Section 1 - What Is Intelligence?
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence?
What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure?
VOCABULARY
intelligence - the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
g or g-factor - the single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
fluid intelligence - intelligence that reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory
crystallized intelligence - the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations
theory of multiple intelligences - Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence
practical intelligence - according to Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success
emotional intelligence - the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
intelligence tests - tests devised to quantify a person's level of intelligence
mental age - the age for which a given level of performance is average or typical
intelligence quotient (IQ) - a score that takes into account an individual's mental and chronological ages
reliability - the property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
validity - the property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure
norms - standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test
EX: Members of the Trukese tribe in the South Pacific often sail a hundred miles in open ocean waters. Although their destination may just be a small dot of land less than a mile wide, the Trukese are able to navigate precisely toward it without the aid of a compass, chronometer, sextant, or any of the other sailing tools that are used by Western navigators. They are able to sail accurately even when the winds do not allow a direct approach to the island and they must take a zigzag course.
At the same time, they would not be able to identify their position or say why they are doing what they are doing. They would not be able to explain the navigational theory underlying their sailing technique. If Trukese sailors were given a Western standardized test of navigational knowledge and theory - or even a traditional test of intelligence - they might do poorly on it.
Some people might say the inability of the Trukese to explain in Western terms how their sailing technique works is a sign of primitive or even unintelligent behavior. Despite their inability to explain how they do it, the Trukese are able to navigate successfully through the open ocean waters.
It is clear from this example that the term intelligence can take on many different meanings.
EX: Intelligence in a remote part of the Australian outback might be demonstrated through hunting skills, whereas someone in urban Miami might demonstrate intelligence by being "streetwise" or achieving success in business.
Each of these conceptions of intelligence is reasonable. Each represents an instance where more intelligent people are better able to use the resources of their environment than are less intelligent people - despite the fact that they represent very different views of intelligence. For years psychologists have grappled with devising a general definition of intelligence.
~Westerners idea of intelligence - ability to establish categories and debate rationally
~Eastern and African idea of intelligence - understanding and relating to one another
To psychologists, intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges. Still, psychologists work to answer a key question; Is intelligence a unitary attribute, or are there different kinds of intelligence?
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: ARE THERE DIFFERENT KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE?
Are you a good writer who lacks certain abilities in math? Or maybe you view yourself as a "science" person who easily masters physics but has few strengths in interpreting literature. Regardless, an important question exists; Is intelligence a single, general ability, or is it multifaceted and related to specific abilities?
Early psychologists studying the question believed there was a single, general factor for mental ability, called g, or the g-factor. This was based on testing... and it was found that those who did well in one content, generally did well on others. Those who did poorly on one test tended to do poorly on others (regardless of content - math, verbal competency, spatial visual skills, etc.).
More recent theories explain intelligence in a different light, considering it to be a multidimensional concept that includes different types of intelligence.
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Some psychologists suggest there are two different types of intelligence; fluid and crystallized. Fluid intelligence reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. EX (fluid): solve an analogy, group a series of letters according to a certain criterion, remember a set of numbers).
On the other hand, crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situations... reflecting our ability to call up information stored in long term memory. EX (crystallized): participate in a discussion about the solution to the causes of poverty, a task which allows us to draw on our own past experiences and knowledge of the world. Crystallized is more a reflection of the culture in which a person is raised.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: The Many Ways of Showing Intelligence
Psychologist Howard Gardner, instead of asking "How smart are you?," asks "How are you smart?" He developed a theory of multiple intelligences that has become influential. He argues that we have a minimum of eight different forms of intelligence, all independent of one another: musical, bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpresonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Each form is linked to an independent system in the brain. He posits that everyone has all eight, but to different degrees. While all eight are independent in their basis, they still may work together. This concept has led to the development of intelligence tests which include questions in which more than one answer may be correct, providing test takers the opportunity to use creative thinking.
Is Information Processing Intelligence?
Some newer contributions have come from cognitive psychologists who take an information-processing approach. They assert that the way people store information in memory and use that information to solve intellectual tasks provides the most accurate measure of intelligence. This approach examines the processes involved in producing intelligent behavior.
Research shows that people with high test scores spend more time on intial encoding stages of problems - identifying parts of a problem and retrieving relevant information from long term memory - than do people with lower scores.
