Section 1 - Sleep and Dreams
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What are the different states of consciousness?
What happens when we sleep, and what are the meaning and function of dreams?
What are the major sleep disorders, and how can they be treated?
How much do we daydream?
VOCABULARY
stage 1 sleep - The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves
stage 2 sleep - A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles"
stage 3 sleep - A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep
stage 4 sleep - The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside information
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep - Sleep occupying 20% of an adult's sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming
unconscious wish fulfillment theory - Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled
latent content of dreams - According to Freud, the "disguised" meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects
manifest content of dreams - According to Freud, the apparent story line of dreams
dreams-for-survival theory - The theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep
activation-synthesis theory - Hobson's theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain
circadian rhythms - Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle
daydreams - Fantasies that people construct while awake
THE STAGES OF SLEEP
Stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM sleep. Our brain is quite active during the night, moving through the different stages in cycles of about 90 minutes. During stage 1, images sometimes appear, as if we were viewing still photos, although this is not true dreaming. Stage 2 makes up half of the sleep total for people in their 20s, characterized by slower, more regular wave patterns. It becomes increasingly difficult to awaken someone in stage 2. As you enter stages 3 and 4, brain waves becomes slower with higher peaks and lower valleys... people are least responsive to outside stimulation in stage 4. Stages 3 and 4 are most likely to occur in the early part of the night... the second half of the night is characterized by stages 1 and 2, as well as a fifth part during which dreams occur; REM sleep.
REM SLEEP: THE PARADOX OF SLEEP
Several times a night, when sleepers have cycled back to a shallower state of sleep, REM sleep occurs. This is characterized by an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, irregular heartbeat and the back-and-forth movement of their eyes. This stage occupies a little less than 20% of adult's sleeping time, occuring in stage 1 sleep. The major muscles are paralyzed during this period, and whether or not you remember your dreams, everyone has them during this period. During REM sleep, dreams are most vivid and easy to remember. REM sleep may play a role in learning and memory, allowing us to rethink and restore information and emotional experiences that we've had during the day.
WHY DO WE SLEEP, AND HOW MUCH SLEEP IS NECESSARY?
Total sleep deprivation results in death. From an evolutionary perspective, sleep allowed our ancestors to conserve energy at night when food was hard to come by, and continue to forage and hunt when the sun was up. Sleep restores and replenishes our brains and bodies. Reduced activity of the brain during non-REM sleep allows neurons to repair themselves. Sleep also assists physical growth and brain development in children - as shown by the release of growth hormones during deep sleep.
Scientists have been unable to determine how much sleep is necessary. Most people today sleep between seven and eight hours each night (which is three hours a night less than people slept 100 years ago). There is a large variability amongst individuals, with some needing as little as three hours a night. As people age, they generally need less and less sleep. People who participate in sleep deprivation experiments - for stretches as long as 200 hours - become irritable, can't concentrate, lose creativity, and show a decline in logical reasoning ability. People are able to bounce back quickly from the experiment and show no lasting effects, however, an overall lack of sleep can make us feel edgy, slow our reaction time, and lower our performance on academic and physical tasks.
THE FUNCTION AND MEANING OF DREAMING
You know how utterly convincing the panic and fear are that the events in some dreams can bring about. Nightmares occur fairly often. (Consider the nightmare from the bellwork - panic over a chemistry final).
The average person experiences 150,000 dreams by the age of 70. There are common elements that frequently occur during everyone's dreams, despite the fact that they are often unique to the individual.
Aggression --- 47% in men, 44% in women
Friendliness --- 38% in men, 42% in women
Sexuality --- 12% in men, 4% in women
Misfortune --- 36% in men, 33% in women
Success --- 15% in men, 8% in women
Failure --- 15% in men, 10% in women
Do dreams mean anything? Scientists have examined this question for years and have produced three competing theories.
~Unconscious wish fulfillment theory (Freud) - Dreams represent unconscious wishes the dreamer wants to fulfill. Latent content reveals unconscious wishes. Dreams are disguised by the manifest content of dreams.
