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In the following questions, you will learn about Jacksonian Democracy. That is the term historians use to describe events in American politics during the 1820s and 1830s, a time also known as Jacksonian America. Both terms are named after Andrew Jackson, the most influential American who lived through that time.
Why did historians name the period of the 1820s and 1830s after Jackson?
Historians named the period for Andrew Jackson because he was such an important figure during that time. He was a popular president and a war hero.
But some historians do not like the term "Jacksonian America" because it makes it sound like everyone liked Jackson. In reality, many Americans liked him, but many others did not.
Still, most historians do use the term, because Jackson has become a symbol for the ways American life was changing during this period.
Andrew Jackson was a famous general when he decided to run for president in 1824. Jackson's military career was a major topic of discussion during the campaign. People often talked about two parts of Jackson's military record:
In 1815, Jackson was in command of American troops defending New Orleans from the British.
In 1818, Jackson and his troops were defending Americans from a group of Native Americans, the Seminoles. They chased the Seminoles into Florida, which at that time was part of Spain's empire.
Some Americans used these events to argue that Jackson would be a great president. Others used them as evidence that he would be a dangerous president.
Jackson the hero
Jackson was given much of the credit for winning the Battle of New Orleans. News of the victory caused a wave of patriotism to sweep the U.S. in 1815. Congressman Charles J. Ingersoll said, "Who is not proud to feel himself an American—our wrongs revenged—our rights recognized!"
Congressman Henry Clay said, "Now I can go to England without [shame]!"
Jackson the tyrant
On the other hand, some Americans called Jackson a tyrant, or a cruel and oppressive ruler. They pointed to the times he violated people's rights in New Orleans and executed people in Florida.
They also pointed out that in 1815, Jackson had six American militiamen executed for disobeying orders. Many Americans thought the men should not have been killed, especially because the war was over by then.
When Jackson decided to run for president, his friends and supporters thought that voters would like him more if they knew about his background. So, they wrote letters and pamphlets with facts and stories about Jackson.
The home where Jackson was born was small and poorly built. After he grew up and moved west, Jackson lived in a home that was large and impressive. These pictures might make Jackson appealing to "common men," or people who were not rich, because his life showed that people who were born poor could become rich.
How did Jackson become rich?
Jackson became a lawyer, but he also made a lot of his money buying and selling land, much of it taken from Native Americans. When he had saved enough money, Jackson bought enslaved people and grew cotton. As a result, he became even wealthier.
Jackson was popular in Tennessee, but to become president he had to win support in eastern states, too. So, his friends wrote letters about him to eastern newspapers. The passage below is from a letter published in a newspaper in Pennsylvania in 1824, during Jackson's first presidential campaign. It tells an especially important story about something Jackson did when he was a teenager.
[During the Revolutionary War,] Jackson, then only about 14 or 15 years of age, [became] a volunteer in the [military] service of his country. He was taken prisoner, when a British officer . . . commanded him to brush [the officer's] boots. Young as he was, he . . . refused to do as he was ordered, and demanded to be treated as a prisoner. The officer (and a contemptible fellow he must have been), aimed a blow at him with his sword, by which [Jackson's] hand, thrown up for defense, was [almost cut off].
treated as a prisoner: treated fairly, as required by the laws of war
contemptible: mean and cowardly
The Letters of Wyoming, to the People of the United States, on the Presidential Election, and in Favor of Andrew Jackson. Originally published in the Columbian Observer (1824), 93.
Jackson's friends hoped that voters would be impressed that Jackson bravely demanded his rights, even though he was so young. The story also reminded voters that Jackson fought in the Revolutionary War, just like George Washington and other Founders.
Did this story help Jackson's political career?
Yes! It linked Jackson to George Washington and the rest of the founding generation. Many of the founders had died, and Americans were worried that no living person could match their greatness. This story helped Jackson's supporters argue that Jackson could follow in the footsteps of those heroes.
For example, one Jackson supporter wrote a letter to the public in which he asked whether anyone could match George Washington's "devotion to the cause of liberty and his country." Then he answered himself: "If one be living it is ANDREW JACKSON!"
Jackson was popular because of his personal background, but also because of his views on who should have power in the United States.
