Covid-induced School Closures

The Legacy of Covid-19 in Education

If school closures and social-distancing experiences during the Covid-19 pandemic impeded the development of children’s cognitive and socio-emotional skills, they may leave a lasting legacy in human capital. The available evidence suggests that unless remediated, the school closures will persistently reduce skill development, lifetime income, and economic growth and increase inequality.

Survey Results: How Did School Children Spend their Time during the School Closures?

In June 2020, we surveyed over 1000 parents about how school children spent the Covid-related school closures in spring 2020. Another survey of over 2000 parents in February/March 2021 describes the situation during the school closures in early 2021. During the school closures in early 2021, school children spent 4.3 hours per day on average on school-related activities. This is nearly three-quarters of an hour more than during the first school closures in spring 2020, but still three hours less than on a typical school day before Covid. Nearly one in four children (23%) spent no more than two hours a day on learning. School children spent more time with TV, computer games, and smartphones (4.6 hours) each day than studying for school. A quarter (26%) of the students had daily joint lessons for the whole class (e.g., via video), but 39% had this only once a week at most. Since the first closures, 21% of students participated in measures such as tutoring or summer schools to catch up on missed learning. The majority of parents (56%) think that their child learns less per hour at home than in regular classes at school, 22% think the opposite. While learning time hardly differs by academic achievement and family background, lower-performing students and children without a university-educated parent learn significantly less effectively and concentrated at home. The vast majority of school children have access to computers and the internet at home for home schooling. For half of the children, the situation during the school closures was a major psychological burden - significantly more than during the initial closures (38%). Nearly one-third (31%) of parents report that their child gained weight during the Covid pandemic, e.g., due to lack of exercise. For 76% of the children, not being able to meet friends as usual was a major burden. But there are also positive aspects: The majority of parents say that the school closures have taught their child to work out subject matter independently (56%) and to handle digital technologies better (66%).

The Economic Costs of Lost Learning due to the Covid-induced School Closures 

The school closures in the course of the Covid pandemic have been a heavy burden on the cognitive and social-emotional development of many children and adolescents. How will this affect the future development of the afflicted children and adolescents? There is hardly any more robust finding in empirical economic research than the positive impact of school attendance and skill acquisition on economic prosperity. If about a third of a school year of learning is lost, this is associated with an income loss of about 3 percent on average over the entire working life. For nations, the lower long-term growth related to such losses might yield an average of 1.5 percent lower GDP for the remainder of the century. In addition, studies of strike-induced school closures, pre-planned short school years, and long school holidays show that a lack of schooling permanently impairs skill development and future labor-market success. Therefore, much is at stake with the challenges of education policy during the Covid pandemic. It must do everything to ensure that all children and adolescents – with or without physical school attendance – resume learning immediately. 

Latest Contributions

COVID-19 and Pupils’ Learning (with K. Werner). In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023

A Persistent Casualty of Covid-19: Children’s Skill Development. IZA World of Labor, Commentary, 21.3.2022

Statt Schulen die Biergärten geöffnet. Der Spiegel, 47/2022, p. 19

Wir brauchen einen neuen Pisa-Schock. welt.de, 3.10.2022

Langfristige Folgen der Corona-Pandemie für die Bildung der Kinder. Freie Bildung 98: 21-22, 2022

Schulleistungen im Sinkflug. campus schulmanagement, 30.5.2022

Bildung und Resilienz. Gutachten des Aktionsrats Bildung. Münster: Waxmann, 2022

Bildungsverluste unter dem Radar (with V. Grimm). Süddeutsche Zeitung, 6.12.2021, p. 18

Lockdown für Erwachsene, bevor die Schulen schließen. wiwo.de, 24.11.2021

Main Research Papers on School Children during the School Closures:

The Legacy of Covid-19 in Education (with K. Werner). Economic Policy 38 (115): 609-668, 2023 [tweet1] [tweet2] [more on Covid]

COVID-19 and Educational Inequality: How School Closures Affect Low- and High-Achieving Students (with E. Grewenig, P. Lergetporer, K. Werner, and L. Zierow). European Economic Review 140: 103920, 2021 [tweet] [video]

Policy Brief on the Legacy of the Covid-19 Pandemic Leave in Children’s Skill Development:

