Egypt

Ancient Egypt_ Crash Course World History #4.mp4

Ancient Egypt.mp4

The Pyramids of Egypt and the Giza Platea.mp4

Egyptian Pharaohs.mp4

Ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations. Civilizations are complex societies with organized communities and governments. Many of the first civilizations started around big rivers.

What is a civilization?

Civilizations are complex societies with organized communities and governments. They also have distinct languages, religions, and art. Many of the first civilizations were based on agriculture, or farming crops.

Why did many early civilizations begin along rivers?

Humans living in ancient civilizations needed water to grow their crops, so many early civilizations developed along rivers. Here are some of the crops grown in ancient Egypt: papyrus, emmer wheat, grapes

Egypt is the gift of the Nile

The Greek historian Herodotus (hih-RAH-duh-tus) called the land of Egypt a gift of the Nile. The Nile River has created fertile land in Egypt for thousands of years. Without the Nile River's fresh water, ancient Egyptian civilization might not have existed!

For the ancient Egyptians, the Nile River was an important natural resource, or environmental feature that people used to meet their needs.

Lower Egypt was close to the part of the Nile River that flowed into the Mediterranean Sea.

Why is Lower Egypt north of Upper Egypt?

The names Lower and Upper Egypt are based on the Nile River's flow. Like all rivers, the Nile flows downhill. It begins in the highlands of sub-Saharan Africa, south of Egypt, and then flows downhill into the Mediterranean Sea, north of Egypt. So, the southern part of Egypt is called Upper Egypt because it is upstream, and the northern part of Egypt is called Lower Egypt because it is downstream.

How did Lower and Upper Egypt differ?

The people in Lower and Upper Egypt had different cultures and traditions. Archaeologists came to these conclusions using this evidence:

- Lower Egyptian pottery was similar to other Mediterranean-style pottery while Upper Egyptian pottery was similar to sub-Saharan African pottery.
- Lower Egyptian and Upper Egyptian towns had different layouts.
- Lower and Upper Egyptian burial sites were decorated and organized differently.
- Lower Egyptians raised different animals than Upper Egyptians. Archaeologists discovered this information by digging up ancient animal bones in each region. For example, Lower Egypt raised more goats, sheep, and donkeys than Upper Egypt.

The English word "nome" comes from nomos, the ancient Greek word for the Egyptian territories.

What did the Ancient Egyptians call their territories?

The ancient Egyptians called their territories sepats (sep-ATS). Each sepat had its own leaders, traditions, and gods. The sepats often traded and fought with each other, too.

Did King Narmer even exist?

Some historians believe that a king like Narmer existed. They believe he was a leader of the Thinis nome in Upper Egypt. Historians point to the palette of King Narmer, an ancient stone platter used in religious rituals, as evidence that he conquered Lower Egypt and unified the two territories. On one side of the palette, King Narmer wears the crown of Upper Egypt. On the other side, he wears the crown of Lower Egypt. Although historians are not sure how ancient Egypt was unified, they do know that it became one kingdom around 3000 BCE.

Historians divide ancient Egyptian history into about 30 royal dynasties. A dynasty is a series of rulers from the same family. Look at the timeline of the first 21 Egyptian dynasties, where each arrow points to the beginning of a new dynasty.

Why do historians divide Egyptian history into dynasties and kingdoms?

Modern historians use kingdoms to mark times in ancient Egyptian history when both Lower and Upper Egypt were unified under the rule of one king. The Old Kingdom was the first time period when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified into one civilization. Intermediate periods were times when multiple kings ruled different parts of ancient Egypt at the same time.

The first historian to divide ancient Egyptian history into dynasties was an Egyptian named Manetho. But, Manetho lived around 300 BCE—thousands of years after the end of the Old Kingdom! So, many historians today doubt Manetho's accuracy, or correctness.

How else can historians learn about ancient Egyptian dynasties?

Historians can use sources such as the Palermo Stone to create a complete list of ancient Egyptian kings. This was made during the Old Kingdom. It lists Egyptian kings from the First Dynasty to the Fifth Dynasty.

