Summary: The threat of terrorism following the September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center in New York City revived the historic conflict between the need for a strong central authority during wartime and the need to maintain civil liberties. President Bush and Congress enacted the Patriot Act, giving the federal government wide powers to investigate terrorists in the United States. The administration argued that policies such as wiretapping the telephones of suspected terrorists without warrants were necessary for security. Civil libertarians stated that the president's actions were unauthorized and probably illegal.
U.S. forces attacked terrorist strongholds in Afghanistan in late 2001. In 2003, U.S. and allied forces invaded Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein. The Bush administration claimed that Iraq was a military threat and a potential terrorist ally. Critics disputed these claims.
At home, America remained politically divided. When sectarian violence broke out in Iraq, public opinion questioned the rationale of the invasion and the continued American military presence there. Social issues such as abortion and gay marriage also caused huge divides in American society.
In the 2006 congressional elections, Democrats gained control of both the Senate and the House of Representatives. National debates continued over the war in Iraq and decisions made by the Bush administration. The presidential election of 2008 took place just as the U.S. economy entered a severe downturn. In the voting, Democratic Senator Barack Obama defeated Senator John McCain for the presidency, and Democrats solidified their control over Congress.
Continued foreign policy debates and severe economic problems challenged the Obama administration from day one. Efforts to revive the economy and to lower the unemployment rate had only mixed results. In Iraq, U.S. military efforts brought some stability, and in 2010, U.S. troops were withdrawn from that country. However, ongoing combats against guerilla fighters in Afghanistan proved frustrating. At home, there were battles over immigration issues and an effort by the administration to expand health care insurance. There was also a rise in anti-government sentiment led by the so-called "Tea Party" movement. The result was Democratic losses in the 2010 congressional elections.
In the 2012 presidential elections, President Obama won a second term, defeating the Republican candidate, former governor Mitt Romney. Obama was supported by a diverse coalition that included large numbers of younger voters, women, minorities, and working class Americans.
Keywords
Neoconservatism: modern American political philosophy that opposes big-government approaches to domestic issues yet favors an interventionist and aggressive foreign policy; most neoconservatives advocated American intervention in Iraq in 2003
9/11 AND ITS AFTERMATH
On September 11, 2001, Saudi Arabian terrorists hijacked four American commercial airliners. Two slammed into the World Trade Center, one crashed into the Pentagon, and the fourth slammed into a field near Pittsburgh (after passengers attempted to seize control of the plane from the terrorists). World opinion stood firmly on the side of the United States in the immediate aftermath of 9/11. It soon became known that Osama bin Laden, living in Afghanistan and protected by the Taliban government there, had helped mastermind the terrorist attack. On September 20, President Bush addressed a joint session of Congress, stating that the United States would prevail in this conflict and that Osama bin Laden would be brought to justice.
The United States and its allies began a military assault on Afghanistan in November 2001; within two weeks, resistance to the American and allied attacks ended, with many members of the Taliban and their supporters fleeing into the mountains between Afghanistan and Pakistan. It was later reported that Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld began to plan for a military invasion of Iraq during this same period. Secretary Rumsfeld and others in the administration followed the policies advocated by an influential group of American thinkers called neoconservatives (or neocons), who wanted to use American might to remake the Middle Eastern region into a democracy. Neocons firmly believed that, to accomplish this, Saddam Hussein had to be removed from power in Iraq.
EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE AMERICAN INVASION OF IRAQ
During his State of the Union address in January 2002, President Bush stated that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea were all part of an "Axis of Evil," and that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (and was close to developing a nuclear weapon). Vice President Dick Cheney urged the president to act quickly and forcefully against Iraq during this period, while Secretary of State Colin Powell suggested a more cautious approach. It was also revealed that, during the months before the attack, both the CIA and FBI had information on the activities of the Al Qaeda terrorists who flew the airplanes on 9/11, but that some of it was not acted upon. President Bush announced the creation of the new Department of Homeland Security, which would attempt to reorganize America's intelligence-gathering organizations.
In his 2003 State of the Union address, President Bush stated that a war against Iraq was not inevitable, and that Saddam Hussein should reveal his weapons programs to United Nations inspectors. At the same time, plans were being developed in the United States military establishment for the invasion of Iraq. During Operation Desert Storm, President Bush's father was successful in creating a strong coalition of nations (including several in the Middle Eastern region) that supported the invasion of Iraq; fewer nations enthusiastically supported American claims that Iraq might have to be invaded again. In his State of the Union address, President Bush stated that he had learned from the British that Iraq had attempted to obtain uranium from Niger, an African country. (Uranium is necessary for nuclear development.) This claim would later become controversial when it would become known that the CIA had already discredited it. The fact that North Korea might possess a nuclear weapon was another very thorny international issue facing the Bush administration.
OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM
On March 18, 2003, American and British forces invaded Iraq and faced only minor resistance as they moved toward Baghdad. (By April 11, most of the city was occupied by American and British army units.) Many Americans viewed with pride the televised scene of Iraqis cheering the pulling down of a statue of Saddam Hussein. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld had led the move in the Defense Department toward an emphasis on smaller, more mobile military units; initial successes in Iraq seemed to vindicate this new approach.
Looting and violence took place in Baghdad and other Iraqi cities in the aftermath of the fall of Saddam Hussein and continued unabated for several weeks. American efforts to bring running water and electricity to citizens in Baghdad and other cities were a very slow process; some Iraqis began to resent the Americans because of this. From the very beginning, Americans attempted to rebuild schools and the basic infrastructure of Iraq; news broadcasts around the world emphasized the violence that became a daily feature of Iraqi life as Kurds, Shiites, and Sunnis (the three major groups in Iraq) began to attack each other. These attacks would only intensify in the ensuing years. In addition, Americans were unable to locate the weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that had been the major justification for the invasion in the first place, and firm connections between Al Qaeda and Saddam Hussein remained elusive.
THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR AT HOME
After the initial euphoria of victory in Iraq wore off, an intense debate developed in the United States over the justification and purpose of American efforts in Iraq. President Bush and others in the administration portrayed the war in Iraq as a crucial part of America's worldwide attack on terrorism; critics of the administration said the war had sidetracked America from its mission of fighting terrorism. Additionally, in July, unnamed officials in the administration were accused of illegally revealing the identity of CIA agent Valerie Plame in order to discredit her husband Joseph Wilson; Wilson had cast doubt on the administration's account of Iraq purchasing uranium from Niger. Eventually, I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Vice President Cheney's chief of staff, was indicted on charges related to this case, and, by 2006, it was suggested that the president himself had authorized the release of this information.
Continued violence in Iraq, the cost of the war, and claims by several former administration officials that President Bush was preparing for war against Iraq even as he was taking office dominated the presidential elections of 2004. Supporters of American efforts in Iraq were cheered by the fact that an interim Iraqi government took power on June 28, 2004; however, the authority of this government remained uncertain. Evidence of American torture of Iraqi prisoners caused many to further question American efforts in Iraq. Many observers stated that photographs of American soldiers humiliating Iraqis at the Abu Ghraib prison seriously undermined the American mission in Iraq.
Democrats chose Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts to oppose President Bush in November. Many Democrats felt that Kerry was the perfect choice as a candidate, since he was a decorated veteran of the Vietnam War and could thus credibly attack the war policies of the president. As the campaign wore on, however, many were unable to comprehend the nature of Senator Kerry's opposition to the war in Iraq, since he had voted to support the resolutions authorizing American efforts in Iraq. (Kerry responded that he opposed the war that was being conducted.) In addition, what each candidate had done during the Vietnam conflict (some 35 years earlier) became a focus of the campaign. Charges that had been lodged against President Bush in 2000 questioning his service in the National Guard resurfaced. A group of "swift boat veterans," several of whom had served with Senator Kerry in Vietnam, questioned the nature of the medals he had won and the nature of the wounds he had received in Vietnam; in addition, they were deeply critical of Kerry's attack on American efforts in Vietnam when he returned home after the war. President Bush also emphasized moral values in his campaign, thus winning the strong support of the "religious right" in America. As a result, President Bush was victorious in the 2004 presidential election; Republican majorities in both the House and the Senate also increased as a result of this election.
THE VICTORY OF CONSERVATISM IN THE BUSH ERA
Many policy initiatives that Conservatives had long desired were either discussed or enacted by the Bush administration and Congress during this era. Gay marriage was a campaign issue in 2004, and, in many states where the president was victorious in the November election, ballot initiatives to allow gay marriage were convincingly defeated. (At the same time, the state of Massachusetts was making gay marriage legal.) In 2004, the president supported and signed legislation expanding the legal rights of human fetuses; pro-choice supporters saw this as part of the Conservative agenda to slowly chip away at abortion rights. In 2005, President Bush nominated two new justices to the Supreme Court, John Roberts and Samuel Alito, who were both considered Conservative; those opposing abortion were hopeful that the Supreme Court might be in a position to overturn the Roe v. Wade case in the near future. In the 2005 Terri Schiavo case, many Conservatives stated that the feeding tube should not be removed from this seemingly brain-dead woman, even though she had reportedly expressed the desire not to be kept alive in such a condition some 10 years earlier (well before she had gone into a coma). In an extraordinary development, Congress passed, and the president signed, a bill authorizing the federal courts to review her case. (Federal courts had previously refused to order the feeding tube reinstated, as did this federal court.)
