and bleeding at the lungs, spasm of the heart, and sometimes sudden death." - Gregory, 1856
Clearly, sex and sex-related behavior are influenced by expectations, attitudes, beliefs, and the state of medical and biological knowledge in a given period. Sexual behavior may take diverse forms, and much of what was once seen as "unnatural" and "lewd" is often more likely to be accepted in contemporary society. Sexual behavior that is commonplace in one culture is seen as appalling in others. EX: Seven societies are known in which kissing never occurs. Distinctions between normal and abnormal sexual behavior are not easy to draw. Despite the facts, people still try to draw them, however.
APPROACHES TO SEXUAL NORMALITY
One approach is to define abnormal sexual behavior in terms of deviation from the average, or typical behavior. We simply observe what behaviors are rare and uncommon in a society and label those deviations from the norm as abnormal.
The difficulty with such an approach, however, is that some behaviors that are statistically unusual hardly seem worthy of concern. EX: Even though most people have sexual intercourse in the bedroom, does the fact that someone prefers sex in the dining room imply abnormality? EX: If some people prefer heavier partners, are they abnormal in a society that holds slimness in high regard? Since the answer to both of these questions is clearly no, an approach that defines sexual abnormality in terms of deviation from the average is inappropriate.
An alternative approach would be to compare sexual behavior against some standard or ideal. Still, there is a problem: What standard should we use? Some will consider philosophy, some might turn to the Bible, and some might even consider psychology as the ultimate determinant. The problem is, none of these standards will be universally acceptable. This approach is also undesirable since societal attitudes tend to shift as new knowledge is gained. EX: 40 years ago, the American Psychiatric Association labeled homosexuality a mental illness. Evidence to the contrary accumulated, and the organization in 1973 determined that homosexuality should not longer be considered a mental illness. The behavior had not changed, only the label given to it had been modified.
In light of the problems above, the most reasonable definition of sexual normality is one that considers the psychological consequences of the behavior. In this approach, sexual behavior is considered abnormal if it produces a sense of distress, anxiety, or guilt - or if it is harmful to some other person. According to this view, sexual behaviors can be seen as abnormal only when they have a negative impact on a person's sense of well-being or if they hurt someone else.
It is important to note that what is seen as normal and abnormal are dictated primarily by societal values; there have been dramatic shifts from one generation to another in definitions of what constitutes appropriate sexual behavior. People can and should make their own personal value judgments about what is appropriate in their own sex lives, but there are few universally accepted rights and wrongs.
SURVEYING SEXUAL BEHAVIOR: WHAT'S HAPPENING BEHIND CLOSED DOORS?
For most of recorded history, sexual parctices remained shrouded in ignorance. In the late 1930s, biologist Alfred Kinsey launched a series of surveys on the sexual behavior of people in the United States. Kinsey's work represented the first systematic approach to learning about human sexual behavior. He and his colleagues interviewed tens of thousands of people, using exemplary interview techniques which are able to elicit information without leaving the interviewee feeling embarrassed.
One problem, however, was Kinsey's samples reflected an overrepresentation of college students, young people, well-educated individuals, urban dwellers, and people living in Indiana and the northeast. It is also difficult to assess how accurately people's descriptions of what they do in private match their actual sexual practices.
Kinsey's work set the stage for later surveys. Surprisingly, few comprehensive, large-scale, representative surveys (in the U.S. and elsewhere) have been carried out. However, by examining the common results gleaned from different samples of subjects, we now have a reasonably complete picture of contemporary sexual practices.
Masturbation: Solitary Sex
If you listened to physicians 75 years ago, you would have been told that masturbation would lead to a wide variety of physical and mental disorders, ranging from hairy palms to insanity. If those physicians had been correct, most people would be wearing gloves to cover up the hair palms. Some 94% of all males and 63% of all females have masturbated at least once; among college students, the frequency ranges from "never" to "several times a day."