~Dreams-for-survival theory - Information relevant to daily survival is reconsidered and reprocessed. Clues are given to everyday concerns about survival. The meaning of the dream is not necessarily disguised.
~Activation-synthesis theory - Dreams are the result of random activationof various memories, which are tied together in a logical storyline
Psychoanalytic Explanations of Dreams: Do Dreams Represent Unconscious Wish Fulfillment?
Developed by Freud, these dreams represent wishes the dreamer wants to fulfill. Because these wishes are threatening to the dreamer's conscious awareness, the actual wishes - the latent content of dreams - are disguised. The true subject and meaning of a dream may have very little to do with its apparent storyline (the manifest content of dreams). Freud believed events in a dream were symbolic (i.e. 'flying' representing 'sexual intercourse'). Most psychologists reject Freud's view, believing that the direct, overt action of a dream is the focal point of its meaning (i.e. walking down the hall to take an exam). Furthermore, tests have shown that the sleeper's environment can influence dreams (i.e. certain subjects sprayed with water while sleeping reported dreams involving water). Here are some symbols that Freud put together...
Sexual Intercourse - climbing a stairway, crossing a bridge, riding an elevator, flying in an airplane, walking down a long hallway, entering a room, train traveling through a tunnel
Breasts - apples, peaches, grapefruits
Male sex organs - bullets, fire, snakes, sticks, umbrellas, guns, hoses, knives
Female sex organs - ovens, boxes, tunnels, closets, caves, bottles, ship
~PET brain scan research does lend a degree of support to Freud's theory, however. The high activation of emotional and motivational centers of the brain during REM sleep (while areas of logical analysis and attention are largely inactive) makes it more plausible that dreams may reflect unconscious wishes and instinctual needs.
Evolutionary Explanations of Dreams: Dreams-for-Survival Theory
Dreams allow us to reconsider and reprocess information which is critical to our daily survival. Dreams represent concern about our daily lives, illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires. They are consistent with everyday living, as opposed to disguised. Research supports this theory, particularly with dreams that pertain to "how-to-do-it" memories related to motor skills. In one experiement, participants learned a visual memory task late in the day. After sleeping and not having their dreams interrupted, their performance on the memory task improved the next day. When awakened during REM sleep, their performance declined.
Neuroscience Explanations of Dreams: Activation-Synthesis Theory
Random electrical energy is produced by the brain during REM sleep. This energy randomly stimulates memories in the brain. Because we need to make sense of the world, even in our sleep, the brain takes this mix-matched, chaotic memories and weaves them into a logical storyline, filling the gaps to produce a rational scenario. This does not completely reject Freud's theory, but it suggests that a particular scenario a dreamer produces is a clue to the dreamer's fears, emotions, and concerns. Hence, a random process begins, then turns into something meaningful.
SLEEP DISTURBANCES: SLUMBERING PROBLEMS
~At one time or another, all of us experience insomnia. This can be related to stressful life events; a breakup, a test score, or the loss of a job. Some cases of insomnia have no obvious cause. Women and older adults, as well as people who are unusually thin or depressed, are more likely sufferers, and insomnia affects roughly 1/3 of all people.
~20 million people suffer from sleep apnea (a condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping). This results in a loss of REM sleep, as some people wake up more than 500 times in a night. Sleep apnea may play a role in SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome), seemingly healthy infants who die while sleeping.
~Night terrors are sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep, usually in stage 4... caused by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal. These are so frightening that a sleeper awakes with a shriek. Victims can usually get back to sleep fairly quickly. Occur most frequently in children between ages 3 and 8.
~Narcolepsy is uncontrollable sleeping that occurs in short bursts while people are awake. No matter what the activity (exercising, heated conversation, or driving), a narcoleptic will suddenly fall asleep. They can go from wakefulness right to REM sleep. The causes are unknown, though probably genetic as narcolepsy runs in families.