The most famous architectural monuments from the Old Kingdom are pyramids. Many historians believe that the first Old Kingdom pyramid was designed for the ancient Egyptian king Djoser (ZO-sir).

False doors and high walls

King Djoser's step-pyramid contained valuable items. To protect the treasure from thieves, the pyramid was surrounded by a high wall. To further confuse the thieves, the wall had 1 real door and 14 fake doors!

Who designed Djoser's step-pyramid?

The designer for Djoser's pyramid was a famous architect and physician named Imhotep. Imhotep became so famous for his work that by the 600s BCE he was worshipped as a god of healing and writing!

Some of the most famous Old Kingdom pyramids are clustered in the region of Giza, Egypt.

The three main Giza pyramids were built for different kings:

King Khufu's pyramid was built around 2560 BCE. It was the tallest and the oldest of the three pyramids.
King Khafre's pyramid was built around 30 years later. It was smaller than Khufu's pyramid.
Finally, around 2510 BCE, King Menkaure, Khafre's son, had his pyramid built.

The Sphinx

In addition to the pyramids, another impressive structure at Giza is the Sphinx (pronounced: SFINKS). Many historians believe the Sphinx was built for King Khafre, but they still don't know its purpose!

The Giza pyramids were well known, even in the ancient world. Read this account from the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (hih-RAH-duh-tus) about the Giza pyramids.

Who is Herodotus?

Herodotus was a historian from ancient Greece. Sometimes he is called "the father of history," since he was one of the first historians.

Herodotus wrote that he traveled to Egypt around 450 BCE, nearly 2,000 years after the Great Pyramid was built. While some of Herodotus's claims are now considered false, historians still use his texts as a guide to the ancient world.

Modern historians disagree with parts of Herodotus's account of how the Giza pyramids were built. Compare a historian's notes on the building of the Great Pyramid to Herodotus's account.

how many people built it. Herodotus claims that 100,000 people were needed to build the Great Pyramid. Modern historians argue that only 20,000 people worked to complete it.
how Khufu got people to work for him. Herodotus claims that King Khufu ordered people to build the Great Pyramid. Past historians thought that this meant the pyramids were built by enslaved people. However, modern historians believe that the pyramids were built by free workers who were paid, housed, and fed.
how tall it was. Herodotus claims that the height of the pyramid is 800 feet. However, modern historians know that the pyramid was only 481 feet tall.

The Old Kingdom period is sometimes called the "Age of the Pyramids." Look at the map of towns with Old Kingdom pyramids.

The kings of the Old Kingdom built many pyramid tombs. Most of their pyramids were on the west bank of the Nile River, because that is the direction the sun sets. The sunset was related to the idea of death in Ancient Egypt.

Although the Giza pyramids are the most famous, Egypt has dozens of pyramids from the Old Kingdom. For example, three pyramids near Dahshur (dah-SHOOR), a town south of Giza:

- The pyramid in the far, back left is called the Bent Pyramid. It was built for King Snefru of the Fourth Dynasty. Some historians believe the pyramid was meant to be a place for people to worship Snefru after his death.
- The small pyramid in the foreground is King Pepi II's Pyramid. King Pepi II is often considered the last ruler of the Old Kingdom.
- The large pyramid on the far right is called the Red Pyramid. It was also built for King Snefru. Like the Bent Pyramid, it may have been a place for people to honor Snefru after his death, not a place for King Snefru's mummy. King Snefru's mummy has never been found.

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has spent millions of dollars to help the Egyptian government preserve the Giza Pyramids. Read the quotation from the U.S. ambassador, or representative, to Egypt.

Egypt's antiquities are part of its extraordinary cultural heritage and also represent a key economic asset that creates jobs and income. U.S. support helps Egypt preserve, restore, and protect world-class monuments for its vital tourism industry.

antiquities: objects from ancient times

asset: advantage

USAID. "U.S. Helps Preserve Base of Sphinx by Lowering Groundwater." USAID Press Release. Sept 3, 2015.

