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Islamic Empires.mp4Mansa Musa and Islam in Africa_ Crash Course World History #16.mp4Islam and Politics_ Crash Course World History 216.mp4In the year 610 CE, a man named Muhammad (moo-HAHM-ad) started a religion called Islam (is-LAAM). People who follow the religion of Islam are called Muslims (MUHZ-lims). Look at the map of where Islam began.
Muhammad began spreading the religion of Islam in the early 600s CE. At that time, the religions of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity were already popular on and around the Arabian Peninsula. Read about Islam and these three major religions.
Muhammad and his followers were able to take control of the Arabian Peninsula.
Rest stops in a desert
Medina and Mecca were along popular desert trade routes. Merchants often stopped in these cities for water and rest on their journeys. Some cities became wealthy because of their location on important desert trade routes.
For example, the Nabatean people built a desert city with underground water canals. Merchants paid the Nabateans to rest and use the city's water.
How did merchants cross a desert?
For hundreds of years, merchants traveled across deserts on the backs of camels. The camels of the Arabian Desert can go without water for over two weeks! They can also carry heavy items, such as people or goods for trade, on their backs.
Along with its trade routes, Mecca was also important for religious reasons. Inside Mecca was an important religious site called the Kaaba (KAH-buh). People from all over the Arabian Peninsula would travel to Mecca to visit the Kaaba. After Muhammad took control of Mecca, he turned the Kaaba into a holy place for Muslims only.
After Muhammad died, his community of followers had to figure out who was going to rule the Arabian Peninsula. So, some of Muhammad's closest followers met to choose a leader. The leaders after Muhammad were given many titles.
Choosing a leader to keep people together
Muhammad unified many people from different tribes. When he died, many Muslims worried that the community would fall apart. They wanted to choose a leader who could keep people together.
After Muhammad's death, a small group of his close friends met to pick a new ruler. They chose Abu Bakr, the father of Muhammad's favorite wife, to lead.
After Muhammad, the next four leaders of the Muslim community are often called the Rightly Guided Caliphs. Look at the table describing each of the Rightly Guided Caliphs' rule.
Who were the Quraysh?
Muhammad and all of the Rightly Guided Caliphs belonged to the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh tribe controlled the city of Mecca. The tribe was made of many different families, some of which did not get along! For example, Caliph Uthman was part of the Umayyad family, while Muhammad and Caliph Ali were part of the Hashem family.
The family of Muhammad today
Today, the rulers of the country of Jordan are descended from the Hashem family. They call their country the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
Although Islam spread quickly under the Rightly Guided Caliphs, not all Muslims were happy with the Caliphs' rule.
Why were some Muslims unhappy with the Rightly Guided Caliphs?
Muslims were unhappy with the Rightly Guided Caliphs for many reasons:
Caliph Uthman gave special treatment to his own family, the Umayyads. Some Muslims didn't believe that was fair. Uthman was soon killed by his own soldiers.
Caliph Ali didn't punish Uthman's murderers. Members of Uthman's family fought with Ali. Soon after the war, Ali was killed.
Although many Muslims were unhappy with the Rightly Guided Caliphs, most Muslims today still consider the first four Caliphs as "Rightly Guided." They believe these rulers were "guided" by Muhammad's teachings. The last Rightly Guided Caliph was Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Not all Muslims agree on Ali's importance. Read the passage describing the disagreement.
After Muhammad's death, some of his followers wanted Ali to become the leader. Ali's supporters did not believe the other Caliphs were "Rightly Guided" at all! When Ali finally became the leader, his supporters were happy. They wanted all leaders to come from Ali's family.
Today, Muslims who believe Ali should have been the first leader after Muhammad are called Shia (SHEE-uh) Muslims, or Shiites (SHEE-aits). Shia Muslims opposed the first three caliphs and the caliphs who came after Ali. The next caliphs after Ali were from the Umayyad family, the same family as Caliph Uthman, not the family of Ali.
Muslims who don't think Ali needed to be the first caliph are called Sunni Muslims.
Different perspectives in history: Sunni and Shia
Only Sunni Muslims believe the first three Rightly Guided Caliphs were rightful rulers. Shia Muslims, on the other hand, believe that Ali was the first rightful leader. They call Ali the First Imam (ee-MAM), or Shia Muslims' religious leader. Shia Muslims believe that Imams have to come from the family of Ali and his wife Fatima, one of Muhammad's daughters.