Will the Covid-19 Pandemic Leave a Lasting Legacy in Children’s Skill Development? (with K. Werner). CESifo Forum 22 (6): 33-40, 2021

The Survey Results on School Children during the School Closures in Early 2021:

Bildung erneut im Lockdown: Wie verbrachten Schulkinder die Schulschließungen Anfang 2021? (with V. Freundl, E. Grewenig, P. Lergetporer, K. Werner, and L. Zierow). ifo Schnelldienst 74 (5): 36-52, 2021

Schulschließungen schränken die Entwicklung der Kinder ein. sueddeutsche.de, Interview am Morgen, 21.4.2021

Selected media coverage: ZDF heute; ZDF Morgenmagazin; zdf.de; tagesschau.de; BR Rundschau; 3sat nano; spiegel.de; Zeit Online; Süddeutsche Zeitung; faz.net; welt.de; handelsblatt.com; wiwo.de; dpa; Wiarda Blog; Deutschlandfunk; 3sat Kulturzeit; Welt/N24 TV; RTL Nachtjournal; Sat1 Nachrichten; Sat1 Bayern; Reuters Video; SWR, RBB, MDR TV; br.de; NDR Kultur; BR, WDR, NDR, SWR, MDR Radio; Berliner Zeitung; Hamburger Morgenpost; Stuttgarter Zeitung; Passauer Neue Presse; Augsburger Allgemeine; Rheinpfalz; bild.de; spiegel.de. 

An overview of the two surveys on school children during the school closures in 2020 and 2021: 

Die Situation der Schulkinder während der Schulschließungen in der Pandemie: Ergebnisse zweier Elternbefragungen (with L. Zierow). Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht 68 (4): 297-305, 2021

Report of the National Academy of Sciences: Economic Consequences of the Coronavirus Pandemic (July 2021):

Ökonomische Konsequenzen der Coronavirus-Pandemie – Diagnosen und Handlungsoptionen. Stellungnahme der Nationalen Akademie der Wissenschaften Leopoldina. Halle: Leopoldina, 2021

A Few Selected Pieces of Media Coverage: 

Interviews: sz.de (19.3.2020), faz.net (16.4.2020), Wiarda Blog (5.8.2020), sz.de (21.4.2021), Focus (10.7.2021), Wiarda Blog (29.7.2021), wiwo.de (24.11.2021)

Own contributions: Wirtschaftsdienst (20.3.2020), foreignpolicy.com (5.9.2020), The Hill (10.9.2020), National Review (18.9.2020), Wirtschaftswoche (15.1.2021), Wirtschaftsdienst (3.3.2021), welt.de (11.5.2021), SZ (6.12.2021) 

Print/Online: WamS (3.5.2020), spiegel.de (5.5.2020), FAZ (5.5.2020), spiegel.de (18.5.2020), bild.de (18.5.2020), Stern (19.5.2020), Zeit (5.8.2020), SZ (5.8.2020), FAZ (5.8.2020), nytime.com (10.9.2020), Wirtschaftswoche (14.1.2021), Die Zeit (21.1.2021), Handelsblatt (22.1.2021), bild.de (22.1.2021), Spiegel+ (8.2.2021), spiegel.de (20.4.2021), zdf.de (20.4.2021), tagesschau.de (20.4.2021), handelsblatt.com (20.4.2021)

TV: ARD Extra (18.6.2020), Deutsche Welle (7.8.2020, min 5), ARD Morgenmagazin (5.8.2020), Tagesschau (5.8.2020), 3Sat nano (13.1.2021), NDR Extra 3 (27.1.2021), Arte (3.2.2021), 3Sat Kulturzeit (10.2.2021), ZDF WISO (15.2.2021), 3Sat makro (2.3.2021), ZDF Morgenmagazin (20.4.2021), ZDF heute (20.4.2021), 3sat nano (20.4.2021), Welt (21.4.2021); Radio: BR24 (1.2.2021)

Report by Advisory Council at Ministry of Economics: Digitization in Germany - Lessons from the Covid Crisis (April 2021):

Digitalisierung in Deutschland – Lehren aus der Corona-Krise. Gutachten des Wissenschaftlichen Beirats beim Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie. Berlin: BMWi, 2021

Selected Online Discussions (April 2021):