Conservatives had long desired a decrease in the size of the federal budget and a decrease in taxes; under the Bush administration, these goals were partially achieved. A 2004 bill authorized a sweeping reform of corporate tax law, giving businesses tax breaks that the president stated were necessary to ensure economic prosperity. Taxes on income were also decreased during the Bush administration; the administration stated that all Americans would benefit from this, although critics that these tax cuts largely benefitted the wealthy.
Congress and the Bush administration were unable to find significant ways to decrease government spending; as a result, federal deficits skyrocketed. The administration argued that the war in Iraq and the war on terrorism created a necessary increase in spending on the military and on items related to internal security. Those cuts that were enacted included reductions in farm subsidies, benefits for veterans, and spending on education and the environment. Large-scale reform of the Social Security system, which President Bush had stated to be a top priority on several occasions, was not enacted during his presidency.
Another difficult problem facing the United States during this period was the balance between environmental concerns and the needs of the American economy. President Bush stated in his 2006 State of the Union address that "America is addicted to oil" and that this issue had to be addressed. But proposals to drill for oil in Alaska worried many environmentalists, who were concerned with the impact on presently pristine land, and American car manufacturers were slow in developing hybrid automobiles. President Bush was attacked by environmentalists for a number of his policies, which they claimed served American business interests at the expense of the environment. Ironically, some suggested that after the United States "won" in Iraq, we could import a substantial amount of oil from that country. However, Iraqi oil production remained far below what it had been before the American invasion.
The ultimate success or failure of America's decision to invade Iraq remained uncertain. Certainly, the goal of the neoconservatives to have Iraq serve as a model of democracy in the Middle East was far from being achieved. Public attitudes toward the president were at an all-time low in mid-2006. Much of this concerned the war in Iraq, but it also came from the perceived failure of the administration to deal effectively with the level of devastation caused in 2005 by Hurricane Katrina. Many Americans recall viewing the utter destruction caused by the hurricane in New Orleans and the perception that the administration was horribly slow to respond to the crisis.
Several influential Republicans in Congress were also damaged by their alleged ties with influential lobbyists in Washington; at least two members of Congress resigned as a result of investigations into the influence of such lobbyists, the most famous being Tom DeLay from Texas, the former majority leader of the House of Representatives. By 2006, Republicans controlled the presidency, both branches of Congress, and the Supreme Court. In the fall of 2006 congressional elections, Democrats won control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate for the first time since 1994.
THE UNITED STATES IN TRANSITION: 2007-2008
Democratic gains in the 2006 congressional elections demonstrated the dissatisfaction felt by many with the policies of the Bush administration and the Republican Congress that supported the vast majority of those policies. One day after the election, President Bush announced the resignation of Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, the major architect of American policy in Iraq. In the new Congress, California Democratic Representative Nancy Pelosi became the first female Speaker of the House of Representatives.
At the same time, President Bush announced a new policy in Iraq: a "surge" of an additional 20,000 troops was sent to Baghdad to reduce sectarian fighting between Sunnis and Shiites. On a military level, this policy was a success: from 2007 to 2009 violence was dramatically reduced in Iraq, as were American casualties.
Other problems continued to damage the credibility of the Bush administration in 2007. It was found that returning veterans were receiving inadequate military care at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Lewis "Scooter" Libby, former chief of staff to Vice President Dick Cheney, was found guilty of lying to a grand jury over the issue of who leaked the name of a covert CIA agent to the press; the agent, Valerie Plame, was married to former ambassador Joseph Wilson, who had questioned President Bush's claim that Saddam Hussein was developing a nuclear weapons program in Iraq. In congressional hearings, it was charged that seven U.S. attorneys had been fired in late 2006 for purely political reasons; ultimately, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales was forced to resign over this issue. In January 2008, it was reported that CIA videotapes of the use of "harsh interrogation techniques" on Al Qaeda suspects had been inappropriately destroyed.
Primary elections for the 2008 presidential election began in February 2008. Senator John McCain of Arizona emerged as the Republican candidate, but many Conservative Republicans remained unconvinced that McCain was "Conservative enough" to truly represent the party. Senators Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton battled for the Democratic nomination. Signs of economic distress intensified. In January 2008, the economy lost jobs for the first time in 52 months, and in February, General Motors announced the largest ever loss for one of the major automakers in a single quarter.
