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George Washington.mp4George Washington & Public Service.mp4George Washington.mp4George Washington was elected the first president of the United States in 1789. At the time of Washington's election, the nation had already won independence from Great Britain. But the government was still in its early stages. The Constitution had been written, but not all of the states had ratified it, or approved it. In the election of 1789, the only states that were counted were those that had ratified the Constitution.
Were any other states not counted in the election of 1789?
Yes! New York ratified the Constitution in July 1788. However, the New York legislature could not agree on a part of the election process. As a result, the state missed an important deadline, and New York wasn't counted in the election.
New York, New York
Even though New York was still figuring things out, it was an important state. At the beginning of Washington's presidency, New York City was particularly important:
It was the capital of the United States.
It hosted the ceremony to begin Washington's presidency.
It was the largest city in the United States.
It was an important shipbuilding and trading center.
Washington officially became president at his inauguration, the ceremony that begins a new presidency.
What was Washington's inauguration actually like?
Historians know from written records that Washington's inauguration was a festive event. People celebrated in many ways:
setting off fireworks
firing cannons
singing songs
decorating their towns to honor Washington when he passed through on his way to the inauguration
On the day of the inauguration, New York City church bells rang for half an hour! The crowd that watched Washington officially become president included many kinds of people:
ordinary citizens
members of Congress
foreign diplomats
Washington wrote a letter describing the suit that he planned to wear to his inauguration. At the time, many Americans wore clothes made of cloth from Great Britain. But Washington's inauguration suit was not made of British cloth. Read the passage from Washington's letter.
[There are cloth factories in Connecticut, and] I have [written to a friend asking him] . . . to procure me . . . Hartford fabric, to make a suit of clothes . . . I hope it will [soon] be unfashionable for a gentleman to appear in any other dress.
procure: get
Hartford: the capital of the state of Connecticut
Made from cloth produced in the United States
Washington asked his friend to send him fabric from Hartford, a city in the U.S. state of Connecticut. Washington wrote that he hoped it would become "unfashionable for a gentleman to appear in any other dress." In other words, Washington hoped that Americans would only want to wear clothes that were produced in the United States.
What did Washington's inauguration suit look like?
Historians know that Washington thought a lot about the significance of his inauguration suit. He wanted the suit to be formal enough for the occasion, but not so fancy that he would seem like a king.
Washington paid close attention to small details that would make the suit special. Washington even requested that the factory in Hartford make special buttons for his coat! The buttons had images of eagles, symbols of the United States.
But historians aren't completely sure what the suit looked like. The suit shown at left may be the one that George Washington wore to his inauguration in 1789.
Washington took the presidential oath of office at his inauguration in 1789. The text of the oath is written in the Constitution. The oath is a promise that every president still makes as a part of the inauguration ceremony. Read the text of the oath.
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.
affirm: to state strongly and publicly; to pledge
faithfully execute: loyally carry out
Is the oath of office always taken at the presidential inauguration?
Usually, but not always. Presidents typically take the oath of office publicly at the inauguration—often in front of large crowds of people.
But in some cases, presidents take the oath of office privately. For example, on the day of President Barack Obama's inauguration in 2009, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts mixed up a few of the words of the oath. Obama then repeated the words as the Chief Justice had presented them—out of order.
The oath of office is so important that Obama took the oath again the next day—just to make sure that he was properly sworn into office! The second time, Chief Justice Roberts administered the oath in private.
Once he became president, Washington selected four people he knew well to help him make decisions about how to run the country. These people formed the first cabinet, a group of people who advise the president.
A diverse cabinet?
Washington believed that his policies would be stronger if he was advised by people with different perspectives. Washington wanted his cabinet members to have different opinions. For example, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton often disagreed about how the country should be run.
Washington also wanted his cabinet members to come from different backgrounds. For example, members of Washington's cabinet came from different parts of the country:
Alexander Hamilton was born in the Caribbean and raised in New York.
Thomas Jefferson was from Virginia.
Henry Knox was from Massachusetts.
Edmund Randolph was from Virginia.
Even before the first president was elected, the U.S. government had important relationships with other countries—especially France and Great Britain. The U.S. government's relationships with these two countries affected political decision making during Washington's presidency.
How did Americans learn about events happening in Europe in the 1700s?
By reading newspapers! Newspapers printed information about what was happening in the United States and in other countries.
But how did news from abroad even reach the writers of American papers?
Newspaper writers used letters and copies of foreign newspapers to inform their reporting. For example, when the French Revolution began, Thomas Jefferson was living in Paris, France. Jefferson sent colleagues in the United States copies of French newspapers and detailed personal accounts describing what he saw in the Paris streets.
Deep connections between America and Europe
In the 1790s, people and trade goods frequently traveled back and forth across the Atlantic Ocean. People also brought ideas and cultural preferences from France and Great Britain to the United States. For example, certain architectural styles in the United States were influenced by European styles.
Certain members of Washington's cabinet strongly disagreed about whether the U.S. government should offer special support to France or to Great Britain. They also disagreed about who should hold the most power in government. The table below shows viewpoints of two important cabinet members: Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton.
"Most Illustrious Highness"?
