Section 1 - Classical Conditioning
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What is learning?
How do we learn to form association between stimuli and responses?
VOCABULARY
learning - a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
classical conditioning - a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
neutral stimulus - a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
unconditioned response (UCR) - a response that is natural and needs no training (e.g. salivation at the smell of food)
conditioned stimulus (CS) - a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR) - A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. salivation at the ringing of a bell)
extinction - a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
spontaneous recovery - the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
stimulus generalization - a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
stimulus discrimination - the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli
*How do we know when a behavior has been influenced by learning? It is partly related to the nature-nurture question (maturation vs. experience). EX: Children become better tennis players as they grow older. We must differentiate between maturational changes and experiential changes to discover when true learning has occurred.
*Habituation permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information. EX: An infant will show interest in a brightly colored toy, but they will soon lose interest if they see the same toy over and over again. Newlyweds soon stop noticing that they are wearing a wedding ring.
*Ivan Pavlov conducted the first systematic research on learning at the beginning of the 20th century, developing a framework called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning can explain the following phenomena; crying at the sight of a bride walking down the aisle, fearing the dark, and falling in love.
THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In 1927, Pavlov attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure precisely the dog's salivation. He then rang a bell, and a few seconds later presented the dog with meat. After repeating this same cycle, the dog soon began to salivate at the sound of the bell. The dog was classically conditioned to salivate to the bell.
Bell = neutral stimulus
Meat = unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Salivation = unconditioned response (UCR)
***EXPERIMENT***
Bell = conditioned stimulus (CS)
Salivation = conditioned response (CR)
~The sooner a neutral stimulus takes place before an unconditioned stimulus makes it more effective
APPLYING CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR
~Imagine how humans may experience hunger pangs at the sight of McDonald's golden arches. This is classical conditioning, with the previously neutral arches becoming associated with the food inside the restaurant.
~Emotional responses are especially likely to be learned. Fear of mice, spiders, and other creatures? John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted an experiment in 1920 in which an 11-month-old infant, who was scared of loud noises but ok with rats, was exposed to loud noise when petting a white, furry rat. Albert soon after began to show fear of the rat itself, bursting into tears when he saw it.
~Adults may be classically conditioned as well - not going to the dentist as often as they should because of previous associations of pain. In extreme cases, it can lead to the creation of phobias (intense, irrational fears). PTSD can also be sometimes linked to classical conditioning (a rush of fear and anxiety at a stimulus such as a loud noise). On the positive side, you may have a particular fondness for the smell of a certain perfumeor aftershave lotion because thoughts of an early love come rushing back whenever you encounter it. Hearing a certain song can bring about good or bad feelings.
EXTINCTION
If the dog kept hearing the bell and never received the food again, the conditioned response would decrease and eventually disappear. This does not mean it has vanished forever... it can randomly reoccur, known as spontaneous recovery. This can explain why it is so hard to overcome drug addiction.
GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION
~Pavlov noticed that his dogs often salivated at the sound of a buzzer used in place of the bell. This phenomenon is known as stimulus generalization (similar stimuli produce the same response). The 11-month-old infant also became scared of other furry white objects besides rats. Although the response isn't as intense, it still exists to varying degrees (depending on how similar the alternate stimulus is).
~If Pavlov sounded an alarm, which would be considered a similar stimulus, the dog might not salivate. This is known as stimulus discrimination... occurring if two stimuli are different enough from each other so that only the original stimulus produces a conditioned response.
BEYOND TRADITIONAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: CHALLENGING BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Subsequent research has hurt Pavlov's hypothesis that all learning is nothing more than long strings of conditioned responses. Classical conditioning is only a partial explanation of how humans and animals learn. Competing research argues that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli. EX: The ringing bell gives the dog something to think about... the impending arrival of food. Further competing research from John Garcia shows that some organisms - including humans - were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick. EX: If every time you ate peanuts you got an upset stomach, eventually you would learn to avoid peanuts. You may even develop a learned taste aversion, so that peanuts no longer even taste good.
Section 2 - Operant Conditioning
MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS
What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in others?
VOCABULARY
operant conditioning - learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
reinforcement - the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
reinforcer - any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
positive reinforcer - a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
negative reinforcer - an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
punishment - a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
schedules of reinforcement - different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
continuous reinforcement schedule - reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs
partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule - reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time
fixed-ratio schedule - a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
variable-ratio schedule - a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number
fixed-interval schedule - a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low
variable-interval schedule - a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
shaping - the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
behavior modification - a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desired behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
Operant conditioning is the basis for many of the most important kinds of human and animal learning. A voluntary response has been strengthened or weakened - that is, more or less likely to happen. Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on biological processes, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.
THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT
Through his research in 1932, Edward L. Thorndike developed the law of effect, 'responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.' EX: A cat is trapped in a cage, while a piece of food sits just out of reach of the cage. The cat can see and smell the food, and will try vehemently to escape the cage. If there was a secret spot in the cage which, when the cat stepped on it, opened an escape hatch, the cat after several days would learn exactly where the spot is at and step on the spot to get out. The cat doesn't necessarily associate steeping on the spot with eating food.
THE BASICS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Thorndike's research served as the foundation for one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century, B.F. Skinner. Building from Thorndike's research, Skinner wanted to observe how behavior varies as a result of alterations in the environment. EX: Skinner put a hungry rat inside a box, which once inside, wandered around exploring. Inside the box was a lever which, when pressed, would release a pellet of food into the dispenser inside the box. The first time the lever was pressed and the food was dispensed, the rat did not realize the connection, and continued exploring. Eventually the rat would press the lever again and receive another pellet... and in time the frequency of the pressing response will increase to the point of satisfying hunger. The rat, therefore, has learned that the receipt of food is contingent upon pressing the lever.
Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning
The process that leads the rat to pressing the key is called "reinforcement," as coined by Skinner. Pressing the lever is more likely to occur again because of the stimulus of food. The food is the reinforcer - a stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again. Other reinforcers - bonuses, toys, and good grades. What makes something a reinforcer depends on individual preference.
We are not born knowing what a dollar can buy... but we later experience that money is a valuable commodity that we associate with food and other goods which are naturally reinforcing.
Primary reinforcer - satisfies a biological need naturally, regardless of one's experience (EX: food, warmth, pain relief)
Secondary reinforcer - stimulus which becomes a reinforcer because of its association with a primary reinforcer (EX: money)
Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Reinforcements are similar but not the same as rewards. Rewards are only associated with positive consequences. Reinforcers can be positive or negative. Reinforcers increase the preceding responses while punishments decrease them.
Positive reinforcer - a stimulus is added to the environment (EX: Giving a raise for good performance = Increase in response of good performance)
Negative reinforcer - an unpleasant stimulus is removed, (EX: Applying ointment to relieve an itchy rash = Increase in response of using ointment)
Positive punishment - weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus (EX: Getting yelled at for stealing a bracelet = Decrease in the frequency of stealing)
Negative punishment - the removal of something pleasant (EX: Restricting access to a teenager's car due to breaking curfew = Decrease in response of breaking curfew)
The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment
~Punishment has several disadvantages that make its routine questionable. Punishment is frequently ineffective, particularly if not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior or if the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. EX: An employee reprimanded by a boss may quit. A teenager who loses privileges to the family vehicle may borrow a friend's vehicle. Thus, the initial behavior being reprimanded is being replaced by an even less desirable one. ~Physical punishment can convey to the recipient the idea that physical aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable. EX: A father yelling and physically punishing his son conveys the idea that this is an acceptable adult response.
~Punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be. EX: Punishing a student for staring out the window in class may just lead to the student staring at the floor instead.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life's Rewards
What if a poker player never played cards again after losing the first hand? What if a fisherman returned to shore as soon as they missed a catch? The fact that such unreinforced behaviors continue illustrates that reinforcement need not be received continually for behavior to be learned and maintained. Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs is on a continuous reinforcement schedule; if it is reinforced only some of the time, it is on a partial reinforcement schedule. Certain kinds of partial reinforcement schedules produce stronger and lengthier responding before extinction.
Vending machine (continuous) v. Slot machine (partial)
~Some partial reinforcement schedules are stronger than others. Among partial schedules, there are two categories; schedules that consider the number of responses made before reinforcement is given (fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules) and those that consider the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is provided (fixed interval and variable interval).
-Fixed and Variable Ratio Schedules.
Fixed ratio - a rat receives a pellet one out of every ten times it presses the lever = a ratio of 1:10. Also consider a garment worker who receives money for every garment they sew. (apt to work as quickly as possible)
Variable-ratio - consider a telemarketing salesperson who may make a sale on the 8th, 9th, 14th, and 20th calls. (likely to make as many calls as possible in a short amount of time)
-Fixed and Variable-Interval Schedules: The Passage of Time
Fixed-interval - if the period between exams are relatively long, students often study minimally or not at all until the day of the exam draws near, then they cram and hold a high response rate, followed by a major decline in response after the exam
Variable-interval - surprise quizzes that vary from one every three days to one every three weeks... students would be more likely to study more regularly
Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning
~Discrimination - consider the difference between friendliness and romantic interest... people learn to detect nonverbal cues such as increased eye contact or touching. Another example would be waiting until your friend is in a good mood before askign to borrow a CD (you can discriminate between his or her mood)
~Generalization - Learning that being polite helps you get your way in certain situations, you may work to be polite all the time
Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn't Come Naturally
The process of shaping teaches complex behaviors by rewarding closer and closer approximations. Imagine trying to teach a new auto worker how to change a transmission. If you had to wait until they did it perfectly before providing them with reinforcement, this would be a problem. Instead, reinforcement is offered along the way, step by step, which shapes behavior.