Op-eds on the OECD Report on the Economic Impacts of Learning Losses:

Students Have Already Been Saddled with Economic Losses from School Closures (with E.A. Hanushek). The Hill, 10.9.2020

Costs of Past and Future Learning Losses (with E.A. Hanushek). Education Next Blog, 10.9.2020

Permanent Economic Damage from Learning Losses (with E.A. Hanushek). National Review, 18.9.2020

Foreign Policy Piece on the Future of Education after the Pandemic:

Return to In-person Schooling as Quickly as Possible. foreignpolicy.com, 5.9.2020

The Survey Results on School Children during the first School Closures in Spring 2020:

During the first school closures in spring 2020, the time that children spent on school-related activities per day had been halved, from 7.4 to 3.6 hours. 38% of the students had studied for school for no more than two hours per day, 74% for no more than four hours. At the same time, the time spent with TV, computer games, and mobile phones had increased from 4.0 to 5.2 hours per day. For children whose parents had a higher education, the decline in school activities had been similar to that of other children, although the increase in passive activities had been slightly smaller. Low-performing students had particularly replaced learning with passive activities. The time that parents spent with their child on learning had increased from half an hour to just over an hour per day during the first school closures. 57% of students had had group online lessons less than once a week, only 6% daily. Students had had individual contact with their teachers even less often. 96% had received weekly task sheets for processing, 64% had received feedback on them at least once a week. In a representative sample of the German population (not just parents) in June 2020, 79% were in favor of compulsory online lessons when schools are closed, 78% favored directives for teachers to contact students on a daily basis, and 83% favored more intensive care for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

COVID-19 and Educational Inequality: How School Closures Affect Low- and High-Achieving Students (with E. Grewenig, P. Lergetporer, K. Werner, and L. Zierow). European Economic Review 140: 103920, 2021 [tweet] [video at UC Dublin]

COVID-19 School Closures Hit Low-achieving Students Particularly Hard (with E. Grewenig, P. Lergetporer, K. Werner, and L. Zierow). VoxEU.org, 15.11.2020

Bildung in der Coronakrise: Wie haben die Schulkinder die Zeit der Schulschließungen verbracht, und welche Bildungsmaßnahmen befürworten die Deutschen? (with V. Freundl, E. Grewenig, P. Lergetporer, K. Werner, and L. Zierow). ifo Schnelldienst 73 (9), 2020

Selected interviews: ARD Morgenmagazin, Tagesschau, Wiarda Blog, Deutschlandfunk, SWR, rbb, WDR, NDR, BR, RB. 

Selected media coverage: Die Zeit, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Die Welt, Tagesspiegel, Berliner Zeitung, Augsburger Allgemeine, Spiegel Online, bild.de, tagesschau.de, zeit.de, sz.de, wiwo.de, focus.de, wdr.de, n-tv.de, taz.de. 

Statement of the National Academy of Sciences: For a Crisis-Resistant Education System: 

In early August 2020, the ad-hoc statement of the National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina "For a Crisis-Resistant Education System" pointed out measures to make the education system more resistant and flexible under crisis condition. 

Coronavirus-Pandemie: Für ein krisenresistentes Bildungssystem. Ad-hoc-Stellungnahme der Nationalen Akademie der Wissenschaften Leopoldina. Halle: Leopoldina, 2020  

Article on the Economic Costs of Lost Learning due to the Covid-induced School Closures:

Folgekosten ausbleibenden Lernens: Was wir über die Corona-bedingten Schulschließungen aus der Forschung lernen können. ifo Schnelldienst 73 (6): 38-44, 2020

Selected media coverage: ARD Extra Fernsehen, Handelsblatt, Spiegel online, bild.de, Frankfurter Rundschau, Die Presse, afp, Dow Jones,  Wiarda Blog, Stern, Spiegel, Die Welt, Focus, ZDFheute online, Deutschlandfunk "Campus & Karriere", BR Fernsehen "Abendschau". 

