Irish law was derived from a system of pre Christian traditions known as the Brehon laws. St Patrick is said to have initiated the revision of these ancient judgements after listening to a recital. “What did not clash with the word of God .. and the consciences of believers was confirmed.” Three kings, three churchmen and three historians are supposed to have worked on the project for 3 years. The resulting laws decreed that a miller carrying material to build his mill had the same right of way as a king transporting stones for his castle. Prior to proceeding against a debtor, the courts warned him that he must pay. Should he not respond, a portion of his livestock would be seized. A series of seizures would follow, with intervening periods to allow the debtor a chance of paying off his obligations. Many pledged their own sons as a surety, and subsequently saw them taken into slavery. Ireland’s rigid cast system was reflected by the relative values of each member being reflected by the payment required to prevent a blood feud after someone’s murder: 21 cows for one of the bonded class, 42 for a freeman. To erase the shame of unfairly killing Mogh Nuadat through a night attack on his camp, Conn of the Hundred Battles paid a ring of gold, a carved broach, his sword and shield, 200 horses, 200 chariots, 200 ships, 200 spears, 200 swords, 200 cows, 200 slaves and was forced to give his daughter to Mogh’s heir in marriage.
The Fine
Society was defined by the “fine” or joint family. This included all male relatives – back to your great grandfather’s brothers and their descendants - for five generations. All members of a fine were responsible for any misdeeds committed by a member, and were required to seek blood-vengeance should someone be slain. Under normal circumstances, when a man died his sons inherited his property. But if anyone died without immediate heirs his property was distributed throughout the fine in well defined proportions. All members of a royal fine were eligible to be elected king, but if one branch was able to monopolise the kingship for five generations the others lost their claim forever.
Kings
There were four levels of kingship: the ruler of a tuath; “Overking” of several tuatha; “king” of a province; and (at least after the 9th century) High King of all Ireland. The ruler of a tuath paid tribute to his Overking, but usually had a free hand in governing his own territory. While the higher level kings were at the top of society, both bishops and chief poets were considered equal to the ruler of a tuath.
Freemen
All “freemen” were in a “clientship” relationship with their local lord. “Base clients” were mere tenants, who rented a piece of land or some livestock. For a herd of 20 dairy, they may have paid an annual rent of a cow, three calves, a vessel of cream, 20 loaves of bread, and some other produce. “Free clients” paid a lower rent, were generally wealthier, took an oath of allegiance that included a promise to fight their clan’s battles and were entitled to a share of any booty. Both free and base clients could terminate their clientship by simply returning the land or livestock to their lord. An eighth century legal document describes a typical “free client’s” farm:
“There are always two vessels in his house, a vessel of milk and a vessel of ale. He is a man of three snouts: the snout of a rooting hog which banishes shame at all times, the snout of a bacon pig on the hook, and the snout of a plough under the sod, so that he is able to receive king or bishop or scholar or judge from the road, against the arrival of every party of guests. He is a man who has three sacks in his house always for each season: a sack of malt; a sack of sea salt for the salting up of his beasts, and a sack of charcoal for iron working. He has seven houses: a corn-kiln, a barn (his share in a mill so that it grinds for him) a dwelling house of 27 ft, a lean to of 17 ft, a pigsty, a calf fold and a sheep fold. He has 20 cows, two bulls, six oxen, 20 pigs, 20 sheep, four farmyard hogs, two sows, a riding horse with enamelled bridle and sixteen sacks of seed corn in the ground. He has a bronze caldron into which a hog fits. He has parkland on which there are always sheep, without need to change ground. He and his wife have four outfits. His wife is the daughter of his equal, wedded in lawful matrimony.”
These small fortified farmsteads were found throughout Ireland.
Cultivated lands were usually close to the houses. Cropland was usually ploughed in March. “Free clients” would use an ox drawn plough, and their poorer neighbours spades. They would sow oats (for porridge and a crude bread) barley (for beer and bread) wheat (to make bread that was sold to the rich) and corn. Apples were the only cultivated fruit, though wild berries and nuts were gathered. Women tended the stock: grazing them in the moors during the hot months, and in the farmer’s reserve during winter. While “Free clients” and their betters drank cow’s milk, sheep’s milk sufficed for the poor. The women made butter and cheese.
Lower Classes
A mass of unfree classes – slaves, labourers, workmen and lower grades of entertainers – formed the lowest level of society. While the lowest unit of Irish currency was a young heifer, six heifers could buy a female slave. Slaves were usually taken in war, or the children of people who had fallen into such desperate straits that they had been forced to sell their offspring to avert starvation. Slightly above these, in the social scale, were serfs bound to their local lords. Yet the Irish had a maxim that a man was better than his birth, and someone could acquire his freedom by learning a skilled trade such as metalworking, playing a harp or becoming a physician.