Monarch to Republic

Rise of the Roman Empire.mp4

Roman Republic.mp4

The Roman Republic.mp4

The Roman Empire. Or Republic. Or...Which Was It__ Crash Course World History #10.mp4

For the first 250 years or so of its history, Rome was a monarchy, or a country ruled by a king. But in 510 and 509 BCE, Romans changed their government.

Who ended the Roman monarchy?

According to ancient writers, a senator, or important politician, named Lucius Junius Brutus gathered a group of other senators to help overthrow the king. The senators demanded that the king leave forever or risk being killed. The king fled, and Brutus and his supporters declared victory!

However, some present-day historians don't think this legend is completely true. The story is similar to the legend of a revolt that took place in ancient Greece around the same time. Historians do think that the Roman monarchy ended around the late 500s BCE. But some also think it's possible that Roman authors borrowed details from the Greek story too!

A man named Lucius Tarquinius was the last Roman king before Rome became a republic. According to Roman historians writing hundreds of years later, a certain group of Romans strongly disliked him.

Look at the list showing some of the things he was accused of doing.\

To become king, Tarquinius usurped the throne, or took it without permission.
He took the lands and property of senators, Rome's important politicians, who went against his decisions.
He executed some senators without trials.
He helped his son kidnap the wife of a well-known senator.
He refused to follow the Roman custom of listening to senators' advice before making decisions.

Ancient history, modern revolutions

During the 1760s and 1770s, some American colonists were unhappy with the way the British king, George III, was ruling them. They compared their experiences to Roman experiences near the end of Tarquinius's rule.

One colonist, a man named Patrick Henry, compared King George III to Lucius Tarquinius. In a speech, Henry said that cruel rulers, such as Tarquinius, had been overthrown by their subjects. Henry warned George III to remember these examples from Roman history.

Although many senators were happy once the king was gone, removing him caused several serious problems. For example, Rome was threatened by outside invaders who were mad at Rome's decision to get rid of the king. Other outside invaders thought Rome was weak without a king and wanted to take over. Also, now that the king was gone, the Roman government was not functioning properly. And there was nobody in charge of making sure that Rome was on good terms with the gods. Romans needed to find solutions to these problems quickly.

What happened to Rome's last king?

Lucius Tarquinius may have run for his life, but he did not give up. Instead, he gathered a large Etruscan army and marched to attack Rome. Along the way, he asked for support from Rome's neighbors—the same people who had often been at war with Rome when Tarquinius was the Roman king!

According to the Roman historian Livy, who wrote in the 1st century BCE, this is what Tarquinius may have said to gain support from Rome's neighbors:

Yesterday I was a king, but now I am a penniless exile. . . . When the throne was mine, when I was extending Roman rule by taking over your land, I was driven from power by a foul conspiracy. I want to recover my country and my throne, and to punish my ungrateful subjects. I ask you for help! March with me, and you will be able to avenge your defeats and to recover your lost lands!

penniless exile: poor person sent away from their home

foul conspiracy: horrible secret plot

avenge: to correct or take revenge

Historians think that after Rome overthrew its last king in 509 BCE, it became a republic.

According to present-day historians, the Roman Republic lasted from 509 BCE to about 27 BCE. The word republic comes from the ancient Roman term res publica. Look at the meaning of the ancient term res publica.

res publica: a community committed to following the same rules and protecting each other's things and families for the good of all

Over time, historians have had different ideas about how Rome changed from a monarchy to republic. The first passage summarizes writings from an ancient author living hundreds of years after the end of the monarchy. The second passage was written by a historian in the last 50 years. Look at each passage.

Ancient author's description

After Romans freed their city from the cruel, selfish king, they had to protect it against his angry friends. The king had been the head of the army, the government, the courts, and Roman religion. So Romans had to come together to start choosing their own leaders while they were also under attack from the former king's allies. Suddenly, instead of having nothing to do with politics, Rome's people were now in charge, guided by the wise advice of the Senate.

Historian's recent description

After getting rid of the king, the people and senators of Rome were forced to govern their city themselves. They often disagreed about who should do what. At first, they arrived at a short-term arrangement, where the Senate came up with ideas and Roman citizens approved or rejected them. Because this kind of government worked well enough, it eventually became a lasting tradition.

This feature is found in the ancient author's description:

- The ancient author's description focuses on how Rome's leader before the republic had been a selfish or cruel ruler.
- Telling the story in this way made overthrowing him seem like the right thing to do.