Only a few weeks before Washington's inauguration, Congress was still arguing over an important question: How should people address the new president? Some members of Congress suggested titles such as Elective Majesty, Illustrious Highness, and Sacred Majesty. Others thought he should be addressed with no title at all. In the end, Congress decided to address the president as Mr. President.
Which names do you think that Jefferson supported? Which names do you think that Hamilton supported?
What makes a king a king and a president a president?
The portraits below are both from the late 1700s. One shows the king of Great Britain. The other shows President Washington. How are they different?
The events of the French Revolution (1789–1799) caused further tension between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. Read the description of the French Revolution.
The French Revolution began with the goal of giving the common people a greater voice in government. Over time, the French Revolution grew more violent. In 1793, crowds of French revolutionaries beheaded the king, the queen, and thousands of aristocrats. Other European countries, such as Great Britain, opposed the violence of the French Revolution.
Neither Hamilton nor Jefferson wanted the French Revolution to become so violent. But Jefferson thought that some violence might be necessary if the common people wanted to gain a greater voice in government. On the other hand, Hamilton thought that aristocrats should have more power in government. He believed that aristocrats would help keep society calm and orderly. Given these beliefs, Hamilton thought that the United States should support Great Britain, not France.
The guillotine and its victims
From September 1793 to July 1794, the French Revolution went through a period of increased violence known as the Reign of Terror. Radical, or extreme, French revolutionaries arrested at least 300,000 people. The radical revolutionaries used a device called a guillotine (GEE-uh-teen) to chop off the heads of thousands of people. Many aristocrats and people loyal to the king fled the country out of fear.
This image from the 1790s shows a guillotine. Below the guillotine are piles of human heads, each labeled with a different position in society. The largest group of human heads is labeled "the common people."
In 1793, France declared war on Great Britain. Some Americans, including Alexander Hamilton, showed support for Great Britain in the conflict. Others, including Thomas Jefferson, supported France.
President Washington issued a proclamation stating the position of the United States in the war between France and Great Britain. Read the text from part of the proclamation.
[The United States] should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct [that is] friendly and impartial toward [both of] the belligerent [countries].
conduct: behavior
impartial: without preference
belligerent (buh-LIJ-er-ent): warring
Washington decided that the U.S. should support neither France nor Great Britain in the conflict. Instead, Washington believed that the United States should be neutral.
Neutrality in American history
American presidents have chosen to remain neutral at other times, too. For example, although the United States eventually entered World War I and World War II, the president or Congress had first issued statements of neutrality.
Americans had different opinions about remaining neutral. In 1939, one person referred to George Washington's Neutrality Proclamation to support his view that the United States should stay out of World War II:
Please . . . don't send our boys to war on foreign soil. Remember the words of George Washington and bless his memory. I have a 21-year-old son.
Washington's decision to remain neutral was known as the Neutrality Proclamation. Not everyone agreed with the Neutrality Proclamation. Some people thought that Washington's Neutrality Proclamation was not allowed by the U.S. Constitution. Read the part of the Constitution that opponents of the proclamation used as evidence for their view. Then answer the question below.
U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8
The Congress shall have power...to declare war.
Who decides how to interpret the Constitution?
The Supreme Court, the highest court in the United States, decides how the Constitution should be interpreted.
But even Supreme Court justices, or judges, disagree about whether certain laws are constitutional:
Some Supreme Court justices tend to interpret the Constitution strictly.
They believe that the government should follow exactly what the Founders stated in the Constitution.
Other Supreme Court justices tend to interpret the Constitution loosely.
They believe that the government can do things in a way that is implied by the Constitution, but that the Founders did not specifically describe in the Constitution.
Americans became even more involved in public political discussions in 1794. That year, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate a
treaty,
or agreement, with Great Britain. The goal of the treaty was to resolve issues from the time of the American Revolution. Americans hoped that Jay would negotiate the treaty in a way that helped the United States.
But when Americans learned about the terms of the treaty, many people were furious! They believed that the treaty was too favorable to Great Britain. Other Americans argued that the treaty allowed the United States to maintain a good relationship with Great Britain.
Both supporters and opponents of Jay's Treaty expressed their views in a variety of ways.
Decisions like the Neutrality Proclamation angered many Americans who believed that the people should be involved in political decisions. President Washington had not even asked Congress before issuing the Neutrality Proclamation! Many Americans thought that it was secretive and undemocratic for Washington to issue the proclamation without asking Congress.
How do people publicly voice their opinions today?
Americans voice their opinions in many ways. As in Washington's day, Americans still gather together to protest. They hold meetings and demonstrations to publicly state their beliefs about politics and society. They often make such public statements through social media, too.
People also still sign petitions to support a cause or as a sign of protest. In the 18th century, many petitions were published in newspapers. Today, people can sign petitions online. Anyone who is at least 13 years old can even sign petitions on the White House website!
Americans became even more involved in public political discussions in 1794. That year, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain. Americans hoped that Jay would negotiate the treaty in a way that helped the United States.
But when Americans learned about the terms of the treaty, many people were furious! They believed that the treaty was too favorable to Great Britain. Others argued that the treaty allowed the U.S. to maintain a good relationship with Great Britain.
Both supporters and opponents of Jay's Treaty expressed their views in a variety of ways.
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