Men and women typically begin to masturbate for the first time at different ages. (PPT) Men masturbate considerably more often than women, although there are differences in frequency according to age. Male masturbation is most common in the early teens and then declines; females both begin and reach a maximum frequency later. Racial differences also exist; African-American men and women masturbate less than whites do.
Although it is often considered an activity to engage in only if no other sexual outlets are available, this view bears little relationship to reality. Close to three-fourths of married men (age 20 to 40) report masturbating an average of 24 times a year, and 68% of married women in the same age group masturbate an average of 10 times a year.
Despite the high incidence of masturbation, the negative attitudes of yesteryear still persist. One survey found that around 10% of people who masturbated experienced feelings of guilt; 5% of the males and 1% of the females considered their behavior perverted. Despite these views, most experts on sex view masturbation as a healthy and legitimate - and harmless - sexual activity. Masturbation is seen as a means of learning about one's sexuality and a way of discovering changes in one's body such as the emergence of precancerous lumps.
HETEROSEXUALITY
Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex consists of far more than male-female intercourse. Kissing, petting, caressing, massaging, and other forms of sex play are all components of heterosexual behavior. Still, sex researchers' focus has been on the act of intercourse, especially in terms of its first occurrence and frequency.
Premarital Sex
Until fairly recently, premarital sex (especially for women), was considered one of the major taboos in our society. Women have been warned by societies that "nice girls don't do it"; men have been told that premarital sex is okay for them, but they should marry virgins. This is called a double standard.
~There has been a dramatic change in public opinion since the 1960s - when the majority of adult Americans believed premarital sex was wrong. In 1972, 16% of adults between the ages of 45-54 said sex before marriage is not wrong at all. By 1998, 48% of adults in the same age group say sex before marriage is not wrong. While adult acceptance has steadily increased, young adult acceptance has shown minor decline. In 1972, 8% of adults between the ages of 18-24 said it is always wrong to have sex before marriage. By 1998, that number increased to 17% for the same age group. ~Today, 60% of Americans say premarital sex is okay, and more than half say that living together before marriage is okay.
Changes in attitudes were matched by actual rates of premarital sexual activity. The most recent figures show that more than half of women aged 15 to 19 have had premarital sexual intercourse (double the number from 1970). Males have also shown an increase, though the numbers were high to begin with so the increase is minor. The first surveys conducted in the 1940s showed an incidence of 84% of men of all ages havign premarital sex. Recent figures have grown to 95%. Almost half of males have had sexual intercourse by the age of 18... by the time they reach 20, the number is at 88%.
~Racial differences exist. EX: African Americans tend to have sex for the first time earlier than Puerto Ricans, who have sex earlier than whites. Socioeconomic and family opportunities are believed to play a factor. Ages of first intercourse vary across cultures.
~There is a convergence of male and female attitudes on this matter. Will this end the double standard? Probably. The new view for younger people is known as permissiveness with affection. Premarital intercourse is permissible to most young people of today if it occurs within a long-term, committed, or loving relationship. Where double standards do remain, however, attitudes are almost always lenient toward the male.
Marital Sex
Married couples are often concerned that they are having too little sex, too much sex, or the wrong kind of sex. The frequency is often a large question. What is typical? There is no easy answer since there are such wide variations in patterns between individuals. The current numbers show 43% of married couples have sex a few times a month, and 36% of couples having it two or three times a week. With increasing age and length of marriage, frequency declines.
18-24 = 8 times per month
25-34 = 9 times per month
35-44 = 8 times per month
45-54 = 7 times per month
55-65 = 5 times per month
~Although research found extramarital sex to be widespread, the current reality appears to be otherwise. According to surveys, 85% of married women and 75% of married men are faithful to their spouses. The median number of sex partners inside and outside of marriage since the age of 18 was six for men and two for women. There is a high, consistent disapproval of extramarital sex, with 9 of 10 people saying that it is "always" or "almost always" wrong.
