Independence

After 1763, the British Parliament began to tax the Thirteen Colonies more heavily to help pay off debt from the French and Indian War. Parliament also restricted colonial trade. Many colonists resented these new taxes and restrictions. After the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, which required Americans to pay a tax on all paper they used, an American colonist drew a cartoon with this caption:

The moral is, that the colonies may be ruined, but that Britain would thereby be maimed.

maimed: permanently wounded

Did the colonies want independence?

In the years immediately following the French and Indian War, many Americans hoped that Parliament would repeal taxes and other restrictions. Most people were not yet discussing independence. Instead, many Americans argued that if the colonies were hurt economically, Great Britain would be hurt, too.

Colonial representatives gathered in 1765 in a meeting called the Stamp Act Congress to protest the Stamp Act and other limits on American freedoms. Although they opposed the British restrictions, the members of the Stamp Act Congress declared loyalty to Great Britain and the king:

It is from and under the English Constitution, we derive all our civil and religious rights and liberties: we glory in being subjects of the best of kings, and having been born under the most perfect form of government.

Before the war broke out, Patriots and Loyalists argued their cases in newspaper articles and in speeches. Read the two excerpts from texts from 1775.

Daniel Leonard, writing under the name "Massachusettensis" in 1775

Do you expect to conquer in war? War is no longer a simple, but an intricate science, not to be learned from books or two or three campaigns, but from long experience. . . . His Majesty's generals . . . are possessed of every talent requisite to great commanders[.]

intricate: complex

requisite: necessary

Patrick Henry, speech before the Virginia Assembly in 1775

Sir, we are not weak if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature [has] placed in our power. Three millions of people armed in the holy cause of liberty . . . are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us.

invincible: cannot be defeated

Daniel Leonard wrote that winning a war depended on "long experience." Leonard also argued that British officers had "every talent" necessary for success. So, Leonard might point to the British army's superior military resources as a reason that the British would win the war.

Patrick Henry said that the colonists would win independence because they had "three millions of people" on their side. So, in making his argument that the Patriots would win a war with the British, Henry might point to the fact that over three-quarters of colonists were Patriots.

The fact that women contributed to both the Loyalist and Patriot causes is not relevant to either argument.

Complete the text.

King George III was the king of Great Britain during the Revolutionary War. He saw the struggle with the colonies as a threat to the whole British Empire. If the Thirteen Colonies could form their own country, then other parts of the empire might also try to break away.

Was King George III a tyrant?

A tyrant is a ruler who uses his or her power in a cruel way. Patriots often called King George III a tyrant. But he did not see himself that way. He was trying to keep the British Empire together, and he believed what he was doing was right.

Even after years of war, King George III still believed that most of the colonists were loyal to him. He thought the war was started by a small group of rebels who tricked the colonists into fighting. He believed his loyal colonists would eventually grow tired of war and help the British end it.

Read the two accounts of the Battles of Lexington and Concord.

John Parker, commander of the American militia in Lexington, April 25, 1775

I immediately ordered our militia to disperse and not to fire. Immediately, [the British] troops made their appearance and rushed furiously, fired upon and killed eight of our party, without receiving any provocation therefore from us.

disperse: move away

provocation: challenge

British troops to General Gage, published 1779

Major Pitcairn came up immediately and cried out to the rebels to throw down their arms and disperse, which they did not do. He called out a second time, but to no purpose. Upon which he ordered our light-infantry to advance and disarm them, which they were doing, when one of the rebels fired a shot. Our soldiers returned the fire and killed about 14 of them.

rebels: the American militia opposing the British

light-infantry: soldiers who try to keep the enemy from advancing

How else do the American and British accounts differ?

• • The American account says that the American militiamen were dispersing when the British advanced. The British account claims that this is untrue.

  • The American account says that eight Patriots were killed. The British account says that 14 Patriots were killed.

Why do these differences matter?

The details help show who was to blame. Each side wanted to blame the other for starting the battles.

For example, one poster described the Battles of Lexington and Concord as "Bloody Butchery of the British Troops." Which side did the author of that poster support?

On the same day that the Second Continental Congress first met, Patriots were planning to attack a British fort. Read the story of that attack.

Fort Ticonderoga was a British fort in northern New York. It had a large number of cannons, but it was not well defended. So, a Massachusetts militia led by Benedict Arnold went to capture it. On the way, the militia joined forces with Colonel Ethan Allen. Allen led the Green Mountain Boys, another militia from present-day Vermont.

Before dawn on May 10, 1775, the two militias quietly crossed the lake near the fort. They found the fort defended by fewer than 50 soldiers. The British were completely surprised, and the soldiers at the fort quickly surrendered. The Patriots did not even fire a single shot. But they won an important prize: a collection of British cannons!

How did the Patriots surprise the British?

The capture of Fort Ticonderoga took place three weeks after the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Why weren't the British ready for a Patriot attack?