The Pyramids of Giza today

The Giza plateau is close to the present-day city of Cairo, Egypt. Cairo is a large, sprawling city of over 9 million people. Sometimes Cairo's development threatens the Giza pyramids. Roads, landfills, and new construction may damage the historic site. Organizations like USAID in the U.S. and the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) in Egypt work to preserve the monuments in the face of the growing city.

Historians can learn about Old Kingdom traditions from hieroglyphs. In hieroglyphic writing, a picture represents a word, sound, or syllable.

Most people in the Old Kingdom did not know how to read or write. Writing was a special job for a group of people called scribes. Scribes often used a form of Egyptian writing called hieratic (hi-uh-RAH-tik).

Imagine you're an ancient Egyptian scribe

Scribes had these important tasks in ancient Egypt:

tracking the level of the Nile River
recording tax collection information
counting the population to see who was available for military service
measuring and keeping track of land ownership

Evolving systems of writing

During the Old Kingdom, hieratic was used for everyday writing. Around 700 BCE, an even simpler form of hieratic called demotic became popular.

Historians haven't always been able to read ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Read about how historians learned to understand hieroglyphs.

By around 30 BCE, people no longer wrote in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Because no one used them, people quickly forgot how to understand and translate hieroglyphic texts. So, for over 1,700 years, the meaning of ancient Egyptian writing was lost to the world.

But in 1799 CE, a French soldier discovered a heavy black stone near the Egyptian town of Rosetta. The Rosetta Stone had a decree from King Ptolemy V carved into it in three different languages: Greek, demotic Egyptian, and hieroglyphic Egyptian. People still spoke Greek, so scholars were able to use the Greek words to read and translate the Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Scholars were finally able to understand ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs!

demotic Egyptian: a simplified form of Egyptian writing

The key to a lost language

On the Rosetta Stone, the text at the top is written in hieroglyphs, the middle text is in demotic Egyptian, and the bottom text is in Greek. Scholars used their knowledge of Greek to translate the stone.

In addition to hieroglyphs, archaeologists can also use objects from the Old Kingdom to learn about ancient Egyptian culture.

Archaeologists can also study the materials that objects are made of to learn about ancient civilizations.

The Old Kingdom and Nubia

Ancient Egypt often controlled the land of Nubia, an area to the south of Upper Egypt. Nubia was was rich with gold and copper. Many Old Kingdom rulers wanted to control Nubia to gain access to those materials and to enslave the people living there.

For example, King Snefru of the Fourth Dynasty raided Nubia, captured 7,000 Nubians, and stole 200,000 cattle. The land of Nubia is now divided between the present-day countries of Egypt and Sudan.

Historians and scientists who study ancient Egypt don't always reach the same conclusions. Read these two summarized sources about the end of the Old Kingdom.

The end of the Old Kingdom

Although historians agree that the Old Kingdom ended around 2150 BCE because of a drought, they do not agree on how exactly the drought led to the kingdom's downfall.

Why do historians disagree?

Often historians interpret sources and evidence in different ways, leading to disagreements. Here are some reasons why historians might interpret evidence differently:

Historians choose which sources to believe based on the credibility, or trustworthiness, of the source. Some historians trust sources that other historians do not.
Historians can approach historical evidence from different perspectives.
Historians today have access to more technological tools than historians in the past. Historians can use technology to learn new information, which sometimes disproves past arguments.

History students must understand and evaluate, or judge, different sources in order to form their own opinions.

- Around 3000 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt unified into one kingdom. Historians disagree as to whether the unification was gradual or rapid.
- In 2600 BCE, the first Egyptian step-pyramid was designed for King Djoser. Architects at the time didn't know how to make true pyramids, so the step-pyramid was an impressive architectural achievement!
- In 2560 BCE, the Great Pyramid of Giza was built for King Khufu. This pyramid was the tallest building in the world for 4,000 years!
- By 2150 BCE, a long and severe drought led to the end of the Old Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom is sometimes called "The Age of the Pyramids." Although the Old Kingdom only lasted around 600 years, its amazing architectural works have lasted until the present!