What do Shia and Sunni mean?
The word shia in Arabic means "supporters." So, "Shia" is short for "supporters of Ali." The word sunna in Arabic means "tradition." "Sunni" is short for "people of tradition." Today, the majority of Muslims are Sunni, but around 15% are Shia.
The Rightly Guided Caliphs ruled from 632 CE to 661 CE. Look at the map showing some of the cities the caliphs controlled.
The number next to each city is the year that the city came under Muslim control. So, the Caliph's armies conquered Jerusalem in 638 CE. Later, his armies conquered Alexandria.
The people living in both of those cities were mostly Jews and certain types of Christians. They had been treated unfairly by the Byzantine Empire because of their religious beliefs.
In contrast, the Rightly Guided Caliphs often allowed them to keep their religion. This policy of tolerance, or letting people practice different religions, helped the Rightly Guided Caliphs gain control of more territory.
The Rightly Guided Caliphs were able to control more territory and therefore spread Islam quickly, partly because of their policy of tolerance. However, another reason Islam spread quickly was the Arabian Peninsula's location.
Trading goods and ideas
Trade routes on the Arabian Peninsula also crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, European mainland, and central Asian continent. The merchants who traded along those routes often shared new ideas with each other, such as their religious beliefs. They also traded many goods. Here are some of the goods traded along those routes:
Frankincense, a tree sap used in rituals, often came from the Arabian Peninsula.
Olive oil for lamps and soaps often came from Syria, north of the Arabian Peninsula.
Cloth with patterns and designs often came from Egypt.
After Ali's death in 661 CE, the next caliph was from the Umayyad (oo-MY-id) family. Complete the text about the Umayyad Caliph who came after Ali.During the rule of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, each caliph was chosen by a meeting of important Muslims. However, the Umayyad Caliph who came afterCaliph Ali picked his own son to become the next caliph. So, he changed the tradition. His choice upset Shia Muslims. They believed the next caliph should be from Caliph Ali's family, not the Umayyad family.
Umayyads fight the Shia Muslims
Even after Ali died, Shia Muslims still supported his descendants. They believed Ali's descendants were the rightful rulers of the Islamic community.
In 680 CE, Shia Muslims and Umayyad supporters fought in a bloody battle. The Shia Muslims lost, and Ali's son was killed. Today, Shia Muslims mourn the death of Ali's son during a holiday called Ashara.
The Umayyad Caliphs ruled for the next 70 years. These rulers started the Umayyad Caliphate (KAL-uh-FAYT). A caliphate is an Islamic empire ruled by a caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate controlled their empire from their capital in Damascus, a city in present-day Syria. Look at the map of places conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate.
A teenage conqueror
Muhammad ibn Qasim (KAW-sem) was only 17 years old when he was sent to conquer the Indus River valley region for the Umayyad Caliphate. When his armies attacked around 713 CE, Hindu rulers were in charge of the region.
The Hindu rulers were sometimes cruel to the Buddhists who also lived there. So, when the Muslim armies arrived, some Buddhists supported them:
In one city, Buddhist monks welcomed and fed the Muslim armies.
In another city, when Muslim armies arrived, Buddhists revolted and kicked out the Hindu rulers of the city.
By the early 700s CE, the Umayyad Caliphate controlled territory on three continents! The caliphate established garrison (GAIR-is-un) towns to help them rule their vast empire. Read about how garrison towns helped the Umayyad Caliphate control its empire. Then answer the question below.
Garrison towns were built in some territories conquered by the caliphate. They were built so Muslim soldiers from the Arabian Peninsula would live separately from local people. Each garrison town was ruled by a Muslim governor chosen by the caliph.
Garrison towns collected taxes from local people. Garrison towns were also closer to conquered territories and could stop rebellions more quickly than soldiers from Damascus.
Why did the Caliphate collect taxes?
Taxes were an important source of income for the Umayyad Caliphate. Money from taxes could be used for many things:
to pay soldiers and buy them food
to build new mosques
to make weapons
to pay people to work for the government
The Umayyad Caliphate tried to create a culture for its empire by promoting certain traditions. Read about some of the traditions introduced by the Umayyad Caliphs.
The caliphs made Arabic the official language of their empire. Religious texts, financial documents, and government work were all written in Arabic.
The caliphs made coins with Arabic words from an Islamic holy text written on them. The coins were used across the empire.
