Vocabulary

Defining, understanding, and being able to apply the following terms will create an imperative foundation for maximum success in this course.

affrimative action - Programs intended to give a boost or preference to minority applicants in contracting, employment, housing, and college/professional school admissions over white applicants.

agenda setting - Identification of the problems and/or issues that require the attention of the government to resolve.

amicus curiae brief - Amicus curiae literally means "friend of the court"; it is a brief submitted to the court by an interested third party that outlines issues it thinks are important in the case.

Antifederalists - Those opposed to the ratification of the Constitution because it gave too much power to the central government at the expense of the states and because of the lack of a bill of rights. Notable Antifederalists were Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson.

appellate jurisdiction - The power that a court has to review the decision of a lower court; the Supreme Court exercises appellate jurisdiction in the overwhelming majority of the cases it hears.

Articles of Confederation - The first written constitution of the United States that went into effect in 1781. It created a unicameral legislature (Confederation Congress) where each state had one vote, but no executive or judicial authority. The power of the central government was extremely limited; for example, Congress did not have the authority to tax or control foreign or interstate commerce.

bicameral legislature - A two house legislature; Congress and all of the state legislatures with the exception of Nebraska are bicameral.

bill - A propsed law.

bill of attainder - A law that makes a person guilty of a crime without a trial; neither Congress nor the states can enact such a law under the Constitution.

blanket primary - A primary election in which candidates from all parties are on the ballot, and a registered voter can vote for the Democratic candidate for one office and the Republican for another.

block grants - Federal funds to the states for programs in broad policy areas such as law enforcement with few, if any, restrictions on how the money is used.

brief - A written document submitted to a court that presents the facts and legal reasoning of a party to the lawsuit.

capital-gains tax - A tax on the sale of stock or real property.

casework - Services performed by an elected official for constituents. A member of Congress gets tickets to tour the White House for a family or contacts the Department of Veterans Affairs for a person in his/her district.

categorical grant - Federal funds to state and local governments for specific programs that usually require the recipient to match the money provided and have other strings attached.

caucus - Made up of members of Congress that may or may not be from the same party but share common policy concerns; the Congressional Black Caucus is an example. The term also refers to a meeting of all the members of a party in Congress.

checks and balances - Related to the separation of powers; each branch of the government has the power to limit the other branches of government so that one is not dominant, for example, the president can veto a bill passed by Congress but Congress can override the veto.

clear and present danger test - Limitations on freedom of speech established in Schenck v. U.S. (1919). Tha famous example is that a person cannot yell fire in a crowded theater.

closed convention - A party national convention at which the nominee has already been determined through the primaries; one candidate won a majority of the delegates before the convention.

closed primary - A primary election that is limited to registered voters of a particular political party.

closed rule - Issued by the House Rules Committee; strict time limit for debate in the House and no amendments can be offered.

cloture - Method to cut off a filibuster in the Senate. The Senate needs 16 votes to call for cloture and 60 votes to end a filibuster.

coattail effect - The ability of a strong or popular candidate to get other candidates on the ticket elected; most often used in connection with a presidential candidate helping other members of the party win an election.

cofederal system - A political system in which the states are sovereign and determine what authority the central government has.

committee report - Issued by the standing committee that examined the bill, it includes the text of the bill as reported by the committee, a summary of its provisions, and reasons for committee approval.

comparable worth - Determining what compensation an employee should receive based on a calculation of the worth of that job; intended to eliminate the discrepancies in salaries paid to women and men; also known as pay equity.

concurrent powers - Powers that are shared by both the federal government and the states; taxation and the creation of courts are examples.

concurring opinion - An opinion written by one or more judges in an appellate case that agrees with the decision but presents a different legal argument.

conference committee - A committee made up of members of the House and the Senate that is responsible for reconciling the differences when two versions of the same bill pass both houses of Congress.

congressional review - Congress can nullify a federal regulation within 60 days after it was issued through a joint resolution.

congressional-executive agreement - Trade agreement that only requires approval of a majority of both houses of Congress and not a two thirds vote of the Senate.

constitutional courts - Courts created by Congress under Article III where the judges serve for life; the U.S. Courts of Appeal are an example.

containment policy - Policy adopted by the United States toward the Soviet Union after World War II; any attempt by the Soviet Union or Communism to expand would be met by American counterforce.