Age of the Common Man
The Jacksonian period is sometimes called the "Age of the Common Man." Historians who describe the period this way argue that ordinary Americans received more opportunities and respect than in the past.
A portrait of a common man?
This painting shows a man named Pat Lyon. Historians know that he was wealthy. However, he wanted the painter to show him as a common man—a hard-working blacksmith.
When Lyon was young, some rich bankers had falsely accused him of stealing, and he had gone to jail. Lyon wanted to remind them of their dishonesty by including the jail in the background of the painting. Some people see this painting as a statement that rich people are less honest than common people.
American politics changed greatly in the early 19th century. Historians use the term Jacksonian Democracy to refer to the political practices that resulted from those changes. Jackson did not cause the changes, but he agreed with them and benefited from them. So, Jackson became the symbol for the changes.
One important change was in state voting laws. In the 1700s, many states had laws that kept people from voting unless they owned land or other wealth. These laws were called property qualifications.
In 1790, most of the 13 states had property qualifications. Between 1790 and 1828, several of the original 13 states got rid of their property qualifications. In addition, new states without property qualifications were added to the country in those years. So, by the 1828 election, many more people could vote than in 1790.
During the Jacksonian period, more states allowed people without property to vote. But at the same time, more states were banning African American men from voting. The maps show which states allowed only white people to vote in 1790 and in 1840.
In 1790, the states where only white people could vote were all located in the South. But by 1840, most states had passed laws saying only white people could vote. There were just a few states in the North that still allowed non-whites to vote.
Democracy for white men only
In the early 1800s, states changed their voting laws to give the vote to white men, even if they did not own property. But during the same period, many states took voting rights away from other people. African American men lost the right to vote in many states during this period.
In addition, some women lost the right to vote. In early America, women could vote in some places, if they owned property. But by the 1810s voting was for men only. The first state to allow all women the right to vote was Wyoming in 1890.
By the 1820s, voters began to play a bigger role in deciding which candidates appeared on the ballot. In the 1790s, political parties chose their candidates by holding a caucus, or a private meeting of party leaders. But in the decades that followed, the caucus was replaced by public meetings where all the voters could help to choose the candidates.
Holding public meetings to choose their candidates was not the only way political parties changed in the Jacksonian period. In fact, political parties changed so much that historians consider the Democrats, Jackson's party, to be the first modern political party. Political parties in the early United States had not been well organized or coordinated. But Jackson's supporters organized in several new ways:
Democratic newspaper editors sent papers to each other so that they could all write articles with the same messages.
Democrats organized clubs in every state, and these clubs worked together to support candidates with similar views.
The Democratic clubs held events, such as parades and barbecues, to make election campaigns fun for their voters.
Why did people attend political events in the 1820s?
Americans in the 1820s did not have as many entertainment options as people do today. So, political meetings, parades, and barbecues drew big crowds that included many different kinds of people including men, women, and children, as well as both workers and bosses.
Many people probably came to these events for fun, not because they were strong supporters of the political party holding the event. The party still wanted them to come, though, because bigger crowds made the party look more popular!
In the 19th century (before radio and television), politicians got out their messages using newspapers. These newspapers were not neutral. They published news and opinions that supported the candidate or party they liked or that criticized those they did not like. The passages below come from newspapers published in 1828. Andrew Jackson was running for president against the current president, John Quincy Adams. Read the passages.
United States' Telegraph, a pro-Jackson newspaper
The [campaign is] between the People on one side and [those who receive] the power and patronage of Government on the other. . . . Andrew Jackson is the candidate of the People.
patronage: unfair special treatment
National Journal, a pro-Adams newspaper
Mr. Adams is a scholar. Is he to be [replaced] by a man of no education? Mr. Adams is a statesman. Is he to give way to a mere soldier?
statesman: successful and respected political leader
The pro-Jackson newspaper said that voters should support Jackson because he was on the side of the common people. The pro-Adams newspaper suggested that Adams should win because he was more educated and experienced than Jackson.
Did pro-Jackson editors work for Jackson?