Other approaches examine the sheer speed of processing. Research shows that the speed with which people are able to receive information from memory is related to verbal intelligence. In general, people with high test scores on intelligence tests react more quickly on a variety of information processing tasks.
THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF INTELLIGENCE
Researchers have identified several areas of the brain which relate to intelligence. Brain-scans of people taking intelligence tests show activation in a similar location; the lateral prefrontal cortex. This area of the brain is critical to juggling many pieces of information simultaneously and solving new problems. Higher intelligence is related to the thickness of the cerebral cortex.
Similarly, tasks requiring different types of intelligence involve different areas of the brain. When tasks require more global intelligence, more areas of the brain are involved. These findings suggest there is a global "workspace" in the brain that organizes and coordinates information, helping to transfer material to other parts of the brain. The activity in the workspace represents general intelligence.
Research in nonhumans has helped us to understand the biological underpinnings of intelligence. EX: Rats raised in enriched environments (environment with more toys, tunnels, and so on) develop more complex connections between neurons along with more rapid learning and better memory.
PRACTICAL AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: TOWARD A MORE INTELLIGENT VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE
EX: An employee who reports to one of your subordinates has asked to talk with you about waste, poor management practices, and possible violations of both company policy and the law on the part of your subordinate. You have been in your present position only a year, but in that time you have had no indications of troubel about the subordinate in question. Neither you nor your company has an "open door" policy, so it is expected that employees should take their concerns to their immediate supervisors before bringing a matter to the attention of anyone else. The employee who wishes to meet with you has not discussed this matter with her supervisors because of its delicate nature.
~Your response to this situation has a lot to do with your future success in a business career, according to psychologist Robert Sternberg. This question is one in a series designed to help give an indication of your intelligence. This is not a traditional intelligence question, but one that is developed to target intelligence of a specific kind; practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is intelligence related to overall success in living. Traditional intelligence tests were designed to relate to academic success, but some research shows that these test results do not relate especially well to career success.
~Sternberg argues that practical intelligence is learned mainly through observation of others' behavior. Practical intelligence tests measure the ability to employ broad principles in solving everyday problems.
~In addition to practical intelligence, Sternberg argues that there are two other basic, interrelated types of intelligence related to life success: analytical and creative. Analytical tests focus on abstract but traditional types of problems (such as an IQ Test), while creative intelligence involves the generation of novel ideas and products.
~Emotional intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the basis for empathy for others, self-awareness, and social skills. It encompasses the ability to get along well with others and provides us with an understanding of what other people are feeling and experiencing which permits us to respond appropriately to others' needs.
Q: Are these skills so important they should be taught in schools? Some argue yes, while others suggest it is best left to students' families because there is no well-specified criteria for what constitutes emotional intelligence.
MAJOR APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE
ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE
With the differing approaches, it is no surprise that measuring intelligence has proved challenging. Psychologists have focused on the development of intelligence tests and have relied on such tests to quantify a person's level of intelligence. The tests have been of great use for providing educational needs to students, while at the same time remaining controversial.
~Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) was the first psychologist to suggest that intelligence could be quantified and measured in an objective manner. (Even though he believed that the size and shape of one's head was indicative of their intelligence level).
Binet and the Development of IQ Tests
The first real intelligence tests were developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. He used a simple premise: if performance on certain tasks or test items improved with chronological, or physical, age, performance could be used to distinguish more intelligent people from less intelligent ones within a particular age group. He began by developing tests in the Paris school system, targeting those students who had been labeled "bright" or "dull" by their teachers. If a task could be completed by the "bright" students and not the "dull" ones, he retained that task as a proper test item: otherwise it was thrown out.
~On the basis of the Binet test, children were assigned a score relating to their mental age - the age in which a given level of performance is average or typical. EX: If the average 8-year-old answered 45 items correctly on a test, anyone who answered 45 items correctly would be assigned a mental age of 8 years.
~Using mental age alone did not account for the relative degree of intelligence. EX: We might assume that an 18-year-old responding at a 20-year-old's level would be demonstrating the same degree of intelligence as a 5-year-old answering at a 7-year-old's level... when actually the 5-year-old would be displaying a much greater relative degree of intelligence.