~We know relatively little about sleepwalking and sleeptalking, two distrubances which are usually harmless. Both occur during stage 4 and are more common in children. A sleepwalker can walk through a crowded room and around obstructions. Unless walking into a dangerous environment, sleepwalking is harmless. The idea that it is dangerous to wake a sleepwalker is a superstition.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES
Circadian rhythms are biological processes that occur regularly on a 24-hour cycle (such as wakefulness to sleep). Body temperature, hormone production, and blood pressure also follow these rhythms. Circadian cycles are complex and involve a variety of behaviors (i.e. sleepiness occurs not just in the evening, but also around mid-afternoon). Taking an afternoon nap allows people to take advantage of their bodily inclination.
The relative amount of light and darkness, which varies with the seasons throughout the year, plays a role in regulating these rhythms. Some people experience seasonal affective disorder, a form of severe depression in which feelings of despair and hopelessness increase during the winter - a result of the gloom of winter days. Daily exposure to bright light is sometimes sufficient to improve mood.
DAYDREAMS: DREAMS WITHOUT SLEEP
Daydreams are fantasies people construct while awake. Daydreams are mor under people's control, making the content more closely related to events in the environment. Around 2% to 4% of people spend half of their waking time fantasizing... and almost everyone fantasizes to some degree. Studies show people to be fantasizing, on average, 10% of the day. The brain is highly active during daydreaming... especially thr areas associated with complex problem solving.
Trouble sleeping? Here are some tips from psychologists who study sleep disturbances...
1. Exercise during the day (at least six hours before bedtime) and avoid naps
2. Choose a regular bedtime and stick to it
3. Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch
4. Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime
5. Avoid sleeping pills
6. Try not to sleep
Section 2 - Hypnosis and Meditation
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What is hypnosis, and are hypnotized people in a different state of consciousness?
What are the effects of meditation?
VOCABULARY
hypnosis - A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others
meditation - A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness
HYPNOSIS: A TRANCE-FORMING EXPERIENCE?
People under hypnosis are under a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others. How is someone hypnotized? It happens (typically in four steps;
1. Person is made comfortable in a quiet environment
2. The person is told what will happen - that he or she will experience a pleasant, relaxed state
3. The person is told to concentrate on a specific object or image while relaxing certain parts of their body
4. The person is given suggestions by the hypnotist and believes they are in hypnosis - suggestions such as "Your arms are getting heavy" and "Your eyelids are more difficult to open"
~Despite compliance, people do not lose all will of their own. They will not perform antisocial behaviors or carry out acts of destruction, nor will they disclose hidden truths about themselves or quit lying. People cannot be hypnotized against their will, despite popular belief. 5% to 20% of the population cannot be hypnotized at all, while some 15% are very easily hypnotized. People who are easily hypnotized also display the following characteristics;
1) Easily absorbed while reading books or listening to music
2) Very unaware of what is happening around them
3) Spend an unusual amount of time daydreaming
In sum, these people who are easily hypnotized become completely absorbed in what they are doing.
A Different State of Consciousness?
Is hypnosis a different state of consciousness from being awake? The question remains controversial.
~Changes in the electrical activity in the brain are associated with hypnosis, supporting the position that it is of a different state of consciousness. In this view, hypnosis represents a state of divided consciousness. In one stream of consciousness, people follow the demands of the hypnotist, while on the other stream, they act as "hidden observers" aware of what is happening to them.
~On the other side of the controversy, psychologists argue that altered brain-wave patterns are not sufficient to demonstrate a qualitative difference because no other physiological changes occur. Furthermore, little support exists for the contention that adults can remember childhood events accurately while hynotized.
Hypnosis has been used successfully to solve practical human problems.
1) Controlling pain (particularly during childbirth and dental procedures)
2) Reducing smoking (hypnotic suggestions that the taste and smell of cigarettes are unpleasant)
3) Treating psychological disorders (heightens relaxation, reduces anxiety, increases expectations of success, modify self-defeating thoughts)
4) Assisting in law enforcement (witnesses and victims better recall details of a crime under hypnosis)
5) Improving athletic performance (increase concentration)
MEDITATION: REGULATING OUR OWN STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Meditation is a technique which has been used for centuries to alter the state of consciousness. It is a learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. It typically consists of the repetition of a mantra - a sound, word, or syllable - over and over. The key to the procedure is concentrating on something so thoroughly that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness. After meditation, people report feeling thoroughly relaxed and gain new insights into themselves and their problems. Over the long-term, it may improve health because of biological changes it produces, such as; a decrease in oxygen use, decline in heart rate and blood pressure, and changing brain-wave patterns.