Call to "Make Education Possible! Teaching and Early-childhood Learning despite Partially Closed Schools and Daycare Centers":

Under the title "Make education possible! Teaching and early-childhood learning despite partially closed schools and daycare centers", in a group of six initiators we launched an appeal on May 3, 2020 that within 24 hours was signed by more than 90 German economists working on educational issues. We call for urgent attention to the manifold and serious effects of the closure of schools and daycare centers and for comprehensive measures to provide early childhood and school education immediately in an appropriate format for all age groups. Against the background that the operation of daycare centers and schools will remain restricted in the coming weeks, we set out what concrete measures could be taken - from improving distance learning to the partial opening of schools and daycare centers for all children and the adaptation of next year's curricula. 

Bildung ermöglichen! Unterricht und frühkindliches Lernen trotz teilgeschlossener Schulen und Kitas (with A.M. Danzer, N. Danzer, C. Felfe de Ormeno, C.K. Spieß, and S. Wiederhold). Bildungsökonomischer Aufruf, 3.5.2020

Selected media coverage: Spiegel online, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Die Welt, Handelsblatt, Berliner Zeitung, dpa, Deutschlandfunk, SWR aktuell, Zeit online, Die Welt. 

Further Contributions and Interviews:

Wirtschaftspolitische Aspekte der Corona-Krise. Brief und Thesenpapier des Wissenschaftlichen Beirats beim Bundesministe­rium für Wirtschaft und Energie. Berlin: BMWi, 2020

Welche sozialen Kosten haben die Schulschließungen? LMU-Website, Kinder und Jugendliche im Ausnahmezustand, 1.5.2020 

Die sozial-emotionale Entwicklung der Kinder wird jetzt extrem gestört. faz.net, 16.4.2020

Schulschließungen: Kompletten Lernstopp verhindern. Wirtschaftsdienst 100 (4): 228, 2020 

Natürlich geht beim Fernunterricht etwas verloren. sueddeutsche.de, 19.3.2020

Here you can learn more about my research on this topic. 

Selected Media Coverage, March-September 2020:

Süddeutsche Zeitung (13 March 2020), n-tv TV (13 March 2020), Magazin Schule (13 March 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (14 March 2020), Zeit online (21 March 2020), BR "Quer" TV (26 March 2020), Spiegel online (1 April 2020), Spiegel online (2 April 2020), Focus (11 April 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (17 April 2020), BR "Rundschau" TV (22 April 2020), BR online (22 April 2020), Focus (25 April 2020), Welt am Sonntag (3 May 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (4 May 2020), Spiegel online (5 May 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (5 May 2020), Die Welt (5 May 2020), Handelsblatt (6 May 2020), Berliner Zeitung (6 May 2020), Zeit online (6 May 2020), ZDFzoom TV (6 May 2020), Die Welt (7 May 2020), Spiegel online (18 May 2020), bild.de (18 May 2020), Frankfurter Rundschau (18 May 2020), Die Presse (18 May 2020), afp (18 May 2020), Dow Jones (18 May 2020), Wiarda Blog (18 May 2020), Stern (19 May 2020), Spiegel (22 May 2020), Die Welt (23 May 2020), Focus (24 May 2020), Die Welt (25 May 2020), Business Insider (27 May 2020), ZDFheute online (27 May 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung (31 May 2020), Die Welt (3 June 2020), Tagesschau-Zukunftspodcast (4 June 2020), Handelsblatt (8 June 2020), Handelsblatt (9 June 2020), Die Welt (11 June 2020), Focus.de (15 June 2020), Zeit online (18 June 2020), ARD Extra TV (18 June 2020), Handelsblatt (19 June 2020), Sat.1 Abendnachrichten, WeltN24 TV (21 June 2020), Die Welt (22 June 2020), Deutschlandfunk "Campus & Karriere" Radio (22 June 2020), bild.de (23 June 2020), WDR 5 "Politikum" Radio (29 June 2020), Die Welt (14 July 2020), BR "Abendschau" TV (21 July 2020), sueddeutsche.de (2 August 2020), Hamburger Abendblatt (3 August 2020), ARD Morgenmagazin TV (5 August 2020), Tagesschau TV (5 August 2020), BR Rundschau TV (5 August 2020), Sat.1 Bayern TV (5 August 2020), Wiarda Blog (5 August 2020), Deutschlandfunk Radio (5 August 2020), Spiegel Online (5 August 2020), bild.de (5 August 2020), tagesschau.de (5 August 2020), zeit.de (5 August 2020), sz.de (5 August 2020), wiwo.de (5 August 2020), SWR Radio (5 August 2020), rbb Radio (5 August 2020), WDR Radio (5 August 2020), NDR Radio (5 August 2020), BR Radio (5 August 2020), RB Radio (5 August 2020), focus.de (5 August 2020), wdr.de (5 August 2020), n-tv.de (5 August 2020), taz.de (5 August 2020), Die Zeit (6 August 2020), Süddeutsche Zeitung (6 August 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (6 August 2020), Die Welt (6 August 2020), Tagesspiegel (6 August 2020), Berliner Zeitung (6 August 2020), Augsburger Allgemeine (6 August 2020), Deutsche Welle DW News TV (7 August 2020), Wirtschaftswoche (7 August 2020), Spiegel online (9 August 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung (9 August 2020), Die Welt (11 August 2020), NZZ Online (11 August 2020), Spiegel online (11 August 2020), die tageszeitung (12 August 2020), Das Investment (12 August 2020), Die Zeit (13 August 2020), Die Welt (13 August 2020), Wirtschaftswoche (14 August 2020), Focus (14 August 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung (16 August 2020), Süddeutsche Zeitung (17 August 2020), Tagesspiegel (17 August 2020), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (18 August 2020), Focus (22 August 2020), Rheinische Post (23 August 2020), Thüringer Allgemeine (4 September 2020), focus.de (6 September 2020), Der Standard Podcast (7 September 2020), Berliner Zeitung (8 September 2020), Spiegel-Bildungsnewsletter (8 September 2020), El Pais (8 September 2020), nytime.com (10 September 2020), wsj.com (10 September 2020), qz.com (10 September 2020),  cafepedagogique.net (11 September 2020), the74million.org (13 September 2020), usnews.com (14 September 2020), Die Zeit (17 September 2020), Phoenix vor Ort: Bundestag live TV (18 September 2020), Die Welt (20 September 2020), ntv.de (21 September 2020), Phoenix plus TV (21 September 2020), Magisterio (22 September 2020), LA School Report (28 September 2020). 

