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biases but that they can still be scientific (systematic and rigorous). Qualitative studies are sometimes described as ethnographic (exploring social/cultural interaction and meanings) or phenomenological (focusing on individuals’ experiences). Quantitative researchers are sometimes disparaging about qualitative research and vice versa. Some quantitative researchers describe qualitative research as unscientific, biased or anecdotal, and claim that it produces no “real knowledge”. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, may believe that quantitative research seeks to reduce complex issues to simplistic explanations, fails to explore contextual matters and takes insufficient account of the effects of the researcher on the process and products of research. In addition, qualitative researchers might comment that, since all knowledge is based on subjective deliberations, there is no such thing as “real knowledge” but that quantitative researchers fail to acknowledge this. In general, doctors have tended to concentrate their efforts on quantitative research, while nurses have undertaken a mixture of quantitative and qualitative work. Many nursing researchers are in favour of multi-method research (sometimes known as triangulation), which has both page 16 Research awareness in nursing and midwifery: a workbook quantitative and qualitative elements. Some, notably Leininger (12), do not favour this because of the philosophical gulf between the two approaches. A qualitative exploration of a topic may generate hypotheses that can then be subjected to statistical testing in a quantitative study. Conversely, statistical relationships demonstrated in an experiment or a survey may suggest that a number of interrelated factors need qualitative explication. Some of the major differences between quantitative and qualitative research are presented in Table 1. You will learn more about these differences as you progress through Section 3. Table 1. Key differences between quantitative and qualitative research Quantitative research Qualitative research Underlying philosophy Positivism Interpretivism Underlying ideas about reality Reality is single and stable Realities are multiple, complex and everchanging Objective facts exist What is “real” is subjective Competing explanations for facts must be eliminated through control or acknowledged as limitations and flaws Complexity and contradictions cannot be explained away but should be explored Aims To make predictions and laws To explore phenomena and relationships To promote understanding To produce data that are generalizable to other situations To produce descriptions and theories that readers may find relevant to their own situations Research techniques Control Standardization Flexibility Consistency Research relationships Relationships with “subjects” must be limited and standardized to promote control and objectivity Relationships with “participants” are interactive The process and effects of interaction are often explored Sampling Statistical Random Purposive: to aid exploration Order of events Sampling Data collection Data analysis Sampling, data collection and data analysis are concurrent Data Numbers Statistics Words Ideas Some of the major forms of quantitative and qualitative research are described below. Experimental, quasi-experimental and survey work, all forms of quantitative research, are described first. Examples The articles by Allen et al. and McBride describe quantitative research studies, while that by King & Jensen describes a qualitative study. Reading and evaluating research reports page 17 Experimental research Experiments are a powerful way of testing cause and effect relationships between variables. Polit & Hungler (11) describe the three characteristics of a true experiment. (Note: people participating in experiments are sometimes described as “subjects”.) 1. Manipulation. The experimenter must do something to at least some of the subjects in the study. 2. Control. The experimenter must introduce one or more controls over the experimental situation, including the use of a control group. 3. Randomisation. The experimenter must assign subjects to a control or experimental group on a random basis. True experiments are sometimes known as randomized controlled trials. In the discussion on the aims of the study (page 11), you read about independent and dependent variables. In experimental research the researchers manipulate the independent variable (the presumed cause) in order to observe whether this has an effect on the dependent variable. The independent variable may involve a treatment, an information leaflet, a training course or any other device (sometimes termed the intervention) that might produce an effect on the dependent variable. For example, a treatment is given to some patients (known as the experimental group) and withheld from others (known as the control group) in order to see whether those who receive the treatment demonstrate a greater improvement than those who do not. Relevant data are collected from all the patients both before and after any treatment is given (pre-test and post-test). Since improvement may occur spontaneously, without any treatment being given, an experiment must involve some form of comparison. The ability to
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