Anyone can meditate by following some fundamental steps; 1) sitting in a quiet room with eyes closed, 2) breathing deeply and rhythmically, 3) repeating a word or sound over and over. This should be done twice a day for 20 minutes a session.
Different cultures have had different ways of seeking alteration of consciousness...
Example A - A group of Native-American Sioux men sit naked in a steaming sweat lodge as a medicine man throws water on sizzling rocks to send billows of scalding steam into the air.
Example B - Aztec priests smear themselves with a mixture of crushed poisonous herbs, hairy black worms, scorpions, and lizards. Sometimes they drink the potion.
Example C - During the 16th century, a devout Hasidic Jew lies across the tombstone of a celebrated scholar. As he murmurs the name of God repeatedly, he seeks to be possessed by the soul of the dead wise man's spirit. If successful, he will attain a mystical state, and the deceased's words will flow out of his mouth.
Each of these rituals has a common goal; suspension from the bonds of everyday awareness and access to an altered state of consciousness.
The quest to alter consciousness represents a basic human desire. Variation in states of consciousness share basic characteristics across a variety of cultures. One is an alteration in thinking, which may become shallow, illogical, or otherwise different from normal. People's sense of time and of the physical world or themselves may change... they may lose self-control, doing things they otherwise may never do.
Section 3 - Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness
MAIN IDEA QUESTION
What are the major classifications of drugs, and what are their effects?
VOCABULARY
psychoactive drugs - Drugs that influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior
addictive drugs - Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible
stimulants - Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension
depressants - Drugs that slow down the nervous system
narcotics - Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety
hallucinogen - A drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process
~Drugs of one sort or another are a part of almost everyone's life (vitamins, aspirin, cold-relief medicine, etc.)... 80% of adults have taken over-the-counter medicine within the past 6 months. These drugs rarely produce an altered state of consciousness.
~Some substances, known as psychoactive drugs, lead to an altered state of consciousness. These drugs influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior - even this category of drugs is common in most of our lives (i.e. coffee, beer, etc.). The effects of these drugs on users vary widely because they affect the nervous system in very different ways. Some affect the limbic system, while others block or enhance the release of neurotransmitters.
~Addictive drugs produce a biological or physiological dependence - withdrawal from which can lead to a craving that may be irresistable.
Physiological dependence - the body is so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot go without it
Psychological dependence - people believe they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living
~Why do people use drugs in the first place? There are many reasons, ranging from the perceived pleasure of the experience itself, to the escape that a drug-induced high affords them from the everyday pressures of life, to an attempt to reach a religious or spiritual state. Factors having little to do with the nature of the experience itself, also may play a role; drug use of role models (movie stars or professional athletes), easy availability of illegal drugs, and peer pressure. Genetic factors may predispose some people to be more susceptible to drugs and become addicted to them. Drug addiction is among the most difficult of all behaviors to modify.
STIMULANTS: DRUG HIGHS
Stimulants are drugs which cause a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
Caffeine - produces an increase in attentiveness and decrease in reaction time (found in coffee, soft drinks, and chocolate). Too much can produce nervousness and insomnia.
Nicotine - activates neural mechanisms; found in cigarettes and tobacco
Amphetamines
Amphetamines - (also known as 'speed') stimulate the central nervous system, bringing about a sense of energy and alertness, talkativeness, heightened confidence, and a mood 'high.' They increase concentration and reduce fatigue. They also cause a loss of appetite, increased anxiety, and irritability.
Methamphetamines - produces a strong, lingering high and is now considered the most dangerous street drug. It is highly addictive and relatively cheap. More than 1.5 million people in the United States are meth users, ranging across the social spectrum. Long-term use can lead to brain damage.
