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response rate (see under Data analysis, page 27) as well as the quality of the data, they should be taken into consideration when critiquing research documents. page 26 Research awareness in nursing and midwifery: a workbook Exercise 11 Is the research instrument included by McBride? What conclusions can we draw about the quality of the instrument? Turn to Section 6 for discussion. Observational research takes two main forms: participant observation, which is usually employed in qualitative studies (discussed below), and non-participant observation, which is more common in quantitative work and may be known as “structured observation”. Structured observation can take several forms, all of which involve the assignment of behaviour to categories recorded on an observation schedule. Activity sampling is a common form of structured observation: for example, every 15 minutes the observer records what each member of the ward staff is doing. When selecting a “time frame” for activity sampling, researchers must avoid choosing an interval that is too short to allow the observer to record all the necessary data, or is too long so that important events are missed during non-observation periods. Other difficulties with observation include the problem of reactivity: people may alter their behaviour if they know they are being observed (reactivity is also an issue in experiments and interviews and is sometimes known as the Hawthorne effect). On the other hand, it may be unethical to observe people without their consent, because they have a right to decide whether they wish to participate (see the section on ethical considerations, page 40). All these factors should be taken into consideration when critiquing observational studies. Exercise 12 Did the study by Allen et al. involve an observational component in the assessment of skills? Turn to Section 6 for discussion. Qualitative data collection methods Qualitative researchers, particularly ethnographers, often “draw on a wide range of sources of information” and collect “whatever data are available to throw light on the issues” (13). Some qualitative studies may rely primarily on participant observation or semi-structured interviews, but researchers often use a combination of the two and may also draw on conversations, written documents (such as nursing care plans or policy statements) and other sources. Participant observation is, perhaps, the most important data collection technique in ethnographic research. Observers may participate in the work, social activity or culture under study (for example, nursing work) to a variety of degrees. In addition, the degree to which they are “insiders” or “outsiders” to the research setting may vary. Complete insiders study their own work or social settings; complete outsiders are strangers to the types of setting they study. Researchers who study settings similar to their own can be considered as relative insiders/outsiders. There are numerous difficult issues that can arise in relation to participant observation. One such issue is whether it is ethical to do covert research (pretending to be a participant and not a researcher). There is also a problem in uncritically identifying with and even adopting the culture Reading and evaluating research reports page 27 of a group of people under study. It may also be very difficult to manage relationships: some people, for example, can be so unhelpful or threatening that researchers choose to avoid them. The research setting (sometimes known as the field) will have been selected as an appropriate place for exploring the issues of interest and, thus, fulfilling the aims of the research. Quite commonly, however, the issues under study (which are initially determined by researchers’ previous experiences and/or their knowledge of the literature) undergo some degree of change as field work progresses. This is particularly the case with researchers who take a grounded theory approach: theories emerging from the data already collected determine who and what should be observed next. Participant observers record their experiences in the field, and their reflections on them, in field notes. In ethnographic studies, data gained through observation may influence decisions about who to interview and the themes to be pursued at interview. Qualitative interviews are commonly described as unstructured, semi-structured, conversational or focused. They differ from structured interviews in that interviewers work from an interview schedule (or interview guide), which has topics for discussion or a few open questions that will get interviewees talking about the relevant issues. Interviewers aim for a balance between flexibility and consistency (15), allowing interviewees to introduce their own ideas and concerns while trying to pursue themes central to the aims of the research. The interview guide usually evolves during the course of a series of interviews. Lines of inquiry that have proved unproductive are dropped, while key themes introduced by previous interviewees are added. This, again, accords with a grounded theory approach. Qualitative interviews are often recorded to save interviewers from attempts to listen and write down large amounts of data simultaneously (each interview may last an hour or more). In order to demonstrate rigour, a document describing a qualitative study should make the decisions
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