Barack Obama won the Democratic nomination for president, making him the first African American to be selected to be the nominee for president of a major party. Obama chose Senator Joseph Biden as his vice-presidential nominee. At the Republican National Convention, John McCain officially became the nominee of his party. McCain surprised many by choosing Governor Sarah Palin from Alaska as his choice for vice president; Palin had little exposure at the national level.
As the American economy continued to deteriorate, financial and economic issues began to dominate the American presidential campaign. Barack Obama claimed that a major cause of the economic downturn was the deregulation of business championed by many Republicans during the Bush administration; McCain countered that Obama favored much more government spending and an increase in taxes. A huge financial crisis broke in September, leading Congress to pass a major bailout package for financial institutions; the crisis may have influenced the outcome of the election. Obama eventually won the presidential election, with Democrats increasing their control over both houses of Congress. Severe economic woes continued: the stock market continued to fall, unemployment continued to increase, and additional bailout plans for various financial institutions were discussed. By the end of the year many economic commentators began making comparisons with the Great Depression of the 1930s.
THE OBAMA PRESIDENCY
President Obama and his administration found that many of the issues confronting them were incredibly difficult to tackle. The economy, ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, healthcare, and immigration were all complicated ones. In Iraq, a civilian government had taken office in 2006, and despite ongoing incidents of sectarian violence, by 2010 the situation was stable enough to permit the withdrawal of U.S. troops. However, in Afghanistan, U.S. forces were engaged in continuing military operations against Taliban guerilla fighters who were attempting to topple the U.S.-backed civilian government. After much debate, the president authorized a troop buildup in Afghanistan, although many inside and outside the administration questioned whether it would really be possible to "win" in Afghanistan. The administration enacted economic bailout plans that saved many jobs - and saved banks, the auto industry, and AIG (a large insurance and financial services company) from bankruptcy - while Republican opponents criticized the cost of these measures and the lack of progress in bringing down the unemployment rate, which remained near 10 percent. The issue of jobs was on the mind of most Americans; when it appeared that the president's policies didn't appear to be creating enough of them, his approval ratings fell. President Obama pressed hard to have Congress pass comprehensive healthcare legislation but some supporters of reform said that the bill didn't go far enough, while others believed that the bill was unconstitutional and resulted in "socialized medicine."
Other issues created political controversy during the period. A British Petroleum (BP) oil well in the Gulf of Mexico exploded and spilled huge amounts of oil into the sea, and for several months it appeared that neither private industry nor the government could contain the human and environmental damage. Some compared Obama's reaction to the oil spill to President Bush's inadequate response to Hurricane Katrina. A fear of illegal immigration grew in the southwestern United States and spread to other parts of the nation, with increased calls to place a fence or wall on the border with Mexico and to increase penalties on undocumented immigrants. There were also signs of an increase in anti-Islamic sentiment in the United States; a proposal to construct an Islamic center in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site in New York City generated loud debate. A number of Americans continued to state in opinion polls that they believed that President Obama was either a Muslim or was born outside the United States.
In this climate the so-called "Tea Party" movement developed. There was no unified set of beliefs that members of the Tea Party movement followed but, as a whole, Tea Party members favored a scaling down of the size of government and a reduction in taxes; some also favored the elimination or reduction of government "entitlement" programs. To many in the movement, President Obama and "political insiders" in Washington were the embodiment of all that was wrong with America. Tea Party members were also critical of "establishment" members of the Republican Party; in primaries leading up to the 2010 congressional elections a number of candidates supported by the Tea Party defeated "mainstream" Republicans.
On election day 2010, the Republican Party was able to win control of the House of Representatives and gain seats in the Senate. A number of Republican candidates supported by the Tea Party were victorious (although several prominent Republican Party candidates supported by the Tea Party were not).
The last two years of President Obama's first term were contentious ones. Republicans and Democrats fiercely battled on issues surrounding the budget and on the legitimacy of "Obamacare," President Obama's plan for many more American citizens to have healthcare insurance. Critics of Republicans argued that Republicans in Washington (especially those in the House of Representatives) refused to cooperate with the President on budgetary issues for purely political reasons. Republican Senate President Mitch McConnell stated that Republicans' main agenda during this period should be the defeat of President Obama. Critics of the President argued that he never legitimately attempted to achieve compromise with the Republicans on a multitude of issues, and that he lacked the political skills to do so. Many Americans were surprised when in the spring of 2012 the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 vote, validated most of the President's healthcare initiative.
THE ELECTION OF 2012
The 2012 presidential election pitted President Obama against Mitt Romney, former governor of Massachusetts. Both candidates agreed that the nation faced serious economic issues. President Obama emphasized his desire to increase taxes on the wealthiest Americans and to protect the middle class. Mitt Romney and his vice-presidential nominee, Congressman Paul Ryan, emphasized the need for fiscal responsibility and the need to reform "entitlement programs" (Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid). The candidates generally focused on domestic affairs during the course of the campaign.