No! Each newspaper was controlled by one or two individual editors, not by Jackson or by the Democratic Party. Editors might work closely with Jackson during the campaign, but they could always make their own decisions.
One famous pro-Jackson newspaper was edited by a man named Duff Green. Green worked hard to get Jackson elected, although he later became a harsh critic of Jackson. This image shows a page from Duff Green's newspaper, the United States' Telegraph.
The dangers of being an editor
Like many editors, Green was sometimes attacked for his words. In 1832, Green wrote several articles that angered congressman James Blair. Blair beat Green with his cane, kicked him, and jumped on him, breaking several of Green's bones. The next day, from his hospital bed, Green wrote another article attacking Blair.
In the presidential campaign of 1828, both Adams supporters and Jackson supporters were guilty of mudslinging, or spreading nasty rumors about the opposing candidate. Some rumors were true, some were exaggerations, and some were totally made up. Read the examples of some of the rumors spread during the campaign. Then complete the text below.
Adams's supporters spread these rumors:
Jackson illegally married a woman who was already married!
Jackson's soldiers illegally invaded foreign land, risking a war!
Jackson murdered several people!
Jackson's supporters spread these rumors:
Adams stole the presidency by making a secret deal!
Adams used government money to buy gambling equipment!
Adams sold an American girl to the king of Russia!
Campaigns spread nasty rumors in order to convince voters that the opposing candidate had a terrible flaw. Based on the examples above, Adams supporters were trying to make voters think Jackson was too reckless and dangerous to be president. Jackson supporters were trying to make voters think that Adams was sneaky and immoral.
Were the rumors true?
They were mostly not true or were exaggerated. For example, Adams bought a billiard table and a chess set, which some people might have used for gambling. But Adams bought them with his own money, and there is no evidence he used them for gambling.
Did Jackson really murder several people?
Jackson definitely killed several people: for example, he once killed a man in a duel. But by the laws of the time, those killings were probably not illegal.
Jackson's enemies wanted voters to think of Jackson as violent and dangerous. So, they printed handbills, or advertisements, that listed all the people Jackson was accused of killing. Since they featured images of coffins, they were called coffin handbills.
Jackson won the election by a large number of votes and became the seventh president of the United States. But many Americans did not vote for him. Look at the map of the 1828 election results.
Jackson's inauguration, which is the ceremony that begins a new presidency, drew an enormous crowd, as did the party afterwards. How observers thought about the inauguration party depended on how they viewed Jackson and his supporters.
Why did people feel so strongly about Jackson's inauguration?
Many of Jackson's supporters believed that electing him was their last chance to save the country from being taken over by the rich and powerful. As a Jackson supporter wrote in 1826, "Liberty was never in greater danger."
But Jackson's opponents made fun of that idea. This is how one Jackson opponent described the inauguration: "I never saw anything like it before. Persons have come 500 miles to see General Jackson and they really seem to think that the Country is rescued from some dreadful danger!"
Once in office, Jackson removed many federal government workers, such as tax collectors and postmasters, or people who ran local post offices. He replaced them with new people who had supported him. Jackson said that officeholders did not have a right to their jobs, and that new people should get a chance. He called his policy "rotation in office." Jackson's enemies called the policy the "spoils system." They said that Jackson was behaving as if he owned the whole government just because he won the election.
Did later presidents continue Jackson's policy?
Yes! Most presidents followed Jackson's example of replacing government officeholders with their supporters. It was a way to reward people who had helped them. Also, having supporters in important positions in the government helps presidents get their policies carried out.
But many people thought Jackson set a bad example. Looking back, the cartoonist Thomas Nast drew this cartoon in 1877. Jackson is shown riding a pig, which is eating pieces of paper labeled "Fraud," "Bribery," "Spoils," and "Plunder."
In response to criticisms like Nast's, the way government jobs were given out changed in the 1880s.
The ideas and practices of Jacksonian Democracy won the support of many Americans. The new style of politics was copied even by those who opposed Jackson himself.
Changes such as getting rid of property qualifications, using public meetings to nominate candidates, and rotation in office gave more political power to common people. But they applied only to white men.
After the changes brought by Jacksonian Democracy, politicians used new techniques to appeal to voters. They organized local clubs, held parades and barbecues, and used newspapers to support their candidates and attack the opposing party.