Cocaine
Cocaine - produces feelings of profound psychological well-being, increased confidence, and alertness. This is caused by a flooding of the brain with dopamine (instead of the brain reabsorbing the excess dopamine as it normally does, cocaine blocks the reabsorption process, leaving the brain flooded with dopamine). ROughly 2.5 million people in the United States are occasional cocaine users. Heavy use over time can cause mental and physical deterioration.
DEPRESSANTS: DRUG LOWS
Depressants impede the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly.
Alcohol
Alcohol - the most common depressant, used by more people than any other drug. Women are typically lighter drinkers than men, although the gap between the sexes is closing amongst older women and has closed among teenagers. Women are more susceptible to the effects, and abuse may harm the brains of women more than men. Despite being a depressant, most people claim that it increases their sense of sociability and well-being. The discrepancy between the actual and perceived effects are a result of the initial effects of use; release of tension and stress, feelings of happiness, loss of inhibitions. As the amount of consumption increases, the depressive effects become more pronounced - people may feel physically and emotionally unstable, showing poor judgment and acting aggressively. Memory is impaired and brain-processing of spatial information is diminished, with speech becoming slurred and incoherent. Most people are casual users, but statistics show 14 million people - 1 in 13 adults - have a drinking problem. There may be a genetic cause, although the question of an alcoholic gene existing is controversial. We do know that a person's chances of becoming an alcoholic is considerably higher if someone in prior generations of their family was. However, not all alcoholics have close family members who are alcoholics - in which case, environmental stressors are considered to play a larger role.
Barbiturates
Barbiturates - frequently prescribed to induce sleep or reduce stress, they produce a sense of relaxation. When abused or combined with alcohol, they can become deadly
Rohypnol
Rohypnol - also known as the "date rape drug," because when it is combined with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault. Some victims who are unaware they were given the drug become so incapacitated they have no memory of the assault.
NARCOTICS: RELIEVING PAIN AND ANXIETY
Narcotics increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety.
Morphine - used medically for severe pain
Heroin - drug is injected into veins via needle and produces a rush of positive feeling (equal to a sexual orgasm). After the rush, the user experiences 3-5 hours of well-being and peacefulness. When the drug wears off, the user feels extreme anxiety and a desperate desire to repeat the experience. More heroin is needed each time to repeat the same effect. Methadone has been used to help cure heroin addiction by satisfying the physiological craving without giving the user the high.
Oxycodone - a type of pain reliever which has led to a significant amount of abuse.
Hallucinogens: Psychadelic Drugs
Drugs that are capable of producing hallucinations.
Marijuana - effects vary from person to person, but they typically consist of feelings of euphoria and general well-being. Sensory experiences seem more vivid and intense, and a person's self-importance seems to grow. Memory can be impaired, causing users to "space out." The drug tends to magnify the good or bad feelings the user is feeling - making it possible that depressed people who used will feel even more depressed.
MDMA (Ecstasy) and LSD
Both drugs are hallucinogens which affect the operation of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception.
Ecstasy - causes a sense of peacefulness and calm, with users experiencing empathy and connection with others. May produce declines in memory and performance on intellectual tasks
LSD - produces vivid hallucinations. Perceptions of sounds, shapes, and colors are altered so much that even the most mundane experience - such as looking at the knots on a wooden table - can seeming moving and exciting. Time perception is distorted.
Signs when drug use has become abuse...
~Always getting high to have a good time
~Being high more often than not
~Getting high to get oneself going
~Going to work or class while high
~Missing or being unprepared for class or work because you were high
~Feeling badly later about something you said or did while high
~Driving a car while high
~Coming in conflict with the law because of drugs
~Doing something while high that you wouldn't do otherwise
~Being high in nonsocial, solitary situations
~Being unable to stop getting high
~Feeling a need for a drink or a drug to get through the day
~Becoming physically unhealthy
~Failing at school or on the job
~Thinking about liquor or drugs all the time
~Avoiding family or friends while using liquor or drugs