Look at the location of Fort Ticonderoga. It was about 200 miles from the battles in Massachusetts. But it was also at the edge of the colonies. At the time, the area was still mostly wilderness.

News traveled slowly in those days, especially through the wilderness. A British general in Boston had even tried to warn the fort, but the message didn't arrive for about a month! By then, it was too late.

A little more than a month after the Battle of Fort Ticonderoga, George Washington was chosen to lead the Continental Army. Read the passage about George Washington.

George Washington was born into a wealthy Virginian family. When he was only 21 years old, he started fighting in the French and Indian War. Despite his age, he quickly earned a reputation as a strong leader.

Washington fought alongside the British as an officer in the Virginia militia. As a result, he knew firsthand how the British fought wars. He also understood how to train and organize large groups of soldiers. These skills made him a good choice to lead the Continental Army.

Washington was also known for being modest. He never asked to be put in charge. Despite his experience as a military leader, he was not sure he was good enough to lead the Continental Army.

George Washington's modesty

George Washington was a talented and successful leader. But he was known for being modest.

When he accepted his position as commander-in-chief, he refused any payment for his service. He also asked that the men in the Congress remember these words:

I do not think myself equal to the Command I am honored with.

A few days after George Washington was chosen to lead the Continental Army, John Adams wrote a letter to his wife, Abigail. Read the passage from the letter.

I can now inform you that the Congress have made choice of the modest and virtuous, the amiable, generous and brave George Washington, to be General of the American Army . . . . This appointment will have a great effect, in cementing and securing the Union of these Colonies. The continent is really in earnest in defending the Country.

virtuous: good, honest, moral

amiable: likeable

Why did John Adams think Washington would unite the colonists?

At the Second Continental Congress, John Adams represented Massachusetts, where the war began. But Adams wanted all the colonies to support the war, so he wanted a military leader from a different colony.

John Adams liked the fact that George Washington was from Virginia. By placing a Virginian in charge, the Congress helped the other colonies feel like they were part of the war.

In June 1775, as the Second Continental Congress was meeting, American militiamen and British troops clashed at the Battle of Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts. The Battle of Bunker Hill was the bloodiest battle of the entire war.

News of the battle spread quickly. The passage below comes from a June 17, 1775, diary entry written by Nathaniel Ober. Ober was a shoemaker, a Patriot, and a soldier in the Massachusetts militia. He was not present at the Battle of Bunker Hill.

This was a melancholy day. Not only a great number of our brave friends fell but a great deal of substance was consumed by fire for our unnatural enemies set fire to the Town of Charlestown, which consumed almost every house in that town. But it is said that we killed in the battle 29 commissioned officers and 220 non-commissioned officers and 752 privates. So great was the fall of our enemies.

melancholy: sad

privates: low-ranking soldiers

Who won the Battle of Bunker Hill?

The British succeeded in capturing the hills of Charlestown during the Battle of Bunker Hill. Even though the British won the battle, the British General William Howe said that the victory was "dearly bought."

The British had over 1,000 casualties, or men who were killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. The British casualties included a large number of officers. By comparison, the Patriots lost only 430 men to death or injury. Based on these numbers, would you guess that the British won the battle?

This painting from the early 1800s by the former Continental Army soldier John Trumbull shows the death of the doctor and Patriot General Joseph Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Which parts of the painting give you clues that the artist supported the Patriots?

Read the two passages from letters written in the days after the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Abigail Adams, letter to her husband John Adams, June 20, 1775

The spirits of the [American] people are very good. The loss of Charlestown affects them no more than a drop in the bucket.

British general Thomas Gage, letter to British leaders in London, June 26, 1775

[The colonists] are now spirited up by a rage and enthusiasm as great as ever people were possessed of, and you must proceed in earnest or give the business up.

spirited up: inspired

proceed in earnest: commit fully to the war

According to both letters, the American colonists were united and determined to win the war.

What can we learn from letters?

Private letters can tell historians what people thought about an event. Letter writers might include information or viewpoints that they would not state publicly. For example, in one letter to British leaders in London, General Thomas Gage admitted that he mishandled the Battle of Bunker Hill.

But like other primary sources, or sources created around the time of a historical event, letters are not factual recordings of the past. The information and thoughts expressed in letters are influenced by letter writers' perspectives, audiences, and goals.

With fighting already underway, George Washington took command of the Continental Army in July 1775. A few days later, he wrote about the soldiers in a letter:

I found a mixed multitude of people here, under very little discipline, order, or government.

multitude: a large number

How did George Washington teach the army discipline?

Most of the soldiers in the Continental Army had never been in an army before. They were not used to following orders or fighting in a large, organized group. So, George Washington created stricter rules to organize his soldiers:

• • stay clean at all times

  • no leaving camp without permission

  • no shooting guns in camp

  • no fishing in the nearby pond

Washington also began punishing disobedient soldiers. Sometimes he would even kick them out of the army!