HOMOSEXUALITY AND BISEXUALITY
Homosexuals are sexually attracted to members of their own sex, whereas bisexuals are attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex. Many male homosexuals prefer the term gay and female homosexuals prefer the term lesbian because they refer to a broader array of attitudes and lifestyles than the term homosexual, which focuses on the sexual act.
Estimates suggest that around 20-25% of males and about 15% of females have had at least one gay or lesbian experience during childhood. Most experts suggest that 5-10% of both men and women are exclusively gay or lesbian.
~Although most people view homosexuality and heterosexuality as two completely distinct sexual orientations, the issue is not that simple. Research has shown there is a full continuum of sexual behavior between 'exclusively homosexual' and 'exclusively heterosexual.' In the middle, people showed both heterosexual and homosexual behavior. Alfred Kinsey's approach showed that sexual orientation is dependent upon a person's sexual feelings and behaviors and romantic feelings. The Kinsey scale is designed to define the degree to which sexual orientation is heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.
0 - Exclusive heterosexual behavior
1 - Primarily heterosexual, but incidents of homosexual behavior
2 - Primarily heterosexual, but more than incidental homosexual behavior
3 - Equal amounts of heterosexual and homosexual behavior
4 - Primarily homosexual, but more than incidental heterosexual behavior
5 - Primarily homosexual, but incidents of heterosexual behavior
6 - Exclusively homosexual behavior
~What determines whether people become homosexual or heterosexual? Although there are a number of theories, none has proved completely satisfactory. Some explanations are biological, suggesting that there are genetic causes. Evidence comes from studies of identical twins. The odds of both identical twins identifying themselves as the same sexuality is very high. Such results occur even for twins who have been separated at birth.
~Hormones may also play a role. EX: Women exposed to DES before birth (a drug taken to avoid miscarriage), were more likely to be homosexual or bisexual.
~There is evidence that differences in brain structures may be related to sexual orientation. EX: The structure of the anterior hypothalamus - an area of the brain that governs sexual behavior - differs in male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Gay men have been found to have a larger anterior commissure, which is a bundle of neurons connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
~There is a very real possibility that some inherited or biological factor exists that predisposes people toward homosexuality if certain environmental conditions are met.
~On the contrary, there is very little evidence that suggests that sexual orientation is brought on by child-rearing practices or family dynamics. Research evidence simply does not support such theories.
~Another explanation rests on learning theory... that sexual orientation is learned through rewards and punishments. EX: A young adolescent who has an unpleasant heterosexual experience might develop disagreeable associations with the other sex. EX: If a person had a rewarding gay or lesbian experience, homosexuality might be incorporated into the person's sexual fantasies. If such fantasies are used during later sexual activities, such as masturbation, they may positively be reinforced through orgasm.
Although the learning theory is plausible, several difficulties rule it out. Because homosexuality is traditionally held in our society with low esteem, one ought to expect the negative treatment of homosexual behavior would outweigh the rewards attached to it. Futhermore, children growing up with a gay or lesbian parent are statistically unlikely to become homosexual. These realizations contradict learning theory outright.
~It seems unlikely that any single factor orients a person toward homosexuality or heterosexuality. A combination of biological and environmental factors seems to be involved.
~One thing we know for sure; there is no relationship between sexual orientation and psychological adjustment. Gays, lesbians, and bisexuals enjoy the same quality of mental and physical health that heterosexuals do, although the discrimination they face may produce higher rates of some disorders, such as depression. As a result of research and evidence fortifying these realities, the American Psychological Association and other major mental health organizations have endorsed efforts to eliminate discrimination against gays and lesbians, such as revoking the ban against homosexuals in the military.