This feature is found in both descriptions:

- Both descriptions say that the Senate and the people of Rome took charge of the republic's government.
- The ancient author's description says the Roman people and Senate were in charge. The recent historian's description says that the Senate came up with ideas and the citizens approved or rejected them.

This feature is found in the description from a recent historian:

- The description written by a recent historian says that Romans did not always agree about how to govern the republic.
- It took a long time for senators and the people to work out how they should govern Rome.

The three pillars of Rome

Present-day historians often study the writings of an ancient historian named Tacitus (TASS-ih-tus) to learn about how Roman citizenship worked. Although Tacitus writes about many different duties of Roman citizens, he picks out three that were the most important:

Take up arms, or fight in the army, when needed.
Make sacrifices to the gods to keep them happy.
Go to assembly meetings, or participate in making good decisions for Rome.

At the beginning of the republic, Romans did not create an exact plan for how their government should work. Eventually, however, they wound up with a government made of these three parts.

Different parts of Rome's government also had different roles.

One of the new republic's most important parts of the government was called the Senate. In the early republic, it was the only group that could propose laws, change laws, or create government plans. Only wealthy, landowning citizens from rich and powerful Roman families could be part of this group. They were called patricians. Any citizen who was not a patrician was called a plebeian, or a common person. Many patricians believed that patricians should be the only ones allowed in the Senate. But many plebeians disagreed with this idea.

Do people always support the ideas that are best for their own group?

No. In Rome, there were plebeians who thought that only patricians should be in control. There were also patricians who thought that they should share power with plebeians. Just like people today, Romans in a particular group didn't think a certain way just because they belonged to the same group.

Another important part of the Roman government was its many assemblies, or large groups of citizens that came together to make decisions. This table below shows information about two of the most important assemblies.

This chart brings together everything that you have learned so far about the parts of Rome's early republic.

Roman citizens in the Senate and the assemblies followed rules and steps to make laws. Everyone from the richest senators to the poorest enslaved people had to obey those laws. A society where everyone follows the same rules regardless of their status is said to follow the rule of law.

What kinds of laws did Romans make?

Just like today, Romans made laws about all kinds of things. Here is one example:

If people are already throwing javelins in a field, and someone walks across the same field [and is struck by a javelin,] the Lex Aquilia does not apply. That person should not have made his way at a risky time across a field where javelin throwing is being practiced . . . for when a person plays dangerous games, it is his own fault if he gets hurt.

javelins: thin spears meant for throwing

Lex Aquilia: a law about punishments for causing harm to someone else's body or property

Adapted from Justinian, Digest of Roman Law, p. 76.

In other words, Romans made laws to protect people, but they also expected people to be careful!

Although Roman senators and citizens were gradually figuring out how to govern together, some Romans thought that the early republic still needed a strong leader. They wanted this person to lead the army, the Senate, and the assemblies. But other Romans hated living under Rome's past kings. They didn't want to have an official leader who was as powerful as a king, ever again.

Did you just say the "k" word?

According to ancient writers, many Romans hated even hearing the word "king." But ancient writers also say that some Romans still wanted to live under a king after overthrowing Tarquinius. A few of them even wanted to be king. One or two of them tried to become king, but they were all stopped.

Hundreds of years later, the first emperor of Rome considered calling himself "Romulus" so he would seem like a new kind of Roman king. But eventually, even he decided against it. Instead of "king," he was called princeps senatus, or the "leader of the Senate."

Eventually, the Senate and people of Rome decided that Rome needed some kind of leadership. So, they decided that the soldiers' assembly should elect two patrician men to serve Rome as short-term leaders. These two leaders were called consuls. Unlike kings, consuls had to follow certain rules.

Why were there two consuls?

Having two consuls meant that Rome's leaders could fight with the army and attend Senate meetings at the same time. One could lead the army in foreign places to win new territory for Rome. The other could attend Senate meetings and help run the government in Rome. What do you think were some other benefits of having two leaders?

Many Romans never wanted to have a single, all-powerful ruler again. But in serious emergencies, Rome's consuls would step down and name a new short-term leader. This special leader was called a dictator because whatever he said, or dictated, had to be obeyed. But even dictators were expected to follow rules.

The dictator needed to resign.

This was a very important step. The diagram shows that the dictator had to step down for Rome to go back to the way it was usually governed. Once a dictator had command of Rome's army, there was little Romans could do to make him give up his power. So, Romans had to trust that the dictator would give up his power after the crisis was over.