~A solution to the problem came in the form of an intelligence quotient, (IQ), a score that takes into account an individual's mental and chronological ages. The first IQ scores employed the following formula: IQ score = (MA/CA) x 100 (MA = mental age, CA = chronological age).
EX from above: (20/18) x 100 = 111
EX from above: (7/5) x 100 = 140
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Although the basic principles behind the calculation of an IQ score still hold, today IQ scores are determined in a different manner and are known as deviation IQ scores.
1. The average test score for everyone of the same age who takes the test is determined, and that average score is assigned an IQ of 100.
2. With the aid of statistical techniques that calculate the differences (or "deviations") between each score and the average, IQ scores are assigned.
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence
Binet's test has been revised in significant ways, though some remnants still remain. It is now in its fifth edition and called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, consisting of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested. The test is administered orally and includes verbal and nonverbal assessments. The examiner finds the mental age level where the tester is able to answer all questions at that mental age level. When a mental age level is reached in which no questions are answered, the test is over. By studying the pattern of correct and incorrect responses, the examiner is able to compute an IQ score for the person being tested. Furthermore, it provides us with other indices as to the test takers strengths and weaknesses.
~The IQ tests more frequently used in the United States were devised by psychologist David Wechsler and are known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV, or more commonly, the WAIS-IV. There is also a children's version, the WISC-IV. Both measure verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
EX questions;
-Who wrote Tom Sawyer?
-Why is copper often used for electrical wires?
-Three women divided 18 golf balls equally among themselves. How many golf balls did each person receive?
-In what way are a circle and a triangle alike?
Reliability and Validity: Taking the Measure of Tests
We hope that psychology tests have reliability - that they measure consistently what they are trying to measure.
EX: Suppose you took the SAT and scored a 400, then took it again three months later and scored a 700. We would have to question whether the test was reliable.
EX: Suppose you took the SAT and your score changed hardly at all. This is evidence of reliability.
~Now, let's assume that you consider your verbal skills as above average, but the results didn't back this up. You might question if the test measured what it was supposed to measure. This would be a matter of validity - when a test measures what it is actually supposed to measure.
NOTE: A test might be reliable, but not valid. However, if a test is unreliable, it is not valid.
~Validity and reliability are prerequisites for intelligence tests, as well as any other measurement test carried out by psychologists. Assuming that a test is both reliable and valid, there is one further step which must be taken; the establishment of norms. Norms are standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on a test to the scores of others who have taken the same test. For example, a norm permits test takers to know they have scored, say, in the top 15% of those who have taken the test previously. Tests for which norms have been developed are known as standardized tests. Test designers develop norms by calculating the average score achieved by a specific group of people for whom the test has been designed. The people used to determine norms must be representative of the individuals to whom the test is directed.
ADAPTIVE TESTING: USING COMPUTERS TO ASSESS PERFORMANCE
In computerized versions of tests such as the Graduate Record Exam, a test used to determine entrance to graduate school, not only are the test questions viewed and answered on a computer, but the test itself is individualized. With adaptive test-taking, each person does not receive identical questions. The computer first selects a random question of moderate difficulty and then develops the rest of the test based on answers to each question presented. (EX: See board)
Section 2 - Variations in Intellectual Ability
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
How are the extremes of intelligence characterized?
How can we help people reach their full potential?
VOCABULARY
mental retardation (or intellectual disability) - a condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
fetal alcohol syndrome - the most common cause of mental retardation in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy
familial retardation - mental retardation in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family
intellectually gifted - the 2%-4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130
Individuals with deficits in intellectual abilities can lead full, rounded lives and in some cases perform well in certain kinds of academic endeavors. More than 7 million people in the United States, including around 11 per 1,000 children, have been identified as far enough below average in intelligence that they can be regarded as having a serious deficit.
*Individuals with low IQs (people with mental retardation or intellectual disabilities) as well as those with unusually high IQs (the intellectually gifted) require special attention if they are to reach their full potential.
MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES)
Mental retardation (or intellectual disabilities, as it is more frequently being called) occurs in 1%-3% of the population. Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. There is a lack of uniformity in how experts apply the labels mental retardation and intellectual disabilities. People labeled mentally retarded vary from those who can be taught to work and function with little special attention to those who cannot be trained and are institutionalized throughout their lives.