cooperative federalism - A model of the relationship between the federal government and the states that developed during the 1930s; sometimes referred to as marble cake federalism because the power of the federal government expands into areas that the states are usually responsible for.

cost-benefit analysis - A method of evaluating a public policy by determining if the benefits of the policy outweigh its costs.

creative federalism - Identified with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society; the federal government determines the needs of the states.

cross-ownership - In the mass media, a corporation owns a broadcast outlet, for example, a television or radio station, and a newspaper in the same market.

de facto segregation - Segregation that results from living patterns rather than law.

de jure segregation - Segregation that results from law, for example, the Jim Crow laws in the South required racial segregation in public schools, public accommodations, public transportation, and many other areas.

delegate - An elected official who considers it an obligation to vote the way a majority of his/her constituents wants.

deregulation - Reducing or completely eliminating federal government oversight of an industry so as to allow it to operate more freely; deregulation is supposed to encourage competition and reduce costs to consumers.

detente - American policy of easing tensions with the Soviet Union during the Nixon Administration; the policy led to increased trade, cultural exchanges, and arms control agreements.

discount rate - The interest rate that the Federal Reserve charges to member banks for loans. The discount rate is set by the Federal Reserve Board.

discretionary spending - Federal spending that is authorized through the appropriations process, for example, the amount included in the defense budget for personnel.

dissenting opinion - An opinion by a judge who voted in the minority that explains the reasons for opposing the majority opinion.

divided government - Occurs when the president is from one party and Congress is controlled by the other party. This also occurs if the House is controlled by one party and the Senate by the other party.

domino theory - Cold War argument that if one country in a region fell to Communism, the other countries in the region would quickly follow.

dual federalism - A model of the relationship between the federal government and the states where each is supreme in their own sphere and tension exists between them; also known as later-cake federalism. States' rights are emphasized, and the federal government is limited to the enumerated powers.

due process - Protection against the arbitrary loss of life, liberty, and property provided for under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.

electoral college - A group of persons known as electors who officially elect the president and vice president of the United States. The number of electors each state has is equal to the total number of representatives in Congress, for example, two (2) senators + the number of members of the House. To be elected president, the candidate needs a majority vote of the electoral college.

entitlements - Government benefits provided to Americans who qualify because of their age, income, and/or status, for example, children living below the poverty line, the disabled, and veterans.

enumerated powers - Powers that the Constitution specifically grants to the federal government (Congress); also known as delegated powers.

equal access rule - The broadcast media must give all candidates for political office the same opportunity to be heard under Federal Communications Commission rules.

establishment clause - First Amendment freedom of religion protection that focuses on the separation of church and state.

ex post facto law - A law that makes an action a crime that was legal when it was committed or increases the penalty for a crime after it has been committed. Under the Constitution, neither the states nor Congress can pass such a law.

exclusionary rule - Evidence that is obtained illegally is not admissible in court.

executive agreement - An agreement between the United States and another country that does not require approval of the Senate; different from treaty.

executive order - Action by the president that does not require the approval of Congress.

exit poll - A poll conducted on election day to determine how people voted.

fairness doctrine - Abolished by the Federal Communications Commission in 1985, it required that broadcast media present opposing sides of controversial issues.

fast track authority - The president is granted the power to negotiate trade agreements that Congress must vote up or down without any amendments.

federal budget deficit - Difference in any year between government spending and government revenue; the national debt is the cumulative unpaid total of the annual deficit.

federal system - A political system in which power is divided between the national government and other governmental units.

Federalists - Those who favored a stronger central government and supported the ratification of the Constitution. George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton were Federalists.

filibuster - Talking a bill to death on the Senate floor so that no other business can be conducted; only a cloture vote can end a filibuster.

fiscal policy - Using taxes and spending to impact the economy; associated with Keynesian economics.

flat tax - A single low tax rate on all taxpayers coupled with the elimination of all or most exemptions.

franking privilege - The right of members of Congress to free use of the mail for official business.

free exercise clause - First Amendment freedom of religion protection against interference with the practice of religion.

free rider - An individual who benefits from the activities of an interest group but does not support the group either financially or through active participation.

front-loading - Refers to the practice of bunching presidential primaries early in the year so that a majority of the delegates are selected by March.

fruit of the poisonous tree - Additional evidence that is discovered from evidence obtained through an illegal search, which is also not admissible in court.

full faith and credit clause - Laws, court decisions, and records of one state are recognized and valid in every other state.

gender gap - Men and women hold different positions on a wide range of political issues; women tend to vote for the Democratic party more than men.