Running the Roman Republic involved lots of people. To provide space for the large number of people involved, different parts of the government met in different places. Here is information about these different places and who met there:

- - Patricians and plebeians voted on laws and plans, held trials, and elected leaders in the outdoor Comitium and in the Field of Mars outside the city.
  - Patricians suggested laws and plans in the Curia, a temple next to the Comitium.
  - Rome's consuls gave speeches and oversaw meetings from the Rostra, overlooking the Comitium.
  - Any person in Rome could come to the forum to listen to leaders and debate speeches, laws, and plans.

The Roman Forum: the center of Rome

Most of Rome's political meetings happened in a large complex of buildings and open spaces in the middle of the city. This space was called the forum. To Romans, politics always involved religious rituals. So, while many of the forum's buildings were for political meetings, the largest buildings were actually temples. This image shows a view of the Roman Forum. Temples are marked by darkly shaded roofs. How many can you count?

The way that Romans governed themselves during the republic influenced how many countries work today. For example, the United States claims to be a republic, just like Rome was.

During Rome's early history, the city was ruled by kings. But in 509 BCE, Romans got rid of the king and started a republic. Historians say that the republic lasted from 509 BCE to 27 BCE, almost 500 years. In the questions that follow, you'll learn about two important groups and the way that they shaped Roman society during the republic.During the first 150 years of the republic, Rome only ruled a small amount of territory.

Where did Rome expand to first?

One of the first places Rome expanded to was called Campania. It was known for its rich soils, which were perfect for farming. Many of Rome's wealthiest senators bought land there, and built large, fancy houses called villas. For centuries, their families used the land to create large farms and ranches in Campania.

The table below has information about the parts of the Roman government during the republic.

How could you tell who was a Roman citizen?

By their clothes! Most Roman citizens wore a simple tunic on a daily basis. But for formal occasions, such as trials, elections, or public meetings, they wore their toga. A toga is a large, white, woolen cloth that citizens draped around their body.

Senators had special togas. Only senators were allowed to put deep purple stripes on the edges to show their special status. At that time, purple dye was extremely expensive. Dye makers would have to crush up about 10,000 shells in order to get just one ounce of purple dye!

Only some people who lived in Rome were citizens. And even among citizens, Romans did not treat each other as equals. Instead, citizens were classified into two different social groups, or orders, called patricians and plebeians.

- Patrician (pa-TRIH-shin) families were wealthy and owned lots of land. Usually, they had been in Rome for many generations and had ancestors who had been important people in Rome.
- Plebeian (pleh-BEE-an) families usually did not own much land, had not been in Rome very long, and usually did not have famous ancestors. Most of them were not wealthy.

Patrician farmers, plebeian traders

During much of the republic, only plebeians could be merchants or traders. Even though trading made some plebeians just as wealthy as patricians, many patrician landowners looked down on the work that plebeian merchants did. Those patricians thought that plebeian merchants were being greedy. They argued that trade only benefited the people doing the trading, but everyone benefited from growing food.

Even though some patricians looked down on wealthy plebeian merchants, others tried to marry plebeian merchants to get access to their family's money!

At the beginning of republic, patricians owned lots of farmland. So, patricians usually had lots of extra grain from their harvests. Most plebeians did not have much food to feed their families with, especially if harvests were bad. So, poor plebeians would often offer to do things for patricians in return for favors, money, or grain.

A patrician who supported a plebeian was called a patron (PAY-trun). Romans who depended on a patron were called his clients. Look at the diagram of the patron-client relationship.

The diagram shows that farm laborers would do work for their patron. Unlike city-dwellers, farm laborers were skilled at the kind of work needed to run large farms. But, unlike small farmers, they did not have valuable resources such as their own land to give to their patron, so they worked for him instead.

For about 220 years after the beginning of the republic, Roman citizens were involved in the Conflict of the Orders. An order is a large group within a society, such as patricians or plebeians.

Inequality, ancient and modern

The Conflict of the Orders began because of inequality between plebeians and patricians. When the ancient Roman historian Livy wrote about the Conflict of the Orders, he said that unfair laws and unequal privileges can divide societies. Here is what Livy wrote:

[A plebeian said the laws were] splitting society in two and turning united Rome into two separate communities . . . what sort of justice is it to preclude a native-born Roman from all hope of [becoming a consul] simply because he is of humble birth?

preclude: to stop or prevent

consul: elected leader in Rome

Have you ever noticed any forms of inequality today?