The caliphs made glass weights for weighing their coins. Each coin's weight determined its value. Glass weights often had Arabic writing on them.
Islam, Arabic, and the Quran
The main holy text in Islam is called the Quran (kuh-RAHN). Muslims believe the words in the Quran came directly from Allah. Since the prophet Muhammad received Allah's words in Arabic, most Muslims believe that the Quran should be read in Arabic.
Arabic words are read from right to left, unlike English, which is read from left to right.
Because Arabic and the Quran were so closely linked, Arabic often spread along with Islam. It became a common language that allowed people across the Umayyad Caliphate to communicate. Today, over 300 million people in the world speak Arabic!
Under the Umayyad Caliphate, some people in society had more power than others. For example, Arab people were often given special privileges. Arab describes people whose ancestors are from the Arabian Peninsula and who speak the Arabic language.
The diagram below shows social ranking of power in the Umayyad Caliphate. It shows that religion, family connections, and ethnic background played a role in the way people in Umayyad society were treated. Look at the diagram.
Most of the people ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate were not Muslims. However, Muslim leaders believed that Islam was closely related to Judaism and Christianity. So, they gave Christians and Jews living in the Umayyad Caliphate a special status. Christians and Jews were called dhimmis (THIM-ees). Read about some of the laws for dhimmis under Islamic rule.
By the 700s CE, the Umayyad Caliphate was struggling to rule its large empire. Read the timeline of events in the Umayyad Caliphate around that time.
By the 700s CE, the Umayyad Caliphate was as big as the United States is today!
It was difficult to control such a large area in a time period when traveling and communicating across long distances could take weeks or even months.
So, by the mid-700s CE, the Umayyad Caliphs started to lose control.
Many Muslims were unhappy with the Umayyad Empire. So, from 747 to 750 CE, they began a bloody revolution to conquer the Umayyad Empire. The revolution is called the Abbasid Revolution, because the main leaders were descended from the prophet Muhammad's uncle, al-Abbas.
Supporters of the Abbasid Revolution disliked the Umayyad Caliphate. So, the following people likely supported the revolution:
a Shia Muslim who believed that the Umayyad family did not have a right to rule. Shia Muslims supported the descendants of Ali. Since the Umayyads were not related to Ali, Shia Muslims disliked the Umayyad family.
a descendant of Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas who believed that their family was more important than the Umayyad family. A member of the Abbas family who believed their family had more of a right to power would have supported the Abbasid Revolution.
a Persian Muslim who was being treated as unequal to Arab Muslims. Sometimes the Umayyad leaders treated Persian Muslims as less important than Arab Muslims. Persian Muslims were sometimes forced to pay the dhimmi tax, even though they were Muslims! So, many Persian Muslims disliked the Umayyad Caliphate's rule.
This person would have been likely to oppose, or not support, the Abbasid Revolution:
an Arab Muslim soldier in Damascus who lived in the Umayyad capital. The soldier may have pledged to be loyal, or faithful, to the Umayyad Caliphate.
A bloody revolution
The Abbasid Revolution has been described by historians as violent and bloody. The revolution was so bloody that the first Abbasid Caliph was nicknamed "the blood shedder." Below is an Abbasid historian's description of the bloody Abbasid Revolution:
When the Umayyad Caliph heard the Abbasid army was on its way, he strengthened his military defenses in Damascus. The Abbasid army brought ladders and placed them against the walls of Damascus. The Umayyad supporters fought the Abbasid armies. But someone living in Damascus betrayed the Umayyads! The Umayyad traitor ran and opened the gates of the city from the inside, and the Abbasid army entered.
The Umayyad Caliph was among those killed.
Adapted from Theophilus, Theophilus of Edessa’s Chronicle and the Circulation of Historical Knowledge in Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Translated by Robert Hoyland. Copyright Liverpool University Press 2011.
The Abbasid Revolution's supporters conquered the Umayyad capital of Damascus and killed almost every member of the royal Umayyad family. This revolution ended the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus.
Although the first Umayyad Caliphate ended with the Abbasid Revolution, it is remembered for its beautiful buildings, which still exist today. Look at two of the most famous Umayyad buildings.
According to the table, Ibn Battuta called the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus magnificent, or amazing. The table also says that the Great Mosque of Damascus was built in the place of a Christian church, and the Dome of the Rock was built where there was once a Jewish temple. So, both buildings were created near places important to Jews and Christians.