General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) - International agreements that seek to increase trade among countries by lowering tariffs.

gerrymandering - The redrawing of legislative district lines in such a way to favor one political party over the other; racial gerrymandering refers to creating districts that guarantee the election of minority candidates.

good-faith exception - If the authorities act "in good faith," evidence that otherwise may have been excluded may be admissible.

government corporation - May receive part of its funding from Congress and is managed by a board appointed by the president. The function that it performs could be carried out by private enterprise. The U.S. Postal Service is an example.

grassroots lobbying - Organizing a letter-writing campaign or taking out advertisements to influence public opinion and persuade elected officials to support a particular policy.

Great Compromise - Solution to the problem of representation at the Constitutional Convention; the number of members that each state would have in the House of Representatives is determined by population while each state would have equal representation in the Senate; two senators from each state.

gross domestic product - The total output of goods and services produced in the United States, which is a measure of the health of the economy.

Group of Eight (G8) - World's major industrial nations - Canada, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States - plus Russia who meet regularly to discuss global economic issues.

hard money - Money used directly by a candidate running for office and is subject to campaign finance laws and Federal Election Commission regulations.

hate speech - Offensive speech against racial/ethnic minorities, women, and homosexuals that creates a hostile environment.

heightened scrutiny - Standard adopted in Craig v. Boren (1976); classification of individuals based on gender must be related to an important government objective; replaced minimum rationality standard.

implied powers - Power of the federal government not specifically mentioned in the Constitution but derived from the necessary and proper clause.

incorporation doctrine - The Bill of Rights, with certain exceptions, applies to states and municipalities as well as the federal government through the Fourteenth Amendment.

independent executive agency - Part of the Executive Branch but not included in any Executive department; the head of the agency is appointed by the president and serves at the pleasure of the president. NASA and the CIA are examples.

independent regulatory agency - Part of the Executive Branch and responsible for regulating and oversight of a segment of the economy; managed by board or commissions appointed by the president for a fixed term. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an example.

interest group - An organization whose members share the same concerns, and try to influence public policy that impact those concerns.

issue network - A looser relationship than the iron triangle; refers to the numerous people who are involved in the formulation of policy, including the president, members of Congress, the cabinet, lobbyists, interest groups, government agencies, and scholars and academics.

Jim Crow laws - Laws passed by state legislatures in the South in the late 19th and early 20th century to create a racially segregated society in order to deprive African Americans of the right to vote.

joint committee - A committee of Congress made up of members of both houses that focuses on issues of general concern but does not propose legislation; the Joint Economic Committee is an example.

judicial activism - Courts have a more expansive role to play in shaping public policy.

judicial restraint - The function of the courts is to say when the law is not to make new law.

judicial review - The power of the Supreme Court to declare law passed by Congress or the state legislatures or an Executive action unconstitutional; established in Marbury v. Madison (1903).

Keynesian economics - Associated with the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes; economic slumps are the result of too little demand; government can stimulate demand by increasing spending and cutting taxes even if this results in growing deficits.

laissez-faire economics - Government should keep its hand off the economy, and not interfere with business; popular concept in the nineteenth century when the federal government actually helped business through land grants to the railroads and high protective tariffs.

LAPS Test - Part of the criteria for determining obscenity in Miller v. California (1973); work is considered obscene if it lacks "literary, artistic, political," or "scientific" value.

leak - An unauthorized release of information to the press from someone in the government.

legislative courts - Courts created by Congress under Article I that deal with specialized cases; the judges serve for a fixed term.

legislative veto - Congress rejects an action of the president by a majority vote of both houses; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

Lemon Test - Criteria established in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) concerning a law or government action dealing with religion. Such laws or actions are constitutional if they serve a secular purpose, does not inhibit or advance religion, and does not entangle the government with religion.

line-item veto - Allows the president to selectively veto parts of a bill without vetoing the entire bill; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

lobbying - The way an interest group tries to influence public policy.

logrolling - An agreement between two or more members of Congress to vote for each other's bills.

mandate - Law, regulation, or court decision that compels a state or local government to do something under the threat of legal action or the cut off of federal funds.

mandatory spending - Federal spending that is required by law, for example, for entitlement programs such as Social Security and veterans' benefits.

margin of error - The percentage that a scientific poll is likely to be off; +/-3% is common.

means test - Income must be at a certain level to qualify for benefits from federal or state programs. There are means tests for such programs as food stamps and Medicaid.

media event - A staged public event that gives the press the opportunity to see an elected official in action, and that presents the politician in a good light.

midterm elections - Congressional elections held between presidential elections; the president's party usually loses seats in Congress.

minimum-rationality standard - Also known as "reasonableness test"; in the nineteenth and through most of the twentieth century, used by the courts if determination based on gender was valid.