Patricians and plebeians strongly disagreed about who should be allowed to rule Rome.

At the start of the republic, only patricians could be senators or Rome's elected leaders, called consuls. Many plebeians felt that keeping them out of Rome's new government was wrong because there were many more plebeians than patricians. So, in 494 BCE, plebeians decided to secede from, or leave, Rome and start their own settlement. Enemy armies came to attack Rome, but the plebeians refused to return to defend the city. They said they would not return to fight until they received some political power too.

Can't we all just get along?

According to the ancient writer Livy, when the plebeians decided to secede, a consul sent one of his patrician friends named Menenius to negotiate a deal. Menenius decided to tell this story to convince the plebeians to return to Rome:

Once, all the parts of a man's body rebelled against his stomach. The parts thought that the stomach did nothing to help the body, instead lazing around while the arms and the legs did all the work. But the stomach laughed and said that without the stomach, the whole body would starve, no matter how strong the arms and the legs were.

This is also how patricians and plebeians are related. The Senate helps maintain the health and nourishment of the body, while the plebeians are its arms and legs. Both are necessary for the body to survive!

In return for coming back to help defend Rome against invaders, plebeians were allowed to form a new assembly called the Plebeian Council.

The council could do two things:

- It could elect officials called tribunes. Tribunes could veto, or reject, any proposed law if they thought it was unfair to plebeians.
- It could propose laws for other plebeians but not for patricians.

Plebeian tribunes: can't touch this!

Rome's tribunes were supposed to be sacrosanct, meaning nobody was allowed to harm them or stop them from doing their duties. Because Romans had used violence to solve political problems in the past, tribunes were given special protection

According to ancient writers, one of the first things that the Plebeian Council did was to demand that all of Rome's customs and traditions be written down. The council thought this would stop powerful patricians from changing the rules to benefit the patricians. The Plebeian Council hoped it would make Rome more fair. The final version of these rules was inscribed onto 12 tablets in 445 BCE and called the Laws of the Twelve Tables.

What laws were in Rome's Twelve Tables?

The Twelve Tables were meant to include all of Rome's most important rules. So, Romans wrote down everything including criminal laws, rules for builders, and other laws that seem strange to us today.

Here are summaries of a couple of those laws:

If anyone destroys or lets animals eat another's crops, that person should be hung as a sacrifice to Ceres, the goddess of grain crops. This punishment is more severe than that for murder.
There must be at least two feet between all buildings.

Plebeians were eventually allowed to participate in all parts of Rome's government. Look at the table showing major events during the Conflict of the Orders.

How did plebeians first become senators?

Many Roman elected officials were automatically included in the Senate once they took office. Once plebeians were allowed to become elected officials, especially consuls, the number of plebeians in the Senate grew quickly. How do you think that affected what laws were made in Rome?

Finally, in 287 BCE, Romans passed a special law called the Lex Hortensia. That law said the Plebeian Council could propose and vote on laws by themselves, without having to get the Senate's permission any longer. This table shows the effect of that law for plebeians.

Equality at long last . . .

After the Lex Hortensia passed, plebeians and patricians were equals in Roman politics. They could both propose laws, veto laws, and run for any office in the republic.

Some ancient Romans wrote that patricians had little choice but to eventually share their power with plebeians. This is a summary of a passage written by the ancient historian Livy. He is describing what a plebeian leader said to a patrician after making a compromise about political power.

Do you wish to pretend that you patricians do not try to violently force us plebeians to accept your rules because you care about us so much? Or is the reason, perhaps, that we could easily overpower you if you ever tried?

In the later Roman Republic, patricians were no longer in total control of Rome's government. But there were still several ways that patricians could use their power in Roman society to influence politics:

- Wealth: Patricians offered lots of money to plebeian tribunes, senators, and consuls who stopped laws that were bad for patricians.
- Patronage: Some patrician patrons would only help plebeian clients who voted as their patrons wished.
- Family connections: Important families worked together to help their family members become powerful politicians.

Could patricians use their wealth to control the whole city?

Yes! For example, some patricians used their wealth to put on popular games. Romans loved attending large public events such as parades, plays, chariot races, and fights between gladiators. So, Romans who wanted to be elected to political offices would pay for expensive games using their own money. Sometimes elected officials would give out free grain, wine, or money to people who attended. In return, many of those people would feel that they had to support the person paying for the games.

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