The beauty of Damascus
The Umayyad Caliphate ruled Damascus for almost 100 years. Even after the Umayyads fell, Damascus was still famous for many years. The 13th-century traveler Ibn Battuta said this of Damascus:
Damascus surpasses all other cities in beauty, and no description, however full, can do justice to its charms.
surpasses: goes beyond
Damascus is in the present-day country of Syria.
The first empires ruled by Muslim leaders are called caliphates (KAY-lif-ayts). A caliphate was meant to be the main religious and political empire for the Muslim community at that time. Caliphates were ruled by leaders called caliphs (KAY-lifs).
There have been many competing caliphates in history.
Abbasids versus Umayyads
The Abbasid Revolution happened in 750 CE. During the Abbasid Revolution, people from the Abbasid family took power from the Umayyad family. Although both families were Muslim, each had different ideas of how to rule.
The groups of Muslims who supported the Abbasid Revolution disliked the Umayyad Caliphate for different reasons.
Why did so many people support the Abbasid Revolution?
Some people supported the Abbasid Revolution because they liked the Abbasids. Other people supported the revolution because they disliked the Umayyad Caliphate.
The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad family, which was Muslim and Arab. Arab describes someone whose ancestors were from the Arabian Peninsula. Not everyone in the Umayyad Caliphate was Muslim or Arab. The Umayyad family had trouble controlling such a diverse population.
Think critically
What groups of people do you think would have opposed the Abbasid Revolution? Here are some ideas:
people in the Umayyad government who benefited from Umayyad rule
Muslims from the Arabian peninsula who liked being treated better than other Muslims
The Abbasid Caliphate built a capital city for their empire in present-day Iraq. The capital city is now known as Baghdad. Baghdad was the center of the Abbasid Caliphate for hundreds of years. By the 800s CE, Baghdad had over 300,000 people and was the largest city in the world outside of China. Read two Muslim scholars' descriptions of Baghdad.
From the scholar Yakubi, ca. 800s CE
[Baghdad], bounded on the east by the Tigris [River] and on the west by the Euphrates [River], will prove to be the crossroads of the universe. Ships on the Tigris, coming from Wasit, Basra, Obolla, Ahwaz, Fars, Oman . . . will land and drop anchor there.
[Baghdad] will be the destination of products transported by ships on the Euphrates from Rakka, Syria . . . Egypt and [other places to the west].
From the scholar al-Muqadasi, ca. 900s CE
Supplies can come to [Baghdad] by the [ships on] the Euphrates [River]; caravans from Egypt and Syria will come across the desert, goods of all different kinds from China will reach [Baghdad] by sea, and from the Byzantines and Mosul [goods will come] by the Tigris [River].
Again [Baghdad] is in a place between rivers so that the enemy cannot reach [it] except by ship, or by bridge.
Byzantines: a nearby empire
Mosul: a city north of Baghdad
"I have never seen a city like Baghdad"
Baghdad was considered an impressive city for hundreds of years. Another famous Abbasid scholar, al-Jahiz, wrote this about Baghdad:
I have seen the greatest of cities that are known for their perfection . . . in the lands of Syria and the Greeks and other countries, but I have never seen a city like Baghdad whose roofs are so high, a city which is so round or more noble, the gates of which are wider and the walls better.
Reuven Snir. Baghdad: The City in Verse. Copyright Harvard University Press 2013.
The Abbasid caliphs ruled over an empire that was larger than the United States! The caliphs couldn't directly control everything happening in their empire, so they came up with many solutions to better control their empire. One solution was to divide up their empire into provinces, or smaller political regions within the empire.
The Abbasid rulers used laws to make their caliphate easier to control. The caliph and his governors chose special judges to make the laws. These judges used many written sources and traditions to create their laws. Read about the sources the judges used.
Sources of Abbasid laws
The Quran, a holy text in Islam that is believed to be the word of God
The Sunnah, or collections of teachings and sayings from Muhammad and stories about how he lived his life
Previous decisions made by judges who interpreted the Quran and Muhammad's teachings
Practices and traditions of the people living on the Arabian Peninsula before Islam began
Local traditions or customs in each province that the judges believed people should follow
Laws in the Abbasid Empire were based on Islam and other traditions. Because there were so many sources, judges in each province usually disagreed about how to interpret the sources and make them into laws. So, the laws of the Abbasid Empire often changed from province to province.