Miranda warning - At the time of arrest and questioning, an individual must be informed about his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights - to remain silent, that anything he says may be used against him in court, right to have an attorney present during questioning, an attorney will be appointed if the person cannot afford one.

monetary policy - Control of the growth of the monetary supply by the Federal Reserve System.

muckrakers - During the Progressive Era (1900-1920), journalists committed to bringing political corruption and unsavory business practices to the public's attention. Today they are known as investigative reporters.

necessary and proper clause - Enables the Congress to enact laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers; also known as the elastic clause because it expands the power fo the federal government.

New Deal Coalition - Political coalition created by Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s that included the South, organized labor, urban voters, and racial/ethnic minorities including Catholics, Jews, and African Americans.

New Federalism - Concept identified with Richard Nixon; power and money from Washington back to the states and municipalities.

nonpartisan election - An election in which candidates run as independents without party affiliation.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - Treaty that established a free trade zone between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

off the record - A reporter cannot directly use information provided in an interview.

on background - A reporter can quote information provided in the interview, but cannot attribute the quote specifically to the interviewee.

on deep background - A reporter can use information provided in the interview, but cannot make even an indirect reference to the source.

on the record - A reporter can quote and use the name of the source of information provided in the interview.

open convention - A party national convention at which no candidate has won a majority of the delegates in the primaries; the candidate is chosen by the convention.

original jurisdiction - The first court to hear a case; the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases involving two or more states, the United States and a state, a state and the citizens of another state, and foreign diplomats.

party dealignment - Weakening of ties between the voters and the two major parties; voters increasingly identify themselves as independents.

party machine - Political organization, typically at the local level, that wielded considerable power through its ability to get out the vote; relied heavily on patronage and providing services to constituents; often corrupt.

party realignment - Shift in voter loyalty in response to critical events; this occurred in 1932 with the election of Democrat Franklin Roosevelt.

platform - A statement of a political party on the issues facing the country that is adopted at the national convention; each issue position is known as a plank.

plurality opinion - Supported by three or four justices because the decision, but not the legal reasoning, is supported by a majority.

pocket veto - The president does not sign a bill within 10 days of Congress adjourning.

policy formulation - The development of an approach to solving a problem that is on the political agenda; Congress, the president, federal agencies, and interest groups may each be involved in the process.

political action committee - Established by a corporation, labor union, or other interest group to raise and contribute money to the campaigns of candidates for office or to a national party.

political agenda - The issues the American people believe are important for the government to handle.

political ideology - A coherent set of beliefs about politics and the role of government.

political socialization - The process by which Americans learn about the political system and develop their political views.

pork-barrel legislation - Legislation that brings a federal program or project to the district or state of a member of Congress; examples include the expansion of a military base, a new dam or other public works project, or a new highway.

progressive tax - Tax those who make more money at a higher rate; the income tax is a progressive tax.

proportional representation - The delegates in a presidential primary are divided among the candidates based on the percentage of the votes received, providing a minimum threshold (usually 15%) is achieved.

random digit dialing - The method often used to select households for a telephone poll.

reapportionment - The states' loss or gain of seats in the House of Representatives based on the population changes between the decennial census.

recess appointment - Presidential appointment made when Congress is not in session, and does not require immediate confirmation.

recession - A downturn in the economy; two consecutive quarters of a negative gross doemstic product.

regressive tax - Everyone is taxed at the same rate; a sales tax is regressive, and impacts the poor harder than it does the wealthy.

reserved powers - Under the Tenth Amendment, powers not granted to the federal government nor denied to the states are reserved for the states or the people.

revenue sharing - A program (1972-1986) that distributed federal funds to the states and municipalities with no restrictions on hwo the money could be spent.