Religion is an important part of many people's lives today. It was also important to people in ancient civilizations, including ancient Egyptians. In ancient Egypt, powerful gods were an important part of religious beliefs.

What does it mean to worship?

To worship gods usually means to honor them or show them respect. Today, worship is often in the form of prayer, or communication with a god.

Ancient Egyptian gods had a variety of roles and appearances. The table below describes some of the gods. Read the description of each god.

Ancient Egyptian religion included dozens of gods. Below are some other ancient Egyptian gods and their descriptions. How do you think the environment of ancient Egypt affected the types of gods ancient Egyptians believed in?

Sobek: god of the marsh

Sobek is often shown with the head of a crocodile and the body of a man. He was popular in the ancient Egyptian town of Shedet. The Greeks later called the town Krokodilopolis, which means "Crocodile City"! The Nile River in that area had many crocodiles, which could have been deadly to ancient Egyptians!

Hathor: goddess of love

Hathor is normally shown as a beautiful woman with cow horns and a sun disc on her head. She was associated with many things, such as childbirth, shiny metals, and the moon.

Nut: goddess of the sky

Nut was the mother of Osiris. She is often shown as a naked woman with her body outstretched. Ancient Egyptians believed that Nut swallowed the sun each night, then gave birth to it the next morning. They thought that the red of the morning sky was the blood from her giving birth to the sun.

Ancient Egyptians did not all worship the same gods or hold the same beliefs. Instead, Egyptians from different towns and time periods believed in many different gods and stories. Read one ancient Egyptian story about the creation of the world.

In the beginning of time, there was only water. Then, suddenly, out of the water, the god Atum (ah-TOOM) was born. He made the first hill to stand on. Then, Atum spit, and his spit created the god Shu and the goddess Tefnut.

Shu and Tefnut gave birth to the god Geb and the goddess Nut. Geb was the god of the Earth and Nut was the goddess of the sky. Together, they gave birth to the gods Osiris (oh-SAI-rus) and Seth, and the goddesses Isis (AI-sis) and Nephthys (NEF-tees).

Where was Atum popular?

Atum was popular in the ancient Egyptian town later known as Heliopolis, in Lower Egypt. Atum's main temple was in Heliopolis. When Heliopolis became a powerful city, Atum became a more popular god.

Today, there is still an obelisk in the place where Atum's temple once was! An obelisk is a structure with a rectangular bottom and a pyramid on top.

Some Egyptians believed different creation stories. Read an alternative creation myth.

In the beginning, there was water. The water was the god Ptah (p'TAH). Everything the god Ptah thought with his heart and said with his tongue came to be. His heart and tongue were Atum.

Ptah was the source of all life. Ptah's words created all life, gods, and cities. Since Ptah created all life and gods, all gods were one with Ptah.

Ptah created order out of chaos. After Ptah spoke and made all of life, he rested.

Atum: a popular sun god

Around 2500 BCE, kings in Lower Egypt controlled most of the Egyptian land. Two popular sun gods in Lower Egypt were Atum and Ra. Ra represented the midday sun and Atum represented the setting sun. Sometimes, to represent the whole sun, Ra and Atum were combined into one god, Atum-Ra.

In contrast, in Upper Egypt the popular sun god was Amun. By 1500 BCE, kings in Upper Egypt gained power over both Upper and Lower Egypt. As a result, Amun and Ra were combined to become Amun-Ra.

Why combine Amun and Ra?

Amun was the main god of the Upper Egyptian city of Thebes (pronounced THEEBS). By around 1500 BCE, Thebes was one of the most important religious cities in Egypt. But before Thebes became powerful, people in other parts of Egypt were unfamiliar with Theban gods like Amun.

Combining Amun with Ra, who was already a popular god in other places, made Amun more familiar to people outside Thebes. This sense of familiarity made non-Thebans more likely to accept a Theban god as their own.

During each ancient Egyptian king's rule, that king was considered to be a god.

Long live the female-Horus!

