Leadership - Empirics

In another page, we said that we distinguish between leadership studies that are theoretical in nature and those which seek to empiricize on those theories, e.g., when a given study or work collects data on the various leadership traits that a given group of leaders or organizational members believe are important in their setting.

A specific example is the paper "Building Character: A Leadership Essential" by Sarros and Cooper (Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 1), which would be an example of empiricizing on the conceptual work "Virtuous Leadership" by the Havard Virtuous Leadership Institute:

What this study sought to do was, as indicated on the Abstract above, to come up with a 'Leadership and Character Scale' (survey questionnaire) containing items related to the character dimensions that, in the literature, are shown to be important in leaders. Then this Scale was administered to a group of individuals (in this case, Australian business leaders); then, using Statistical analyses --in this case, 'Factor Analysis'--, the 'common dimensions' that appeared to group together on the basis of the responses to the questionnaire were 'extracted' and given labels or categories:

Thus, the 'Model' that emerged out of this empirical research can be summarized in the following 'conceptual diagram':

The above is a 'pictorial representation' of the following narrative:

Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of character (Universalism, Transformation and Benevolence). Universalism represents an understanding, appreciation, and tolerance for the welfare of people generally, and is a macro perspective approach to work and life (Schwartz, 1992). That is, the character attributes of respectfulness, fairness, cooperativeness, and compassion that constitute this factor are associated with imperatives that extend beyond the immediate workplace to embrace the goodwill of society. This approach is consistent with the proposition that leaders may significantly influence change beyond the workplace and into the culture of society generally (Barlow et al., 2003; Katz & Kahn, 1978).

The dimension of Transformation is consistent with the concept of transformational leadership as an activity that inspires others in the achievement of long-term, visionary goals. Transformation is a situation specific process that relies on the competence and self-reliance of the incumbent in their delivery of inspired and values-driven strategic direction for the enterprise. That is, the character attributes of courage, passion, wisdom, competency, and self-discipline that comprise this factor are most likely associated with motivational leadership functions as they occur at the workplace (e.g., Bass & Avolio, 1994; Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Transformation is also seen as the link between external imperatives and the internal duties of the leader. Jacobs and Jaques (1987) suggest that a major concern for leaders is interacting with the external environment in order to produce a more rational environment for the organization. According to Zaccaro (2001), a large proportion of leaders' responsibilities involve direct boundary management between external and internal environments.

The third dimension, Benevolence, is a micro approach to work, and focuses on concern for the welfare of others through one's daily interactions. Selflessness, integrity, and organizational loyalty are some of the character attributes through which benevolent leadership is enacted. This proposition is consistent with the findings of Ashkanasy and Trevor Roberts' (2001/2002) study of Australian managers (as part of House et al.'s. (1999, 2001, 2002) GLOBE study of nine societal culture dimensions in Australia, America, Europe, and Asia). Ashkanasy and Trevor-Roberts (2001/2002) found that Australian manager-leaders reported higher levels of egalitarianism compared to their Anglo-American and European counterparts. Egalitarianism refers to the ability of Australian leaders to engage socially with workers while also nurturing and developing their careers, and it approximates the character dimension of benevolence in this study.

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