Abbasid judges and Abbasid caliphs
Judges could make laws and decisions based on Islam and other traditions. However, if a caliph disagreed with any laws a judge made, the caliph could reject it.
How does this system compare with the way that laws are made in the United States today? Can the U.S. president veto, or reject, any law he or she doesn't like?
Because the Abbasid Caliphate was ruled by Muslims, they promoted many Islamic traditions. For example, they supported the Hajj, a Muslim religious journey to Mecca. Mecca is the holiest city in Islam. Read the passage about how the Abbasid Caliphate supported the Hajj.
Mecca is the holiest city in the Islamic religion. During the Abbasid Caliphate, Muslims from faraway places such as Spain, North Africa, and Baghdad made the Hajj to Mecca.
One Abbasid queen, Queen Zubaydah, wanted to make the Hajj easier for people from the central Abbasid provinces. So, Queen Zubaydah ordered that wells, inns, rest houses, and palaces be built along the road from a city near Baghdad to Mecca. This route is now known as Zubaydah's Road.
How do Muslims make the Hajj today?
Today, Muslim pilgrims from all over the world still travel to Mecca to complete the Hajj. However, people are more likely to take an airplane than travel by foot.
The Abbasid Caliphate supported many projects. Look at some of the projects the Abbasid Caliphate spent its wealth on. Then answer the question below.
The Abbasids paid people to translate ancient Greek, Chinese, and Persian texts about science into Arabic.
The Abbasids paid people to create copies of the Quran, the holiest book in Islam. Sometimes, the Qurans were illustrated with gold!
The Abbasids built mosques, or Muslim places of worship. They also built palaces for government officials.
The Abbasids show off their power
One way the Abbasid Caliphate showed it had wealth and power was by making large buildings. One famous Abbasid building is the Great Mosque of Samarra. The mosque is surrounded by a courtyard that is larger than 400,000 square feet, which means that today it could fit 1,000 school buses inside!
The main feature of the mosque is the 180-foot-tall tower. The tower is surrounded by stairs which spiral upward. It was the tallest mosque in the world for around 200 years!
The Abbasid Caliphate paid people to write texts about science and medicine. Read about some of the Abbasid scientists.
In addition to science and medicine, Abbasid scholars made important contributions to other subject areas. These contributions can be seen in the work of the Abbasid scholar al-Khwarizmi (el-HUAR-ez-mee). Below is a part of one of al-Khwarizmi's most famous books. Read the passage from al-Khwarizmi's book.
From The Book of Completing and Balancing
A man is hired to work in a vineyard for 30 days for 10 dinar. He works 6 days. How much of the agreed price should he receive?
6 days are ⅕ of the whole time; the man should receive pay having the same relation to the . . . whole time, 30 days . . . Therefore, multiply the price 10 by the quantity 6 . . . divide the product 60 by the measure 30, giving 2 dinar. This will be . . . the amount due.
dinar: a type of money used in the Abbasid Empire
Adapted from Robert of Chester's Latin translation of the Algebra of al-Khwarizmi
Algebra and al-Jabr
Al-Khwarizmi is considered to be the father of algebra. In fact, the English word "algebra" comes from an Arabic word in the title of al-Khwarizmi's Book of Completing and Balancing.
The name of the book in Arabic is Kitab al-Jabr wa al Muqabala. Can you tell which Arabic word turned into the English word "algebra"?
The Abbasid Caliphate was famous for its accomplishments. However, the Abbasid Caliphate was not the only territory ruled by Muslims in the early 800s.
Another famous Muslim territory was the Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba, in present-day Spain and Portugal. The Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba was west of the Abbasid Caliphate and separated from it by the Mediterranean Sea. The kingdom was started by one member of the Umayyad family who escaped when the Abbasids took control during the Abbasid Revolution!
An escaped prince
The Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba was started by Prince Abd al-Rahman I, a prince from the Umayyad family. He had been part of the Umayyad Caliphate based in Damascus. But he fled for his life during the Abbasid Revolution. From Damascus, he traveled through Africa, gathered supporters, and established his new kingdom in Cordoba.
The Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba's capital was the city of Cordoba (KOR-duh-buh). Cordoba was considered a center of learning for hundreds of years.
Can you imagine visiting Umayyad Cordoba?
Under Umayyad rule, Cordoba had dozens of libraries, schools, and bookstores. Scholars traveled to study at the University of Cordoba, which was inside the Great Mosque. Even though the university was in a mosque, or Muslim place of worship, Christians, Jews, and Muslims could all still study there.