In rare cases, a woman could rule ancient Egypt. One famous ancient Egyptian female-king was Hatshepsut (hat-SHEP-soot). She ruled from around 1470-1450 BCE. Here is an inscription from one of her obelisks:

Long live the female-Horus 'Powerful of spirit',

the Two Ladies 'flourishing in years',

the Golden Horus 'Divine of appearances' . . .

The daughter of Ra

Hatshepsut-united-with-Amun who lives for

ever and ever!

flourishing: growing and succeeding

Wilkinson, Toby. Writings from Ancient Egypt. Copyright Penguin Classics 2016. p.192

The temple of Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut's temple was built near ancient Thebes, but soon after her death it was destroyed. In the 1960s CE, archaeologists from Poland reconstructed her temple! Can you imagine standing on the steps of a 3,400 year old temple?

The god Horus was the son of the gods Osiris and Isis. Read the story about Horus and his family.

Geb, god of the earth, named Osiris and Isis the first king and queen of Egypt. Their brother, Seth, was jealous. Seth wanted to be king instead. So, he murdered Osiris. Isis was angry. She used her powers to bring Osiris back to life. But instead of becoming king of Egypt again, Osiris became king of the dead. Soon afterward, Osiris and Isis had a son named Horus. Geb considered Horus to be the rightful king of Egypt because Horus was Osiris's son. However, to become king, Horus first had to fight his uncle Seth. After a big battle, Horus defeated Seth and became the king of Egypt. Seth became associated with evil, the desert, and enemies of Egypt.

Horus's family

During his or her reign, each ruler of Egypt was considered to be the god Horus. Then, after the ruler died, they became associated with the god of the dead, Osiris.

A family feud

According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, Horus and his uncle Seth fought for the crown of Egypt. During the bloody fight, Horus lost his eye, and Seth was wounded badly too. There are many differing ideas of what happened to Seth at the end of the battle. But most versions of the story end with Horus winning the right to rule Egypt.

Ancient Egyptians considered the king of Egypt to be a god. They also expected the king to promote Maat in Egypt and to keep away Isfet.

Maat vs. Seth

Ancient Egyptian gods were associated with ideas, objects, actions, and events. The idea of Maat was associated with the goddess Maat. Maat was goddess of truth and order. The opposite of Maat was Isfet. The god associated with Isfet was Seth, god of the desert. Seth was the uncle of Horus and the brother of Osiris.

Many ancient Egyptians believed that the king was the same as the god Horus. They also believed the king brought Maat to the world.

Many of the common people in ancient Egypt believed the following:

- The king maintained Maat, which was connected to order. So, rebelling against the king could bring Isfet, or chaos.
- The king had the authority of a god. People were less likely to rebel against a god than a human.

The king's power and association with the gods made the common people of Egypt more likely to obey him.

Ancient Egyptians' beliefs were influenced by the natural world. For example, they observed natural cycles all around them. Cycles are events that repeat regularly and in the same order. Ancient Egyptians believed that natural cycles would become chaotic, or disorderly, if Maat was not preserved.

Religion and the environment

Natural cycles inspired ancient Egyptian religious festivals. For example, one famous festival was called the Sed Festival. During a Sed Festival, a king had to renew his royal powers. The Sed festival usually first happened 30 years into a king's rule, and then at regular cycles of 2, 3, or 4 years until the king's death. Each festival lasted for 5 days.

Celebrating the Sed Festival!

The festival took place in a temple and required many rituals and preparations. Here are some of the festival's events:

As the king sits on a throne, people parade before him and offer gifts and loyalty.
The king does a special run or dance across the temple.
The king shoots four arrows, one in each cardinal direction.

Ancient Egyptians' beliefs about life were influenced by their observation of natural cycles. For example, ancient Egyptians believed in a pattern of death and rebirth. They believed that after people died, they could be reborn in the afterlife, or a second life that comes after death. Read this ancient Egyptian song about the afterlife from around 1300 BCE.

Harpist's Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep

[The afterlife] is right and correct without terror . . .

All our kin rest there since the first beginning;

Those yet to be born . . .

Shall come to it without exception . . .

It is a dream.

One says, "Welcome, safe and sound!"