TRANSSEXUALISM
Transsexuals are people who believe they were born with the body of the other gender. Transsexuals sometimes seek sex-change operations in which their existing genitals are surgically removed and the genitals of the desired sex are fashioned. Several steps precede surgery, including intensive counseling, hormone injections, and living as a member of the desired sex for several years... which is quite complicated. The outcome though, can be very positive.
Transsexualism is part of a broader category known as transgenderism, a category which also includes transvestites - who dress in clothes of the other gender and believe the traditional male-female classifications inadequately characterize them. Transsexuals are distinct from individuals known as intersex (formerly hermaphrodite). An intersex person is born with an atypical combination of sexual organs or chromosomal or gene patterns. In some cases they are born with male and female sex organs, or the organs are ambiguous. It is a rare condition found in one in 4,500 births. Intersexism involves a complex mix of physiological and psychological issues.
SEXUAL DIFFICULTIES
When sex - an activity that should be pleasurable, joyful, and intimate - is forced on someone, it becomes one of the ultimate acts of brutality and aggression, and few crimes produce such profound and long-lasting consequences. Furthermore, few personal difficulties produce as much anxiety, embarrassment, and even shame as sexually transmitted infections and sexual dysfunctions.
Rape
Rape occurs when one person forces another person to submit to sexual activity such as intercourse or oral-genital sex. Although it usually applies to a male forcing a female, rape can occur when members of either sex are forced into sexual activities without consent.
~Rape occurs far more frequently than commonly thought, and rapists are typically acquiantances of their victims. Most research suggests that there is a 14-25% chance that a woman will be the victim of a rape during her lifetime. More than 200,000 sexual assaults are reported to police in the United States each year... with only about one-third of rapes and sexual assaults actually being reported, making the actual figure much higher.
~A study of 35 universities revealed that one out of every eight female college students reported having been raped. About half said the rapists were first dates, casual dates, or romantic acquiantances - a phenomenon called date rape.
~Girls in high school also suffer both sexual and physical abuse. In one survey, 9% of 14-18 year old high school girls said they had been forced into sexual activity by a date... and in more than half of those cases, the incident had been accompanied by hitting, slapping, or shoving.
~The likelihood of rape is considerably lower among Latino women in comparison to non-Latino white women, while the rate for black women is slightly higher than white women. This may stem from differing cultural views of women and male dominance.
~In many cases, rapists use sex as a means of demonstrating power and control over the victim. In such cases, there is little that is sexually satisfying about the rape to the rapist; instead, the pelasure comes from forcing someone else to be submissive.
~In other cases, the primary motivation is anger. Sexual behavior is used to show the rapists rage at women in general, usually because of some perceived rejection or hurt that he has suffered in the past. Such rapes are likely to include physical violence and degrading acts against the victim.
~Some rapes are based on a desire for sexual gratification. To some men, sexual encounters represent a form of "war" between the sexes - with winners and losers - and violence is sometimes considered an appropriate way to obtain what they want.
~Finally, there is a common, although unfounded, societal belief that many women offer token resistance to sex, saying no to sex when they mean yes. If a man holds such a view, he may ignore a woman's protestations that she doesn't want sex.
~The repercussions of rape are devastating to the victims. During a rape, women experience fear, terror, and physical pain. Later, victims report shock, disbelief, panic, extreme anxiety, and suspiciousness. These feelings may remain for years, even though the victim outwardly appears to have recovered.
Childhood Sexual Abuse
One form of sexual behavior that is surprisingly common yet little understood is the sexual abuse of children. Because most cases go unreported, statistics are difficult to obtain. Experts estimate that each year a half million children are sexually abused. Between 5-10% of boys and 20% of girls will be abused at some point.
~Who commits child sexual abuse? In most cases it is a relative or acquaintance; in only about one-quarter of the cases is the abuse carried out by a stranger. The most vulnerable ages for being molested is between 7 and 13; the abusers tend to be about 20 years older than their victims. In most cases the abuser is a male heterosexual. There are increasing numbers of child predators using the web to make contact with potential victims.