~Most people with mental retardation have relatively minor deficits and are classified as having mild retardation. These individuals have IQ scores ranging from 55 to 69, and constitute 90% of those with mental retardation. They can function quite independently by adulthood and are able to hold jobs and have families of their own.
~With greater degrees of intellectual deficit - moderate retardation (IQs of 40 to 54), severe retardation (IQs of 25 to 39), and profound retardation (IQs below 25) - the difficulties are more pronounced.
Moderate - deficits are obvious early, with language and motor skills lacking behind those of their peers. Although they can hold simple jobs, they need a moderate degree of supervision throughout their lives.
Severe & Profound - generally unable to function independently and typically require care for their entire lives
Identifying the Roots of Mental Retardation
In nearly one-third of cases there is an identifiable cause related to biological or environmental factors. The most common preventable cause is fetal alcohol syndrome, produced by a mother's use of alcohol while pregnant. Even small amounts of alcohol intake can produce intellectual deficits. One in every 750 infants is born with fetal alcohol syndrome in the United States.
~Down syndrome represents another major cause of retardation. This is the result of someone being born with 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46. There is usually an extra copy of the 21st chromosome, leading to problems in how the brain and body develop.
~In other cases, an abnormality occurs in the structure of particular chromosomes. Birth complications, such as a lack of oxygen, may also cause retardation. Mental retardation can also occur after birth following a head injury, a stroke, or infections such as meningitis.
~The majority of cases, however, are classified as familial retardation, in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family.
Integrating Individuals with Mental Retardation
In the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, passed by Congress in the mid-1970s, it was stipulated that people with retardation are entitled to a full education and that they must be educated and trained in the least restrictive environment. This facilitated their integration into regular classrooms as much as possible - a process known as mainstreaming.
~The philosophy behind mainstreaming suggests that the interaction of students with and without mental retardation in regular classrooms will improve educational opportunities for thsoe with retardation, increase their social acceptance, and facilitate their integration into society as a whole.
~Special education classes do still exist as some individuals function at too low a level to benefit from placement in regular classrooms. Those who are mainstreamed typically attend special classes for at least part of the day.
~Some educators argue that full inclusion might be more effective. Full inclusion is the integration of all students, even those with the most severe educational disabilities, into regular classes and an avoidance of segregated special education classes. Full inclusion is still controversial and is not yet widely applied.
THE INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED
The intellectually gifted differ from those with average intelligence as much as individuals with mental retardation although in a different manner. Accounting for 2%-4% of the population, the intellectually gifted have IQ scores greater than 130. (EX: One who graduates college at the age of 12).
~There is an existing stereotype associated with those who are gifted as typically awkward, shy social misfits who are unable to get along well with peers. Most research indicates that the opposite is true - the intellectually gifted are often the most outgoing, well-adjusted, healthy, popular people who are able to do most things better than the average person can.
~In a study from the 1920s, 1,500 students who had IQ scores above a 140 were followed for the rest of their lives. This group was found to be more physically, academically, and socially capable than their nongifted peers. They showed better social adjustment than the average, performed better in school, had greater career success, received more awards and distinctions, earned higher incomes, and made more contributions in art and literature.
Not every member of the group was successful, of course. A high IQ is not a universal guarantee of success... and a high IQ might be the result of being strong in one or two areas, but still lacking in others.
~Compared to the mentally retarded, programs for the intellectually gifted are more rare. One reason is because the definition of gifted is vague, especially compared with the definitions of mental retardation. There is also a persisent view that the gifted "ought to be able to make it on their own"... if they can't, they really weren't gifted in the first place. More enlightened approaches have acknowledged that without some form of special attention, the gifted become bored and frustrated with the pace of their schooling and may never reach their full potential. Programs for the gifted are designed to provide enrichment that allows participants' talents to flourish.
Section 3 - Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental Determinants
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased?
Are there racial differences in intelligence?
To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment and to what degree by heredity?
VOCABULARY
culture-fair IQ test - a test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
heritability - a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors
If you found the following item on an intelligence test, you would probably complain that the test was totally absurd and had nothing to do with your intelligence or anyone else's - and rightly so;
EX: Kwang is often washed with a pleck tied to a:
a) rundel
b) flink
c) pove
d) quirj
Yet to some people, even more reasonable questions may appear just as nonsensical. Imagine asking a child raised in New York City about the procedures for milking cows... or asking someone raised in a rural area about subway ticketing procedures. The previous experience of test takers would affect their ability to answer correctly.