How did Jacksonian Democracy change American politics?
Jacksonian Democracy meant that politics was not just for rich people. It also meant that when rich people ran for office, they had to show respect to poorer people if they wanted their votes.
The painting below shows what a political meeting of the period might have looked like. A candidate is asking a poor man for his vote. At the far right, a wealthy man with a white coat and top hat sits next to a man with much simpler clothes, which might imply that at least in politics they were equal.
Jacksonian America was the period of United States history from the 1820s to the 1840s. It is named after Andrew Jackson, who was president for part of that time. In the following questions, you will learn about debates that took place in Jacksonian America over economic policy. Read the definition of economic policy.
Economic policy is the set of decisions the government makes about how to get and use money and resources. It also includes rules about how people and businesses can use resources, produce goods, and earn or spend money.
What economic policies do people argue about today?
People today debate many different economic policies. People disagree about how the government should get money, how it should spend that money, and what rules people and businesses should have to follow. The following are examples of different economic questions that people ask today:
Should taxes on people's incomes be cut?
Should the government spend more money on schools?
How much air pollution should businesses be allowed to create?
Americans have always wanted to have a strong economy, where most people can get the things they want and need. But political parties often disagree about what the government can do to help create a strong economy. For example, this is what the two parties in Jacksonian America believed:
The National Republicans thought that if the government had more money and power, it could do more to help people.
The Democrats thought that individual Americans would make better choices than the government. So, they wanted the government to leave money and power in the hands of individual citizens.
What happened to the National Republicans?
The National Republicans were popular at first. One even became president: John Quincy Adams. But after the rise of Andrew Jackson, the National Republicans could not beat Jackson's Democratic Party. So, in 1834, supporters of the National Republicans and other people formed a new party called the Whigs.
The Whig Party gave the Democrats strong competition, winning two presidential elections and many state elections. But unfortunately, both of the Whigs elected president died in office.
One economic issue that divided people in Jacksonian America was how much the federal government should do to improve transportation.
In the 1820s, National Republicans in Congress argued for a plan to build a national system of roads. They hoped to connect different states together to make trade easier.
Like the National Republicans, Democrats wanted to create a strong economy. But instead of raising taxes and building roads, President Andrew Jackson and the Democrats had a different plan. The passage below, adapted from Jackson's 1835 message to Congress, explains his plan. Read the passage.
It is certainly our duty to decrease taxes as much as we can. We should also reduce all the rules which make it harder for our citizens to trade.
Agriculture is the most important activity of humankind. This year the government made $11 million by selling its lands to farmers. The government should sell even more of its land.
One of the biggest economic debates during Jacksonian America was over tariffs. A tariff is a tax on products brought to the United States from other countries.
Congress used tariffs both to raise money for the government and to encourage manufacturing. The map below shows the states where manufacturing was most important and least important in the 1820s.
States with more manufacturing were mostly in the northern part of the country. These states usually supported tariffs. States where manufacturing was less important usually opposed tariffs. Most of these states were in the southern part of the country.
Why did manufacturing states support tariffs?
Tariffs made foreign manufactured goods more expensive, so Americans would buy more American manufactured goods. With more sales, American factory owners in manufacturing states could make more money and even expand their factories. Factory workers could be more confident that they would continue to have jobs.
Why didn't all states with manufacturing support tariffs?
Some Southern states had manufacturing centers, but they still didn't support tariffs. One reason was that Southern states needed to sell their crops in foreign countries. Southerners were afraid that if the U.S. bought fewer foreign products, foreigners might buy fewer American products, such as Southern cotton.
In 1828, Congress passed the highest tariff in U.S. history. Southern voters especially disliked this tariff. They had to pay it when buying foreign goods, but most of the benefit went to Northern manufacturing states. So, many Southerners called it the Tariff of Abominations. An abomination is something outrageous or evil. The passage below is adapted from a response to the new tariff written by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Read the passage.
The Constitution gives the states the power to nullify a law. This means that a state can protect its citizens by refusing to allow the federal government to enforce the law within the state.