~The short and long term consequences can be extremely damaging. Initially, victims report fear, anxiety, depression, anger, and hostility. Long-term effects may include depression, self-destructive behavior, feelings of isolation, poor self-esteem, and substance abuse.
~Although they may experience sexual difficulties later in life, the victims are not more likely to become sexual abusers themselves. The consequences of childhood sexual abuse are related to the specific nature of the abuse. Experiences involving fathers, genital contact, and the use of force are the most damaging.
Statistics
~70-90% of abuse is committed by a person who knows the child
~Family members make up one-third to one-half of abusers of girls, and 10-20% of abusers of boys
~88% of childhood rape cases go unreported
~10% of abusers are women
~90% of abusers are men
~Each year, 500,000 children in the United States are sexually abused
~1 or 2 of every 20 boys will be abused during childhood
~4 of every 20 girls will be abused
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
Millions of people suffer the discomfort - not to mention the psychological distress - of a sexually transmitted infection (STI), a disease acquired through sexual contact. Estimates suggest that one in five people in the United States is infected with one form of STI, and at least one in four will probably contract a STI during their lifetimes. The U.S. has the highest rate of sexually transmitted infections of all the economically developed countries in the world in part because people in the United States don't talk about sex as frankly or receive as much sex education as people in other developed nations.
These are the major STIs:
~Chlamydia - a disease in women that produces no symptoms and in men causes a burning sensatio during urination and a discharge from the penis
~Genital herpes - a virus that appears as small blisters or sores around the genitals that later break open
~Trichomoniasis - an infection in the vagina or penis caused by a parasite which can cause painful urination and intercourse, a discharge from the vagina, itching, and unpleasant odor
~Gonorrhea - an infection which can produce a burning sensation during urination or a discharge from the penis or vagina
~Syphilis - begins as a small sore at a point of sexual contact and can effect the brain, heart, or developing fetus
~Genital warts - small lumpy warts that form on or near the penis or vagina. They look like cauliflower bulbs and are caused by the human papilloma virus.
~AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), is a leading cause of death among men and women between ages 25-44. Already, 25 million people have died from AIDS, and 33 million live with the disease currently.
*There are several ways to reduce the risk of contracting STIs...
-Know your sexual partner
-Avoid the exchange of bodily fluids, particularly semen
-Stay sober
-Consider the benefits of monogamy
Sexual Problems
Sexual difficulties are often a source of concern and self-consciousness because of the importance that society places on "desirable" sexual conduct. Such difficulties are surprisingly common, with more than 40% of women and about one-third of men experiencing problems associated with sexual performance.
~Erectile dysfunction is a male's inability to achieve or maintain an erection. In rare cases some males have never been able to have one. About 5-10% of men under tha age of 50 have erection problems. The ability to achieve and maintain an erection is sensitive to alcohol, drugs, performance fears, anxiety, and a host of other factors. Drugs such as Viagra have brought about significant advances in the treatment of erectile dysfunction and have brought it out in the open through a constant barrage of commercials on television and in magazines. Viagra treats erectile dysfunction by increasing the flow of blood through a man's penis and producing an erection relatively quickly.
~Premature ejaculation is a male's inability to delay orgasm as long as he wishes. This is a difficult disorder to diagnose, since attitudes and expectations vary among individuals and their partners. This is most often a psychological problem since there are rarely physical reasons for it. One reason this can develop is sexual experiences in adolescence which are often rushed for fear of being caught, reaching orgasm as quickly as possible.
~Inhibited ejaculation is the opposite problem. In this case the male is unable to ejaculate when he wants to, if at all.
~Some women experience anorgasmia, or lack of an orgasm. In primary cases, a woman has never had an orgasm, while in secondary cases, a woman has had an orgasm at some point but no longer does so or only does so under certain conditions.
~Finally, inhibited sexual desire occurs when motivation for sexual activity is restrained or lacking entirely.