Excerpt from Goh, R. (2020, February 5). Engaging students in feedback. Retrieved from OPAL

1. Conceptualizations of teachers’ feedback

Learning theories are helpful in unpacking the differences in conceptions of feedback. The following section presents different ways teachers’ feedback has been defined and understood from the lens of two learning theories, cognitivism and social constructivism. An argument is made for a wider conception of feedback that supports our view of learning which “takes place individually and collaboratively” and our belief in the role of the students in taking ownership of their learning and (Singapore Curriculum Philosophy, 2018).

1.1 Feedback as information product

The idea of involving students in the process of feedback can be traced back to Sadler’s (1989) proposition of the three essential conditions for students to benefit from feedback. He proposed that students need to “(a) possess a concept of the standard (or goal, or reference level) being aimed for, (b) compare the actual (or current) level of performance with the standard, and (c) engage in appropriate action which leads to some closure of the gap” (p. 121).

The notion of having students compare how their actual performance relates to good performance was influenced by Ramaprasad’s (1983) definition of feedback in organizational systems as “information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way” (p. 4). This conceptualization of feedback from a cognitivist point of view perceives feedback as a product (Chong, 2018), specifically as information to be conveyed to students, for example, on the errors to be corrected, or the accuracy of student understanding (Gipps & Simpson, 2014). This is aligned to how learning, from a cognitivist standpoint, is understood to be about the acquisition of knowledge, developing internal mental structures, and individual sense-making.

Thurlings, Vermeulen, Bastiaens, and Stijnen (2013) proposed that the characteristics of the process of feedback is related to the specific learning theory from which student learning is facilitated. The authors depict the feedback processes related to cognitivism in a linear manner, as shown in Figure 1. They indicate that the feedback process underpinned by this learning theory begins with the teacher giving feedback, which is then processed by the students, and finalizes in particular learning outcomes.

1.2 Feedback as an interactive process

From a social constructivist standpoint, feedback is viewed not as a product, but as an interactive process (Chong, 2018). Feedback is conceptualized as dialogue between teachers and students, and with peers, rather than as a commodity to be imposed in a unilateral manner on students (Beaumont, O’Doherty, & Shannon 2011; Carless, 2016; Tan, 2014). This is aligned to how learning, from a social constructivist standpoint, is understood to be about creating meaning from experience, and is negotiated through interaction with others.

Thurlings et al. (2013) depict the feedback processes related to social constructivism in a cyclical manner, as shown in Figure 2. The authors indicate that the starting point of learning underpinned by social constructivism is prior knowledge, and the feedback process begins with the students at the beginning stage. Multiple sources of feedback, peers and teacher, give feedback, and as learning is continuous, students progress to another stage, which serves as a beginning stage of the next learning cycle.

1.3 Feedback as an internal dialogue

Other than just being viewed as an interactive process involving teacher and peers, Carless (2016) proposed that dialogic feedback can also operate as an “inner dialogue or self-monitoring in which students are engaged when they are tackling a task” (p. 4).

1.4 An expanded conceptualization of teachers’ feedback

Most recently, Carless and Boud (2018) offer a more expanded definition of feedback that supports their theory of student feedback literacy. They defined feedback as “a process [emphasis added] through which learners make sense [emphasis added] of information [emphasis added] from various sources and use it to enhance their work or learning strategies [emphasis added]” (p. 1315). Their definition of feedback appears to encompass all three conceptualizations of feedback: as an interactive process, an internal dialogue, and feedback as formative information, rather than a binary contrast of either process or product. Their definition of learning also includes an important distinction that feedback information influences students with regard to, not only to their current work performance, but also to their future learning. Their ideas provide a great expansion to a theoretical framing of feedback that could support our efforts in developing students in taking ownership of their learning (Singapore Curriculum Philosophy, 2016), while acknowledging our roles as teachers in modelling good feedback practices.