Today, the Mosque of Cordoba is a Christian church instead of a mosque or university.
During the Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba's rule, many people in their kingdom thrived. The Umayyads made important advancements that improved life for many people living in the kingdom.
Let it grow!
The Umayyad Kingdom of Cordoba increased the amount of fertile land available to farmers. Their water techniques allowed people to grow crops all year round!
They also brought new crops with them that could grow at different times in the year. For example, they brought rice, almonds, oranges, figs, pomegranates, and more!
In the 800s, both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Umayyad Kingdom were ruled by Sunni Muslims. Look at some of the other religions inside the Abbasid and Umayyad territories.
Who could become scholars in Muslim territories?
Often, scholars in the Muslim territories were wealthy Christian, Jewish, or Muslim men. However, not all scholars were rich! Some scholars were formerly enslaved and others started off in poor villages before moving to a big city for work. Not all scholars were men, either. There are some records about women becoming scholars, translators, poets, mathematicians, and important advisors.
The Abbasid caliph was supposed to be the main religious and political leader for all Muslims. However, in the 900s, other Muslim leaders started to call themselves caliphs, too.
Look at the timeline of the new caliphates that came to power in the 900s.
A world with many caliphates
Despite the competition between caliphates, people could still travel across the caliphates' territories:
Muslims from across Asia, Africa, and Europe still took part in the Hajj journey to Mecca.
Scholars from the different capitals of each caliphate could travel from one center of learning to another.
Travelers could use Arabic across all the caliphates, because it was one of the most popular languages used.
Although the caliphates shared many cultural similarities, one difference between them was their coins. Often, the coins had the name of the caliph who ruled in the place where the coin was made. The coins also had different designs.
Although the Abbasid, Fatimid, and Umayyad Caliphates sometimes fought for control, they still cooperated in many ways. For example, the caliphates made much of their wealth by trading with each other. Look at the table of some goods each empire traded around the year 1000.
One factor that determined which goods groups could sell was climate. For example, the mild weather in the Umayyad Caliphate allowed it to grow tasty oranges. The long, warm summers in the Fatimid Caliphate allowed it to grow high quality cotton. Another factor in determining what goods people could trade was natural resources. The Abbasid Caliphate could use its natural resources to mine and sell its silver for making coins. The caliphates often traded with the Song Dynasty too, because it had access to special caterpillars and trees that allowed it to produce silk.
Trade, art, and the mixing of styles
Trading goods from one place to another could influence the way goods in each place were designed. For example, this bowl was made in the Abbasid Caliphate and contains Arabic writing in the middle. However, the artist was influenced by the designs and colors of popular Chinese pottery made around that same time.
The Fatimid, Abbasid, and Umayyad Caliphates ruled for many years. After them, other Islamic caliphates continued to rule parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The technological advancements of all of the Islamic caliphates eventually made their way to Europe, starting around the 1200s.
Paper's journey to Europe
By 100 CE, people in East Asia had invented paper. The first Islamic empire to use paper was the Abbasid Caliphate, which established its first paper mills in central Asia in the 700s CE. From the Abbasids, the knowledge spread to the Fatimid Caliphate, across northern Africa, all the way to the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba in western Europe.
Eventually by the 1300s, paper also became popular in non-Muslim parts of Europe.
Can you imagine life before paper?
Before paper, people used other materials such as parchment or papyrus:
Parchment was made of animal skin and was expensive to make.
Papyrus was made of a special plant usually found only in Egypt.
Paper was a cheaper and easier alternative!
The Islamic caliphates that ruled between 750 and 1000 CE covered parts of Asia, Africa, and even Europe! The caliphates had some similarities:
They each spread and used the Arabic language.
They each promoted the religion of Islam.
They each were famous for being centers of art, science, and learning.
The Abbasid Caliphate: This caliphate overthrew the previous Umayyad caliphate in a bloody revolution. It then set up a world-famous capital in Baghdad.
The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba: This caliphate started as a Muslim kingdom in present-day Spain. It became a caliphate in the 900s when its king proclaimed himself caliph. It introduced many advancements to Europe, such as the waterwheel and new types of crops.
The Fatimid Caliphate: This caliphate controlled most of northern Africa and was ruled by Shia Muslims. Its capital city, Cairo, is still famous today.
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