If the tariff's injustice is not fixed, it will be South Carolina's sacred duty to nullify it, in order to protect the liberty of the country.
Why did John C. Calhoun hate tariffs?
Calhoun had started his political career as a supporter of tariffs, thinking it would make the country stronger.
But then tensions started rising between North and South. High tariffs would help the North and make the federal government stronger. Calhoun was a slaveholder, and he worried that a strong North and a strong federal government would try to end slavery. So, Calhoun became a leading opponent of tariffs.
In November of 1832, the South Carolina government called for a convention, or meeting, to decide what to do about the tariff. The voters elected representatives, who met and debated the issues.
Jackson's message to South Carolina
President Jackson was born in South Carolina. When that state decided to nullify the tariff, Jackson was outraged. The passage below is modified from his message to South Carolina:
Fellow-citizens of my native State! Let me not only warn you not to break our laws, but also let me use the influence that a father would over his children whom he saw rushing to disaster. See under what false claims you have been led to the brink of treason!
In other words, he told the South Carolinians that by nullifying the law, they came close to committing treason! Treason, or disloyalty to the country, can sometimes be punished by death.
In 1833, South Carolina's government accepted the new tariff, called the "compromise tariff." That ended the crisis over nullification, or the theory that a state could overrule federal laws.
In the short term, South Carolina's leaders got what they wanted: a lower tariff. But the federal government did not accept the idea that a state could overrule federal laws. So, Southern leaders tried to think of new ways to protect the rights of the state from the power of the federal government.
Did the tariff issue cause the Civil War?
No. The North and the South disagreed about tariffs, but it was not one of the most important issues that caused the Civil War. More than anything else, Southern leaders wanted to protect slavery. As Northern voters became convinced that slavery was wrong, Southern leaders tried to think of ways to keep the federal government from having the power to end slavery. Nullifying laws was one idea, but it did not work.
Eventually, Southern leaders decided that the only way to protect slavery was to have their own country. So, they fought against the United States to try to create an independent country that would always allow slavery. In 1861, Southern soldiers attacked a United States fort, beginning the Civil War.
Another economic issue that was debated in early America was whether the country needed a national bank, or a large bank where the government keeps its money. In 1816, Congress created a national bank called the Bank of the United States, or BUS. It was based in Philadelphia and had branches all over the country. The BUS was created mainly to solve the problem described in the following passage. Read the passage.
The United States didn't have enough gold and silver to make all the money Americans needed. So, Americans used paper money that was printed by hundreds of different banks. It was very confusing. People in one state might not know whether to trust a bank in another state—or even whether it really existed! So, paper money might be worth less in one city than in another, or it might not be accepted at all.
People wanted money they could trust. So, to fix that problem, the BUS was created to provide the country with a uniform currency.
One reason the BUS was created was to give the country a uniform currency. A uniform currency is a type of money that is worth the same amount anywhere in the country.
The Bank of the United States, or BUS, was supposed to give the country a uniform currency that was worth the same everywhere. The National Republicans thought the country needed the BUS for other reasons, too. But Democrats like President Jackson rejected those reasons.
Why would the BUS lend to private banks?
People only accepted paper money if they knew they could trade it for gold or silver at the bank. But sometimes banks ran out of gold and silver. That could start a panic, as people became afraid that their paper money was worthless.
The president of the BUS, Nicholas Biddle, believed that the BUS had a duty to prevent panics. He once wrote:
"The Bank of the United States . . . must take care always [so] that at a moment's warning, it may [protect] the [private] banks and the country from sudden dangers."
In other words, he thought the BUS should lend gold and silver to banks that needed it in order to prevent a panic.
The law that created the BUS made it the national bank until 1836. As that year got closer, most people thought the BUS was doing a good job. So, Congress passed another law in 1832 to allow the BUS to continue for another 20 years. But President Jackson vetoed, or rejected, the law. In the adapted passage below, Jackson explains one of the reasons for his veto. Read the passage.
Adapted from Jackson's 1832 veto message
If the government would give favors equally to the rich and the poor, it would be a blessing. But in the case of the Bank, it is not doing that. The government gives special privileges to the rich men who run the Bank. We need to take a stand against giving any more special privileges to the rich.