The issue of devising fair intelligence tests that measure knowledge unrelated to culture and family background and experience is central to explaining an important and persistent finding: Members of certain racial and cultural groups consistently score lower on traditional intelligence tests than do members of other groups.
EX: Blacks, as a group, tend to average 10 to 15 points lower than whites. Clearly, if whites perform better because of their greater familiarity with the kind of information that is being tested, their higher IQ scores are not an indication that they are more intelligent than members of other groups. There is good reason to believe that some standardized IQ tests contain elements that discriminate against minority-group members whose experiences differ from those of the white majority.
EX: What should you do if another child grabbed your hat and ran off with it? -> Most white middle-class children answer that they would tell an adult, an answer that is scored as correct. However, a reasonable response might be to chase the person and fight to get the hat back, the answer that is chosen by many urban black children - but one that is scored as incorrect.
Furthermore, tests may include even subtler forms of bias against minority groups. EX: The traditional Western value of "rugged individualism" means that correct answers to test items may require a test-taker to reason independently of a particular social context. In contrast, the African cultural value of communalism, in which one's group is valued more than individuals, may leave test-takers from that tradition unable to answer a question that provides no information about the social context.
Psychologists have tried to devise items that assess experiences common to all cultures and emphasize questions that do not require language usage in their attempt to create culture-fair IQ tests. The process has been difficult, as past experiences, attitudes, and values almost always have an impact on respondents' answers. Their efforts have left a lingering controversy over differences in intelligence between members of different racial and ethnic groups. In examining these differences, psychologists have had to examine the contributions to intelligence from genetic factors (heredity) and experience (environment). This is the nature-nurture issue that is one of the basic issues of psychology.
~Richard Hernstein fanned the flames of the debate with his mid-1990s book The Bell Curve. The analysis of the IQ differences demonstrated that although environmental factors played a role, there were basic genetic differences between the two races.
For instance; on average, whites score 15 points higher than blacks on traditional IQ tests even when socioeconomic status (SES) is taken into account. Middle and upper SES blacks score lower than middle and upper SES whites, just as lower SES blacks score lower on average than lower SES whites. They concluded that intelligence differences between blacks and whites could not be attributed to environmental factors alone.
IQ and Heritability
Intelligence in general shows a high degree of heritability - a measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic, inherited factors. Research shows the closer the genetic link between two people, the close the IQ scores. Using this research, Hernstein and Murray argued that differences between races in IQ were largely caused by genetically based differences in intelligence.
~Many psychologists reacted strongly to the book. One criticism made is that even when socioeconomic conditions were held constant, wide variations remain among individual households. Furthermore, no one can convincingly assert that the living conditions of blacks and whites are identical even when their socioeconomic status is similar. Moreover, blacks who are raised in economically enriched environments have IQ scores similar to whites in comparable environments. The IQ gap is also shown to narrow considerably after a college education.
~For the concept of intelligence to aid in the betterment of society, we must examine how individuals perform and not the groups to which they belong.
The Flexibility of Intelligence: The Flynn Effect
Intelligence is more flexible and modifiable than originally envisioned. There has been a long-term increase in IQ scores since the early 1900s - the average person gets more items correct on today's IQ test than the average person several generations ago. This is known as the Flynn effect, after its discoverer James Flynn. EX: The average 20-year-old today scores roughly 15 points higher than a 20-year-old in 1940.
The cause of the Flynn effect is not clear. Flynn and others argue that it is a result of people matching their genetic gifts with their environment... society is increasingly making more demands that people with high intelligence are adept at meeting. Society provides greater opportunities for people with high IQs, and that environment pushes them even more intellectually, creating an increase in overall IQ scores.
Other explanations for the Flynn effect include; better parenting, improvements in the general social environment (education). Whatever the cause, it is not due to evolution because the time period has been too short for such significant changes.
Placing the Heredity-Environment Question in Perspective
Ultimately, there is no final answer to the question of the degree to which intelligence is influenced by heredity and by the environment. Experiments determining cause and effect cannot currently be devised.
~Is there anything we can do to maximize the intellectual development of the individual? If we can find ways to do this, we will be able to make changes in the environment - home and school - that can lead each person to reach his or her potential.