On election day 2012, President Obama was returned to office, defeating former Governor Romney in the Electoral College by a sizable 322-206 majority; Democrats also (surprisingly) increased their majority in the United States Senate and slightly increased their numbers in the House of Representatives. President Obama won all but one of the important "swing states" in the election; his winning coalition included many younger voters, women, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, and, especially in the Midwest, working class Americans. Governor Romney won the majority of white Americans and senior citizens.
There were numerous reasons for the Democratic victory in this election. Governor Romney was perceived as being supportive of wealthy Americans at the expense of the rest of American citizens; the Democratic campaign message was that the Romney/Ryan ticket favored the upper "1 percent" of Americans. Republicans were also perceived as being out of touch with mainstream America on social issues, especially those relating to women's rights. Remarks made by several Republican senatorial candidates on the issue of abortion alarmed a number of Americans. During the Republican primaries, Governor Romney took a very harsh stance on immigration issues; during the election this caused many Hispanic Americans to vote for President Obama. In analyzing the election numbers one thing was clear: the demographic nature of America was gradually changing; receiving the votes of a majority of white American voters alone will no longer be enough to insure victory in any national political election. Both major political parties will have to recognize that fact as they plan their policies and platforms for the future.
CHAPTER REVIEW
To achieve the perfect 5, you should be able to explain the following:
The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center had a huge impact on America and its perceived role in the world, and affected policy decisions.
The need for unity and strength in time of war versus the desire for individual liberty has created major divisions in public opinion during the period of the Iraqi war.
The overall agenda of the neoconservatives greatly influenced the decision of the administration to go to war in Iraq.
"Winning" the war in Iraq proved to be much more difficult than many of the supporters of the war initially imagined.
Failure to find weapons of mass destruction and failure to establish a link between Al Qaeda and Iraq caused many in the United States to question the overall purpose of American efforts in Iraq.
An effective emphasis on social issues and the failure of John Kerry to truly distance himself from President Bush on Iraq were factors in President Bush's victory in the 2004 presidential elections.
Several Conservative policy positions concerning social issues and taxation were enacted during the presidency of George Bush.
Public attitudes toward George Bush, his policies, and the war in Iraq were sharply divided during his presidency.
The efforts of the Bush administration in countering the devastation of Hurricane Katrina caused many to doubt the effectiveness of that administration in confronting serious disasters.
Continued dissatisfaction with Republican policies and a desire for new leadership helped lead to the election of Barack Obama in 2008.
Time Line
2001: Terrorist attack on World Trade Center and the Pentagon / American and British troops invade Afghanistan / Planning for military operations against Iraq begins
2002: President Bush terms Iran, Iraq, and North Korea the "Axis of Evil" / Creation of Department of Homeland Security / Homeland Security Act signed into law
2003: President Bush warns of possible war with Iraq in State of the Union address / Operation Iraqi Freedom: U.S. and British invasion of Iraq / "Outing of CIA agent Valerie Plame / Violence in Iraq between Kurdish, Shiite, and Sunni factions / Controversy develops as weapons of mass destruction are not found in Iraq
2004: President Bush proposes budget with $521 billion deficit / Photographs show American soldiers torturing Iraqi prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison / Provisional government with limited authority comes into power in Iraq / George Bush defeats John Kerry in presidential elections; Republicans increase their control of the House and the Senate
2005: Presidential budget proposes deep cuts in social programs / Violence between Sunnis and Shiites in Iraq increases dramatically / John Roberts becomes Supreme Court chief justice / Hurricane Katrina devastates New Orleans / I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Vice President Cheney's chief of staff, indicted on obstruction of justice concerning the Valerie Plame case / Samuel Alito becomes Supreme Court justice
2006: In an effort to deal with federal deficit, President Bush proposes reduction of many government programs / Controversy develops over secret wiretapping program by the federal government / Under investigation regarding his connection with a lobbyist, Tom Delay, Republican majority leader of the House of Representatives, resigns
2007: Nancy Pelosi of California becomes first female Speaker of the House
2008: Barack Obama becomes first African American elected to the U.S. presidency / Severe economic downturn affects U.S. financial institutions
2009: Unemployment in the United States remains near 10 percent / President Obama announces "troop surge" in Afghanistan
2010: BP oil spill clogs Gulf of Mexico / Healthcare legislation passes / Tea Party candidates win some seats in midterm elections
2012: President Obama elected to a second term