Selected Media Coverage, January/February 2021:

Die Welt (5 January 2021), Welt am Sonntag (10 January 2021), Neue Zürcher Zeitung (11 January 2021), 3Sat nano TV Interview (13 January 2021), Wirtschaftswoche (14 January 2021), Welt/N24 TV Interview (15 January 2021), B5 aktuell Radio (15 January 2021), SWR2 Radio Interview (15 January 2021), Zeit Online/dpa (15 January 2021), Der Spiegel (16 January 2021), Wiarda Blog (20 January 2021), Die Zeit (21 January 2021), Handelsblatt (22 January 2021), spiegel.de (21 January 2021), Rheinische Post (22 January 2021), Bild.de (22 January 2021), spiegel.de (22 January 2021), Die Wet (23 January 2021), Die Presse (23 January 2021), Frankfurter Rundschau a.o. (25 January 2021), SWR Aktuell Radio Interview (25 January 2021), Zeit Online (25 January 2021), Frankfurter Rundschau, Interview (27 January 2021),  NDR Extra 3 TV (27 January 2021), merkur.de u.a. (28 January 2021),  Die Welt (29 January 2021), Focus (30 January 2021), Der Standard (1 February 2021), BR24.de (1 February 2021), B5 Aktuell Radio/Podcast (1 February 2021), cicero.de (1 February 2021), Zeit Online (3 February 2021),Servus TV Interview (3 February 2021), Arte TV (3 February 2021), focus.de (5 February 2021), Süddeutsche Zeitung (6 February 2021), B5 Campusmagazin Radio Interview (7 February 2021), Spiegel+ (8 February 2021), Tagesschau24 TV (9 February 2021), Tagesspiegel.de (10 February 2021), 3Sat Kulturzeit TV Interview (10 February 2021), Handelsblatt (12 February 2021), ZDF WISO TV Interview (15 February 2021), Die Welt (16 February 2021), Tagesspiegel (19 February 2021), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (20 February 2021), Hamburger Abendblatt (20 February 2021), Bloomberg Opinion (20 February 2021), Welt am Sonntag (21 February 2021), 3Sat makro TV Interview (2 March 2021), Wirtschaftswoche (5 March 2021).