reverse discrimination - Programs such as affirmative action that help racial minorities and/or women actually discriminate against white males on the basis of race and/or gender.

revolving door - The practice of government officials becoming lobbyists for the industry or companies they were responsible for regulating while they were public servants.

rider - An amendment that is completely unrelated to the subject of a bill.

right-of-rebuttal rule - A person attacked on radio or television must be given a reasonable opportunity to respond.

rule making - The process by which federal agencies adopt regulations; includes public notice, hearings, and written comments.

rule of four - Four of the nine Supreme Court justices must agree in conference to hear a case before it is put on the docket.

select committee - A temporary committee of Congress set up for a specific purpose that is outside the scope of the standing committees; also known as special committees.

senatorial courtesy - The right of a senior senator from the president's party to approve a nominee to a federal district court in his/her state.

separation of powers - A key concept in the Constitution; power in the federal government is divided between the legislative (Congress), Executive (president), and judicial (courts) branches. It is closely tied to concept of checks and balances.

shield laws - State laws that provide journalists limited protection against revealing their sources.

soft money - Money used by national, state, or local party organizations that is not regulated by the Federal Election Commission.

sound bite - A very brief excerpt from a political speech aired on television or radio; the amount of time in a sound bite has decreased over the years.

southern strategy - Adopted by the Republicans under Nixon; Republicans challenge traditional Democratic control in the southern states based on the premise that voters in the region are fundamentally conservative.

splinter parties - Third political parties that break off from either the Democrats or Republicans; historically, splinter parties are the strongest third parties in terms of the popular and electoral vote.

split-ticket voting - Voting for the candidate rather than by party affiliation; a person might vote for a Democrat for president but a Republican for governor.

spoils system - In the nineteenth century, granting federal jobs to political supporters.

stagflation - A combination of high inflation and high unemployment that the United States experienced in the 1970s.

standard operating procedures - Rules and procedures that are intended to make a bureaucracy run efficiently.

standing committee - Permanent committee of Congress that deals with legislation and oversight in a broad policy area, for example, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.

stare decisis - "Let the decision stand"; the emphasis that courts give to precedent or previous decisions on the same issue.

straight-ticket voting - Voting for candidates based on party affiliation only.

superdelegate - Democratic political leaders who are appointed delegations to the national convention and are not bound by the primary results.

supply-side economics - Associated with the Reagan Administration; cut taxes and reduce government regulation to give business the incentive to expand production; the emphasis is on business rather than the consumer.

supremacy clause - The Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land.

Three-fifths Compromise - Slaves counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation and taxation; an important recognition of slavery in the Constitution that helped fully resolve the controversy over representation.

trial balloon - A story presented to the media to gauge the public reaction to a policy or program under consideration.

trustee - An elected official who takes the views of constituents into account but casts a vote based on his/her best judgment and/or conscience.

unemployment rate - The percentage of the civilian labor force that is out of work.

unicameral legislature - A one-house legislature; Congress under the Articles of Confederation was unicameral.

unitary system - A political system in which all power is derived from the central government.

value-added tax - Tax on a product at each stage in its development; considered a national sales tax.

voter turnout - The total number of votes cast for the highest office on the ballot; usually expressed in terms of a percentage of the voting age population that actually voted.

War Powers Act (1973) - Limitation on the power of the president to commit American military forces. The president must inform Congress before troops are committed, and must get congressional approval for a deployment of longer than 60 days.

warrantless searches - A search that does not require a warrant, for example, the person who is placed under arrest and the item is in plain sight at the time of the arrest.

whip - A party leader in Congress who makes sure the party members are present for important votes.

white primary - Only whites could vote in Democratic primaries in the South. This was a technique used to disenfranchise African Americans.

winner-take-all primary - A presidential primary in which the candidate who gets the most votes wins all the delegates from that state; the Democratic Party does not hold winner-take-all primaries.

workfare - Inclusion of work requirements for individuals on welfare; slogan of the welfare reform movement, for example, move people from welfare to workfare.

writ of certiorari - Formal document issued by the Supreme Court to a lower court indicating it will hear a case.

writ of habeas corpus - Court order directing authorities to show cause why a person under detention should not be released.

yellow journalism - In the late nineteenth century, newspapers that relied on sensational reporting to boost circulation and to shape public opinion; coverage of the events leading up to the Spanish-American War (1898) is a good example.