The "Monster Bank"
Jackson disliked banks because he thought they took advantage of poor people. He was especially concerned about the BUS because it was the biggest bank. He called it the "Monster Bank," which meant that it was large, powerful, and dangerous. He thought that if he could bring the BUS under control, then he could keep other banks under control, too.
The National Republicans tried to use President Jackson's veto of the BUS as a political issue. In 1832, President Jackson ran for re-election against Henry Clay, one of the National Republican leaders of Congress. The following passage describes something that happened in the 1832 election campaign. Read the passage.
Clay's supporters thought that Jackson's veto message was shocking. They thought that the veto message would make voters reject Jackson and the Democrats. So, they helped Democrats send printed copies all over the country!
That turned out to be a big mistake. Most voters liked Jackson's message. As Jackson wrote to his nephew, "The veto works well. Instead of crushing me as was expected and intended, [the National Republicans' strategy] will crush the Bank."
When the election was held, Jackson won re-election and the Democrats gained 17 seats in Congress.
The National Republicans thought that voters who read the veto message would oppose Jackson. But instead, Jackson's message turned out to be very popular. This helped the Democrats win the election.
How did Clay's supporters make such a big mistake?
Today we learn about voters' opinions by conducting polls and surveys. But these tools were not used yet in the 1830s. Clay's supporters thought that Jackson's veto message sounded angry and ignorant. One Clay supporter wrote, "It has all the fury of a chained panther biting the bars of his cage." Since they saw the message that way, they assumed most Americans would agree with them!
But instead, many people liked the veto message. They thought that Jackson was protecting the regular people from the rich. Jackson easily won re-election.
Jackson's veto meant that the BUS would lose government support in 1836. But in 1833, Jackson ordered his Treasury secretary to take all of the government's money out of the BUS early. Even some of Jackson's supporters doubted that was legal. Jackson had to replace his Treasury secretary twice before he found one who would obey his order! Many Americans were outraged by Jackson's behavior with the BUS.
How did Jackson's opponents react to his actions?
When Jackson removed the government's money from the bank, many Americans were outraged! They thought the president was breaking the law. The U.S. Senate censured, or officially criticized, Jackson. He is the only U.S. president who has been censured by the Senate.
Many of Jackson's opponents came together to form a new political party that they named the Whigs. That name was taken from a political party in Great Britain who thought the British king had too much power.
After his fight with the BUS, President Jackson thought that other banks were printing so much paper money that it was going to become worthless. He could not control what the banks did, but he could stop the government from accepting paper money. So, he made a rule that Americans could only purchase land from the government with gold and silver coins.
People who wanted to buy land from the government now needed gold and silver to buy it with. So, they took their paper money to banks to exchange it for gold and silver coins. But as more people tried to buy land, banks had less gold and silver left. So, the banks would be less prepared for an emergency in which they needed gold and silver.
Soon after Jackson left office in 1837, the United States was hit by the Panic of 1837, a shortage of money that brought hard times for many Americans. It also hurt the popularity of Jackson's party, the Democrats.
According to this claim, Jackson was not to blame:
The panic was caused by banks in England. They stopped lending money, which hurt the economy in both Europe and America. Jackson did not control banks in England. If they caused the panic, then Jackson was not to blame.
According to these claims, Jackson was to blame:
Private banks did not have enough gold and silver because of Democratic policies. So, they could not reassure people when the panic began. Jackson was a Democrat. The policies that led to banks not having enough gold and silver were his idea. So, if they contributed to the panic, then Jackson was to blame.
If the U.S. still had a national bank, it could have protected private banks from the panic by lending them money. Jackson vetoed the BUS bill and took the government's money out of the BUS. So, if weakening the BUS helped the panic spread to America, then Jackson was to blame.
Americans were divided over whether Andrew Jackson's economic policies were good for the country.
Did Jackson's economic policies help or hurt America?
People disagree! Some economic historians say that Jackson's policies helped America by encouraging free enterprise, or a system in which people and companies compete and the government does not take sides.
Others say that Jackson's policies hurt America by weakening the federal government. They argue that a stronger federal government would have helped create a stronger economy faster.
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