Even as the Continental Army fought the British, the Second Continental Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July 1775. The petition stated that the colonies would stop fighting if Great Britain would repeal, or get rid of, certain laws and taxes. Read the sentence from the petition.

Your Majesty will find your faithful subjects on this continent ready and willing at all times. . . to assert and maintain the rights and interests of your Majesty, and of our mother country.

What were the colonists fighting for?

When the Revolutionary War began, the colonists' goal was not yet clear. Not all of the colonists really wanted to break away from Great Britain. Some of them suggested other solutions:

• • The Thirteen Colonies would stay a part of the British Empire, but the British Parliament could not tax them.

  • The Thirteen Colonies would stay a part of the British Empire, but they would make their own Parliament.

Some of the colonial leaders thought that by offering peace, Great Britain might be willing to make a deal. But by then, the colonists had already killed many British soldiers. The British leaders did not agree to peace.

People's attitudes toward Lord Dunmore's Proclamation and other events of the war were shaped by the news.

Different reports, different opinions

Imagine that you are a colonist reading a report that British troops plundered the houses of innocent people in Boston. How would you feel about the British?

Now imagine that you are a person in Great Britain reading about the fighting in Boston. You read that colonists in Boston are stockpiling weapons in their homes. You read that these colonists want to attack British soldiers. How would you feel about the colonists?

As you can imagine, the news played a role in how people felt about the war. Has a news report ever changed your view on a subject?

In January 1776, Thomas Paine published the influential pamphlet Common Sense under the pen name "an Englishman." Read the passage from Common Sense.

Let the names of Whig and Tory be extinct; and let none other be heard among us, than those of a good citizen, an open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of mankind, and of the free and independent states of America.

Whig: Patriot

Tory: Loyalist

"The Father of the American Revolution"

Thomas Paine was born in England, a part of Great Britain, but he became one of the most important writers of the American Revolution. His pamphlet, Common Sense, sold about 120,000 copies in only three months.

Thomas Paine's words encouraged many colonists to talk and argue about the idea of independence. Because his writing changed so many minds, historians sometimes call him the "Father of the American Revolution".

The passages below describe Thomas Paine's goal for the writing style of Common Sense and a reader's reaction to the end result. Read the two passages.

Thomas Paine, Common Sense, January 1776

In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments, and common sense.

Letter, Pennsylvania Evening Post, February 13, 1776

If you know the author of Common Sense, tell him he has done wonders and worked miracles. . . . He has made a great number of converts here. His style is plain and nervous; his facts are true; his reasoning just and conclusive.

converts: people convinced by Paine's arguments

nervous: strong

In Common Sense, Thomas Paine set out with the goal of writing a simple argument for American independence. According to the letter writer, Thomas Paine achieved his goal.

What were Paine's "plain arguments" for independence?

In Common Sense, Paine argued that democracy was the only system that protected ordinary people's rights. Paine claimed that the British government was corrupt and that it violated the rights of the people in the Thirteen Colonies. These were some of the things that Paine wrote:

• • Paine said that the monarchy should be overthrown. He called the king a "brute."

  • Paine said that Great Britain hurt the American economy by restricting trade.

  • Paine criticized Great Britain for dragging the Thirteen Colonies into its wars.

In the winter of 1775–1776, the Continental Army fought bloody battles as it tried to invade Canada. As casualties mounted and Common Sense circulated through the colonies, more and more cities called for independence from Great Britain. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence.

The Declaration of Independence was meant to explain why the Thirteen Colonies were separating from Great Britain.

The document was approved on July 4, 1776. It named the new country the United States of America.

Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?

The Second Continental Congress chose a committee of five men to write the Declaration of Independence. But three men did most of the work:

• Thomas Jefferson, a young man from Virginia with a talent for writing

• Benjamin Franklin, an experienced politician and diplomat from Philadelphia

• John Adams, a leading lawyer from Massachusetts

The Congress approved the document on July 4, 1776. It named the new country the United States of America.

The Declaration of Independence made it more likely that other countries would help the Americans fight against Great Britain.

Why were other countries more likely to join the war after the Declaration of Independence?

In its final paragraph, the Declaration of Independence stated the United States' new powers as an independent nation:

• • to wage war and declare peace

  • to form alliances with other countries and groups

  • to establish trade relationships

The Declaration of Independence reassured other countries that the United States would be able to make good on military and trade promises. In addition, the Declaration of Independence made clear who the leaders of the country were. The leaders of other countries knew who they could work with.

France: the Thirteen Colonies' secret ally

Although France didn't officially join the war until 1777, it had been helping the colonies in secret. France was eager to weaken Great Britain's power in North America, since Great Britain was France's enemy. Starting in 1775, the French sent money and supplies to the colonies, including gunpowder. But at the time, the colonies were not doing well against the British. The French government did not want to enter a war on the losing side.

In late 1777, however, the Americans finally won a major battle. Soon after the American victory, Benjamin Franklin and the other diplomats convinced the French government to join the war.