To the person who reaches [the afterlife].

kin: ancestors, relatives

Based on the song, many ancient Egyptians believed the afterlife was a peaceful place.

What was ancient Egyptian paradise like?

Many descriptions of the afterlife mention good farming, fertile fields, and plentiful water. Some Egyptians called the afterlife Sekhet-Aaru, which translates as "Field of Reeds." Below is another description of life after death for ancient Egyptians. How do you think ancient Egypt's environment affected people's beliefs about the afterlife?

You thrive on water, you breathe air . . .

You drink as your heart desires.

Your eyes are given you to see,

Your ears to hear what is spoken,

Your mouth speaks, your feet walk . . .

You rise to heaven . . . in any shape that you desire. . . .

Your heart rejoices as you plow

In your plot in the Field of Reeds;

You are rewarded with what you have grown,

You gather a harvest rich in grain . . .

You waken gladly every day . . .

You traverse eternity in joy.

traverse: travel through

Ancient Egyptians believed they needed to help a dead person enter the afterlife. They helped the dead person by performing specific rituals.

Before an ancient Egyptian's dead body entered a tomb, it had to be properly mummified.

Where did the organs go?

Once a dead person's organs were removed, they were stored inside canopic jars. The organs that were put in jars were the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines. The brain was thrown away. The heart was always left inside the body.

According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, not everyone was worthy of entering the afterlife. First, the dead had to pass two tests. Read about the first test.

Read about the second test spirits had to pass in order to enter the afterlife.

What happened to a person who failed the test?

If the person's heart weighed more than the feather on Anubis's scale, the person was banished to darkness forever. The person's soul could also be thrown into a lake of fire, or eaten by a monster named Ammit. Ammit was part crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus.

Ancient Egyptian religious practices lasted for over 3,000 years. During that time, ancient Egypt was controlled by many different rulers. Look at the timeline showing some of the rulers who controlled ancient Egypt.

Who is Serapis?

Serapis is considered to be a combination of Greek and Egyptian gods. He has some of the traits of the Egyptian god Osiris and the Greek gods Zeus (pronounced ZOOS) and Dionysus (die-uh-NIE-ses). The main city where Serapis was worshipped was Alexandria. However, his popularity soon spread to other cities as well.

Alexandria

Alexander the Great conquered Egypt around 332 BCE. He then named a city after himself, Alexandria. The location of Alexandria was particularly important:

It was a natural harbor on the Mediterranean Sea.
It was on the Nile River and near a lake, so it had fresh water.

Around 300 BCE, the goddess Isis became popular in ancient Egypt. Then, a few hundred years later in 30 BCE, the Roman Empire conquered Egypt. The Roman Empire ruled Egypt for hundreds of years.

Changing a goddess

In ancient Egyptian tradition, Isis was the wife of Osiris. However, when the Greeks introduced Serapis, they also changed Isis's story too. In the Greco-Roman religion, Isis became the wife of Serapis instead.

Some ancient Egyptian religious beliefs spread through the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire also affected ancient Egyptian religion too. For example, ancient Egyptian burial art changed style under the Roman Empire.

Look at the two body coverings for mummies below. Compare the ancient Egyptian mummy wrap on the left to the Greco-Roman, or Greek and Roman influenced, style on the right.

Greek, Egyptian, and Roman art often borrowed ideas and styles from each other.

For the first few hundred years of Roman control, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was home to people of many different religions. Jews, Christians, and worshippers of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman gods all lived in the city.

However, after 312 CE, the Roman Empire was mostly ruled by Christian emperors. Read some of the laws that Christian emperors made between 300 and 500 CE.

Why did Christian rulers restrict other religions?

Christians believe in only one god. Christian rulers have often believed that everyone should become a Christian. In Egypt, Roman Christian rulers persecuted, or punished, non-Christians for their beliefs.

One ruler who wrote laws against non-Christians was Theodosius I. How do you think Jewish people or people who practiced the ancient Egyptian religion felt about Theodosius I?

Egypt has changed a lot in the 1,600 years since Roman rule. Present-day Egypt has a population of over 94.5 million!

Page updated

Report abuse