Biological Constraints on Learning: You Can't Teach An Old Dog Just Any Trick
Biological constraints are built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors. Some examples...
~It is impossible to teach a pig to pick up a disk because they are biologically programmed to push objects along the ground
~You can condition a raccoon to drop a coin in a piggy bank, but it will only do so after rubbing it against the bank first - just as they would with a fish against the ground right after they catch one to remove the outer covering
~Humans may be genetically predisposed to be fearful of certain stimuli - such as snakes or threatening facial expressions. These threats posed a potential danger to early humans, and there may be an evolved 'fear module' in the brain that is sensitized to such threats.
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning focuses on the association between stimuli, while operant conditioning focuses on reinforcement.
Behavior Modification
A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desired behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. Consider the following example of behavior modification;
A couple began to fight frequently. A psychologist asked them to keep a detailed record of their interactions over a two week period. In reviewing their data, he noticed a pattern - each of their arguments occurred just after one of them had left a household chore undone. From there, he had them list all of the possible chores which could be done and assign a point value to them. He divided the chores up equally (both having the same number of points). If either failed to carry out one of the assigned chores, he or she would have to place $1 per point in a fund for the other to spend. They also agreed to a program of verbal praise, rewarding each other verbally for completed chores. In returning after one month and reviewing the new records, the number of arguments decreased significantly.
Section 3 - Cognitive Approaches to Learning
MAIN IDEA QUESTION
What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
VOCABULARY
cognitive learning theory - an approach to the study of learning that focuses on thought processes that underlie learning
latent learning - learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
observational learning - learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
Consider how people learn to drive a car. There are basic understandings people have from their experience as passengers (putting the key in the ignition, putting the car in drive, pressing the gas pedal, etc.). This understanding does not come from classical or operant conditioning - instead, people use higher order thinking processes involving people's thoughts, memories, and how they process information. The through processes and cognitions which underlie this form of learning is what psychologists call cognitive learning theory. People develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response.
LATENT LEARNING
When a new bahvior is learned but not demonstrated until an incentive is offered, this is known as latent learning. This learning occurs without reinforcement.
EX: A group of rats is allowed to wander through a maze for days without receiving reward. The rats move slowly, made many errors, and took lots of time to reach the end of the maze. In contrast, rats who were rewarded with food at the end, acted more quickly, running directly to the food box with few errors. At the same time, a third group of rats spent ten days in a maze with no rewards, then was given the food reward on the 11th day. This behavior was manipulated to the point that they defeated the maze as efficiently as the group that received a food reward from the beginning.
The rats developed a cognitive map of the maze in their head, but never applied it until there was reason to. These maps are developed in humans, too. Consider one's knowledge of the location of stores at a mall - stores which they have no interest in nor have they ever entered into or purchased anything from.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: LEARNING THROUGH IMITATION
~Learning by watching the behavior of another is called observational learning. This was considered by Albert Bandura to be the social cognitive approach to learning. In his experiment, children were shown a video of an adult wildly hitting a 5-foot-tall inflatable punching toy called a Bobo doll. Children were given the opportunity to play with the doll later on, and most displayed the same kind of aggressive behavior.
~In reverse, children who are afraid of dogs were exposed to a model - the Fearless Peer, playing with a dog. After exposure, observers were more likely to approach a strange dog than were those who didn't observe the Fearless Peer.
~Observational learning is imperative for some learning - consider brain surgery or piloting an airplane. The discovery of mirror neurons that fire when we observe another person carry out a behavior, suggests that our capacity to imitate others may be innate.
~We do not imitate all behaviors - only those in which the model receives a reward for his or her behavior.
Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media's Message Matter?
~By the time of elementary school graduation, the average child in the United States will have viewed more than 8,000 murders and more than 800,000 violent acts on network television. One-fourth of young male offenders incarcerated in Florida attempted to commit a media-inspired copycat crime.
~As for video games, a study of college students who frequently played violent video games established a link in which they were more likely to have been involved in delinquent behavior and aggression, while also having lower academic achievement.
~Real-life exposure to violence also leads to an increase in the likelihood of committing violent acts. Incredibly, the exposure to firearm violence (being shot or being shot at) doubles the probability that an adolescent will commit serious violence over the next two years.